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CASTLE AND BRIDGE OP ST. ANGELO. 



MODERN HISTORY 



By REV, DR. PETER FREDET 

Professor o"" History, St. Mark's College, 
Baltimore, Md. 



REVISED AND ENLARGED 

By CHARLES H. McCARTHY, Ph.D. 

Professor of American History, Catholic University 
of America. 




Metropolitan Press 

JOHN MURPHY COMPANY 

Publishers 
baltimore new york 



^ 



X-? 



^4\ 



Copyright, 1867, 1888, 1903, 1910, by 

JOHN MURPHY COMPANY. 

All rights reserved. 



>G!.A2688;)f> 



Press of JOHN MURPHY COMPANY, Baltimore 



PUBLISHERS' PREFACE. 

Up to page 600 this edition of Fredet's Modern History 
has been allowed to stand almost exactly as it was left by 
its scholarly author. As this section of the work discusses 
the decline and fall of the Eoman Empire, the Arabic 
ascendency, the Crusades, and the rise as well as the 
reconstruction of the principal modern states, the narrative 
almost unavoidably assumed the character of a military 
history. Nevertheless, even in this part of the volume, 
there are emphasized some of the more renowned among 
the victories of peace. The development of Christianity, 
the discovery of America and the general establishment of 
constitutional governments will suggest large aspects of 
history that are non-military in character. 

It has been the purpose of this continuation to notice, 
among other topics, some of the newer tendencies in gov- 
ernment, as, for instance, the decline in importance of 
the legislative branch, and the transfer of some of its func- 
tions to the Initiative and the Referendum. In English- 
speaking countries, indeed, the bicameral legislature, in 
which one chamber is regarded as a check upon the other, 
is still the prevailing form for the enactment of ordinary 
laws, and is likely so to continue. 

The causes of social democracy have been suggested 
rather than described; statistics of its strength there has 
been no attempt to collect, and except in the case of Switz- 
erland, there has not been given any outline of the social- 
istic programme. In other progressive states, as in Bel- 
gium, Erance and Germany, there are, of course, strong 
socialistic elements. Even now governm^ents are compelled 
to- reckon with this growing power. 

An important question in the politics of Eastern Europe 
being the notion of reviving Polish, independence, it was 
believed essential to the completeness of a new edition of 
the Modern History to include a very brief outline of the 
annals of Poland. Eecent tendencies in the Scandinavian 
world have been hurriedly sketched. 



iV PUBLISHERS' PREFACE. 

In addition to those mentioned the most important addi- 
tions to this volume are the acconnt of Germany's place in 
the industrial, the commercial and the intellectual world; 
the rise of Japan to the rank of a first-class power, and the 
recent awakening of China. The material decadence of 
Ireland has been summarized and a more ample narrative 
included of those interesting movements which collectively 
appear to assure its regeneration. A section has been added 
concerning the Law of Separation in France, and another 
showing the absence in England of the traditional bitter- 
ness toward the Catholic Church. The additions include 
also an outline of internal conditions in Spain from the 
time of her war with the United States till the moment of 
the outbreak in Barcelona and the subsequent trial and 
shooting of Seuor Ferrer. As is well kno^^Ti, our Com- 
pendium of History touches practically all the countries 
considered in this volume. In the Modern History, how- 
ever, where the narrative is not more amj)le, there will fre- 
quently be found some new theme. 

Many maps and several good illustrations have been in- 
troduced into this revision of the Modern History, and its 
utility has been further increased by the addition of a 
rather complete index. Except in the matter of the 
"JSTotes,'' which remain precisely as in the former editions, 
that part of the work from page 600 is practically new. 

From the preceding paragraphs it is clear that this con- 
tinuation is chiefly concerned with the great social move- 
ment of recent times, as, for example, the prohibition 
legislation of our various States, the agitation, especially 
in England, for woman suffrage, the education of China, 
and more interesting and, in some of its aspects, perhaps, 
more original than any of them, the Gaelic Eevival in 
Ireland, a movement that now seems about to extend to 
all the Celtic races of the Continent. It is scarcely neces- 
sary to add that the history of the great nations has been 
brought down to the present moment. 

Baltimoee, April 30, 1910. 



CONTENTS. 



P A ET I 



FROM THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM (b. C. 31), TO THE ACCESSION OF 
CONSTANTINE (A. D. 306). 



PAGE. 

RojiAN Empire 1 

Augustus 1 

Tiberius 13 

Caligula 26 

Claudius 29 

Kero 32 

Galba— Otho— Vitellius ... 39 

Vespasiau 44 

Titus 52 

Domitian 54 

Nerva — Trajan 57 

A drian 60 

Antoninus Pius' 64 

Marcus Aurelius 68 

Commodus — Pevtinax — Di- 

dius Julianus 69 



PAGE 

Septimius Severus 70 

Caracalla — Macrinus — Heli- 

ogabalus 79 

Alexander Severus 80 

Military Usurpers 86 

Claudius II 88 

Aurelian 90 

Interregnum — Tacitus, 94 

Probus 94 

Caius, and his two sons 

Carinus and JS"umerian . . 96 
Diocletian and Maximian; 

afterwards Constantius 

Chlorus and Galerius .... 96 



PART II. 

FROM THE ACCESSION OF CONSTANTINE (A. D. 306), TO THE DOWN- 
FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE WEST {A. D. 476). 



PAGE 

Constantine the Great 103 

Constantius, and his broth- 
ers Constantine II. and 

Constans 114 

Julian 117 

Jovian 121 

Valentinian and Valens . . 122 
Theodosius the Great — 
Gratian and Valentinian 
II 125 



PAGE 

Honorius and Arcadius. . . . 133 
Valentinian III., in the 
West; in the East, Theo- 
dosius II., or the Young- 
er 137 

Marciaji — Leo the Thracian, 
in the East — Last period 
and fall of the Western 
Empire 144 



VI 



CONTENTS. 



PART III. 

FROM THE DOWNFALL, OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE (A. D. 476), TO 
ITS REVIVAL UNDER CHARLEMAGNE (A. D.) 809). 

PAGE. 

Foundation of the principal 
and most celebrated 
States of Europe ; . 148 

Anglo-Saxons in Great 
Britain — Hengist 148 

Visigoths in Spain-r-Evaric, 150 

Franks in Gaul — Clovis . . . 151 

Ostrogoths in Italy — Theo- 
doric the Great 153 

Emperors of Constanti- 
nople 157 

Justin I. 157 

Glorious reign of Justin- 
ian 159 

Justin II.— Tiberius II 170 

Mauritius 174 

Phocas 179 

Heraclius 180 

Rise of Mohammedanism... 183 

Progress of Mohammedan- 
ism 186 

Conquests of the Saracens 
in Syria, Palestine and 
Mesopotamia 186 



PAGE. 

Conquests of the Saracens 
in Egypt , . . 189 

in Persia, Rhodes 

and other countries 192 

Dissensions among the Sar- 
acens 194 

Prosperity of the Greek 
empire under Constan- 
tino Pogonatus 195 

Conquests of the Saracens 
in Africa 197 

in Spain 201 

Saracens defeated in the 
East — Leo the Isaurian . . 208 

Saracens defeated in 
France — Charles Martel, 204 

Pepin, king of France 206 

Charlemagne, king of 
France and Lombardy . . . 210 

Remarks on the ' state of 
civilization, learning, and 
particularly religion, dur- 
ing the third part of 
modern history 217 



PART IV. 

FROM THE REVIVAL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE (A. D. 800), 
THE BEGINNING OF THE CRUSADES (A. D. 1095). 



PAGE. 

Charlemagne, Emperor . . . 222 

Louis the Debonnaire, and 
his sons — Feudal system, 226 

Arabian and Greek Em- 
pires during the ninth 
century 228 

Spain during the ninth and 
tenth centuries 233 

England during the ninth 
and tenth centuries 238 

France and Germany in the 
tenth and eleventh cent- 
uries 244 

Eastern nations in the 
tenth and eleventh centu- 
ries 247 



PAGE. 

Ireland, particularly dur- 
ing the tenth and elev- 
enth centuries 251 

Danish kings in England — 
Saxon line restored 254 

Normans in England— Wil- 
liam the Conqueror 256 

Normans in Italy 260 

Chivalry, particularly in 
Spain — Rise of the king- 
dom of Portugal 261 

Affair of Investitures 263 

Remarks on the Middle 
Ages— Truce of God .... 266 



CONTENTS. 



PART V. 

FBOM THE BEGINNING OP THE CRUSADES (A.D. 1095), TO THEIR 
END (A.D. 1272). 



PAGE 

Origin and causes of the 

Crusades 274 

First Crusade 275 

General view of tlie first 
Crusade. — Return of the 

Crusaders 288 

Kingdom of Jerusalem, . ... 290 

Second Crusade 293 

Gei-many and Italy under 
Frederic I. (Barbar- 
ossa). — England and Ire- 
land under Henry II. 

(Plantagenet) 296 

Fall of the kingdom of Je- 
rusalem 299 



PAOB 

Third Crusade 302 

Fourth grusade 310 

Fifth Crusade. — Founda- 
tion of the Latin empire 

of Constantinople 311 

Wars throughout Europe . . 316 
Conquests of Genghis Khan 

in Asia 323 

Sixth Crusade 325 

Seventh Crusade. — St. Lou- 
is ... 328 

St. Louis continued. — Civil 

war in England 332 

Eighth and last Crusade . . 334 
Remarks on the Crusades. 338 



PART VI. 

FROM THE END OP THE CRUSADES (A.D. 1272), TO THE DISCOVERY 
OF AMERICA (A. D. 1492). 

PAGE PAGE 

England, Wales, and Scot- Tamerlane and the Moguls. 

land, under kings Ed- — Battle of Ancyra 373 

ward I. and II 345 Renewal of war between 

Germany under the emper- England and France .... 377 

or Rodolph of Hapsburg. Henry V. and Charles VI., 378 

— Commencement of the Henry VI. and Charles 

Helvetian Confederation, 346 Vll 380 

Prosecution' and abolition Fall of Constantinople 385 

of the Knights Templars, 349 Mahomet II. continued . ... 393 

Progress of the Christians Mahomet II. and Hunni- 

of Spain, and signal vie- ades 393 

tories over the Moors 352 Mahomet II. and Scander- 

War between France and beg 896 

England 355 Mahomet II. and Peter 

Edward III. of England and d' Aubusson 399 

Philip VI. of France 355 Contest of the houses of 

Edward III. and John II.... 360 Lancaster and York in 

Edward III. and Charles England 401 

V 364 Ferdinand and Isabella. — 

Rise of the Ottoman em- Final overthrow of the 

pire, and its progress, till Moors in Spain 405 

the battle of Nicopolis . . 368 Remarks on the discoveries 

made during the sixth 
period of Modern History, 408 



CONTENTS. 



, PAKT VII. 

FKOM THE DISCO VEKY OF AMERICA (A.D. 1492) TO THE TREATY 
OF VERSAILLES, OR PARIS, IN WHICH THE INDEPENDEiSrCE OP 
THE UNITED STATES WAS SOLEMNLY AND UNIVERSALLY AC- 
KNOWLEDGED (a.d. 1783.) 



PAGE 

Preliminary observations 
on America 411 

Discovery of America. — 
Christopher Columbus... 413 

Portuguese Settlements in 
Asia 422 

Decline of the Italian re- 
publics. — Wars for the 
possession of Italy. — 
Cardinal Ximenes. — Pope 
Leo X 426 

Luther and the Keforma- 
tion 430 

Charles V. and Francis I. , . 433 

Charles V. andSoliman II., 435 

Conquest of Mexico. — Her- 
nando Cortez 438 

Conquest of Peru. — Francis 
Pizarro 449 

Charles V. continued. — Ac- 
cession of Philip II., and 
first transactions of his 
reign 452 

England under the Tudors, 454 

War against the Turks. — 
Siege of Malta. — Loss of 
Cyprus. — Battle of Le- 
panto 457 

Philip II. continued. — The 
x'epublic of Holland. — 
France under the last 
Valois and Henry IV. — 
General state of Europe 
in the beginning of the 
seventeenth century, 465 

The Thirty Years' war .... 468 



PAGE 

Civil war in England. — 
Commonwealth. — Restor- 
ation 471 

British and French colonies 
in North America 477 

Splendor of the Reign of 
Louis XIV 478 

War of Flanders.— Of Can- 
dia, etc 481 

War of Holland — and sub- 
sequent events till the 
League of Augsburg 483 

League of Augsburg. — 
Revolution in England . 488 

Succession of Spain. — 
Death of Louis XIV .... 491 

Decline of the Turks 498 

Rise of Prussia and Russia. 
— Peter the Great. — 
Charles XII, , king of 
Sweden 500 

Western Europe, from the 
death of Louis XIV. in 
1715 to the treaty of 
Vienna in 1735 502 

Eastern Europe. — Thamas 
Kouli Khan, or Nadir 
Shah, the Persian con- 
queror, etc 504 

War of the succession of 
Austria. — The Pretender 
in England and Scotland, 506 

Old French war, otherwise 
called War of Hanover, 
or Seven Years' war 610 

Origin and progress of the 
American Revolution. . . . 512 

War of Independence 516 



CONTENTS, ix 

PART VIII. 

FROM THE TBEATY OF VERSAILLES, OB PARIS, IN WHICH THE INDEPENDENCE 
OF THE UNITED STATES WAS SOLEMNLY AND UNIVERSALLY ACKNOWL- 
EDGED (a. D. 1783) TO THE YEAR OF OUB LORD 1910. 

PAGE. PAGE. 

Formation of the Federal The Italian War 573 

Constitution of the United European Expeditions to 

States. — Washington First * China, Cochin - China and 

President 525 Mexico 577 

French Revolution 527 Civil War in U. S 579 

Napoleon Bonaparte, General War in Schleswig-Holstein. — 

and Consul 538 War in Italy and Germany 588 

Napoleon Bonaparte, Emperor 543 Important Events in Europe 

Second American War 548 Between 1866-1870 591 

View of the Civilized World France Since 1871 595 

A. D. 1815-1844 . . . 551 England Until 1909 605 

Annexation of Texas. — Mexi- Russia, Turkey and Greece.. 629 

can War and Its Conse- Europe Since 1870 638 

quences 554 Outlying Countries in Recent 

Disturbances and Revolu- Times 668 

tions in Europe 564 The United States Since 1876 687 

Crimean War 571 



NOTES. 



Note A. — Character and Death of Seneca, Lucan, etc 33 

B. — The Historian Josephus 44 

C. — Number of Martyrs during the general persecutions of 

the Ch. rch 99 

D. — Attempt of the Emperor Julian to Rebuild the Temple 

of Jerusalem 119 

E. — Mohammed's Pretended Miracles 184 

F. — Answer of Pope Zachary to a Consultation of the - 

French 206 

G. — Temporal Dominion of the Pope 208 

H.— Popes of the Middle Ages 289 

I. — Conquest of Ireland 299 

J. — Prosecution and Abolition of the Knights Templars. . . 352 

K. — Inquisition 405 

L.— Bull of Alexander VI, called the Bull of Partition 417 

M. — Influence of the Roman Church on the Improvement of 

Science.— Affair of Galileo.— The Calendar 429 

N. — Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day 467 

O. — Revocation of the Edict of Nantes 488 

P. — On Religious Persecution 740 

Tables of Contemporary Sovereigns 746 

Chronological Table 757 

Questions to Feedet's Modern History 1 



MODERN HISTORY. 



PAKT I. 

FKOM THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM (B.C. 31), TO THE ACCESSION OF 
CONST ANTINE (A.D. 306.) 



ROMAN EMPIRE. 

AIJOIJSTUS.— B.C. 31— A.D. 14. 

On his return to Eome after the battle of Actium, Oc- 
tavius, afterwards called Augustus, deliberated whether 
he should abdicate or retain the almost unlimited power 
which he possessed. He felt more inclined to the latter 
measure ; but his mind was a prey to fear and anxiety, 
when he considered the love of the Eoman people for lib- 
erty, and the danger to which, by preserving the supreme 
authority in his own hands, he would be unavoidably ex- 
posed. 

Maecenas' and Agrippa's advice. — To act the more 
prudently in a matter of such importance, he caused the 
alternative to be discussed in his presence by his two 
dearest and most trusty friends, Agrippa, a celebrated 
warrior, and Maecenas, a profound politician. Dion Cas- 
sius the historian has transmitted to us the contradictory 
advice of these two great men. Agrippa first delivered 
his opinion, and, though a relative of Augustus, and the 
chief instrument of his victories, openly declared for a 
generous abdication of the supreme power into the hands 
of the senate and people. He represented the great 
danger of attempting to govern, as sovereign, men 
born and reared in a republic ; nor did he fail to insist 
on the striking precedent of Julius Oaesar, who, a few 

1 



2 MODEKN HISTORY. 

years before, had been killed in the senate, for hazarding 
a similar project. 

Maecenas was of a different opinion : to him the scheme 
of abdication appeared more brilliant than prudent ; and 
he strenuously maintained that it would prove fatal to all 
parties. Were Augustus to descend to the condition of 
private life, his death would be sought and easily procured 
by his enemies ; while, on the other hand, considering 
the violent storms which had lately shaken the republic, 
and looking over the broad extent of the Eoman domin- 
ions, it was evident that Eome could no longer subsist 
without a monarch. 

Augustus assumes the title " Imperator." — Di- 
vision of provinces. — Augustus, having patiently heard 
his friends and thanked them for their advice, determined 
to follow the opinion of Maecenas, without entirely reject- 
ing that of Agrippa. He accordingly retained the sovereign 
I ower, but would not assume the title and insignia of a 
Jang, contenting himself with the name of im.perator, a 
title which was frequently given to commanders of armies 
after a signal victory. His object was to effect a real 
change, and yet apparently to preserve the ancient form 
of government. The consuls and other public officers 
were appointed as regularly as before, and although sub- 
ordinate and accountable to Augustus, exercised the same 
functions which they had to perform in the days of the 
Commonwealth. He also divided the provinces between 
himself and the Senate, to which body he assigned the 
nearest, as being the most peaceable ; but reserved for him- 
self such as were more exposed to the attacks of an ene- 
my. He thus concentrated in himself the whole military 
power, by holding the command of the standing troops, 
which were stationed in those provinces only that were 
liable to invasion. 

His conservative policy. — Notwithstanding the 
douDtful character of these measures, the use which Au- 
gustus made of his great authority, was truly beneficial to 
the Romans. "After twenty years continuance," says 
Velleius Paterculus, " the civil contests ended, foreign wars 
ceased, peace was re-established, hostilities were every- 
where ended ; vigor was restored to the laws, authority 

to the tribunals The fields were again cultivated ; 

gacred things were respected, and the lives and property 



AUGUSTUS. 3 

of the citizens placed in a state of security." * Nor did 
Rome aud Italy alone reap the fruits of these happy im- 
provements. The several provinces, before distracted by 
civil wars, or plundered and harassed through the avidity 
of their governors, now began to recover and to enjoy 
their former prosperity. 

No sooner did Augustus see his authority well estab- 
lished in the Capital, than he set out (b.c. 27), to visit 
the various parts of the empire, Gaul, Spain, Greece, Asia 
Minor, Syria, etc. Residing in each for some time, he 
regulated the government, enacted suitable laws, and ap- 
plied himself particularly to the repression of licentious- 
ness, which he, although his own conduct was not blame- 
less, justly considered as one of the greatest evils of the 
state. 

Augustus as patron of letters. — The progress of 
science and literature formed one of the principal objects 
of his attention. Cicero, Sallust, and Cornelius Nepos 
having been, a short time before, snatched away by death, 
Augustus endeavored to repair this loss, by encouraging 
the genius of others so as to make them contend success- 
fully with the Greek writers in eloquence and poetry. 
Foremost among these were Virgil, Horace, Ovid and 
Livy ; all of whom enjoyed the uninterrupted favor of 
Augustus, except the poet Ovid, who, having witnessed 
some shameful disorders in the emperor's family, was, on 
that account, banished to Tomos, a town of Scythia near 
the Euxine Sea, where he ended his life the same day on 
which Livy died at Padua (a.d. 17). Livy left a com- 
plete history of Rome, from its foundation to his own time, 
consisting of 140 books, most of which are lost ; still the 
few which have been preserved are sufficient to place 
their author in the first rank of historians, particularly 
for his noble and elegant style. Horace died almost sud- 
denly, in the 56th year of his age (b.c. 8). Virgil having 
gone to Greece, where he expected to find the proper 
information and tranquillity necessary for the completion 
of his JEneid, was prevailed upon to return with Augustus 



* Finita vicesimo anno bella civilia, sepulta externa, revocata pax, 
sopitus ubique armorum furor ; restituta vis legibus, judiciis auctoritas. 
.... Rediit cultus agris, sacris honos, securitas homiuibus, certa cuique 
rerum suarum possessio. — Veil. Patere Hist., part 2d. 



4 MODERN HISTORY. 

to Rome. Although laboring under indisposition, he eni 
barked on the Adriatic ; the voyage augmented the 
violence of his disease, and he expired on his arrival at 
Brundusium, at the age of 51 years (b.c, 19). His re- 
mains were interred at Naples, and on his tomb was placed 
the following epitaph composed, it is believed, by himself ; 
it contains, in two verses, the place of his birth, that of 
his death and burial, and the subjects of his various poems : 

I sang flocks, tillage, heroes ; Mantua gave 
Me life, Brundusium death, Naples a grave.* 

Virgil, not having had time to give the last touches to his 
principal poem, commanded, just before his death, that 
it should be cast into the flames ; but this rigorous order, 
happily for literature, was not executed. Augustus, be- 
sides preventing its destruction, took care that nothing 
should be added to the work, a circumstance which ac- 
counts for the many unfinished verses found in the 
^neid. Its author is justly looked upon as the prince of 
Latin poets. He was moreover skilled in mathematics, 
geography, natural and moral philosophy ; and, what is 
still more admirable, amidst the general esteem in which 
he was held for his talents, he always preserved a modest 
deportment ; he was plain in his manners, even at court, 
and pure in his morals, even in the most corrupt of ages. 
Wisdom of his conduct and policy. — The wisdom 
of Augustus was like an abundant spring whence happi- 
ness flowed without interruption, spreading itself over 
every portion of the world and through every class of so- 
ciety. Governing others as he himself would have 
wished to be governed, he marked all the years of his reign 
by numerous acts of a wise and prudent administration. 
His behavior towards the senate and the people exhibited 
a happy mixture of condescension and firmness : when 
deliberating on public affairs, he was not offended at see- 
ing his opinions strenuously opposed ^ when inclined to 
anger, his custom was, either to leave the company for a 
moment, or, in compliance with advice which he had 
received from the philosopher Athenodorus, to suppress 
his natural feelings, before saying or doing any thing. 

* Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc 
Parthenope ; cecini pascua, rura, duces. 



AUGUSTUS. 5 

With regard to the people in general, he was studious to 
conciliate their favor by public exhibitions and largesses; 
and the Romans saw, with the utmost pleasure, not only- 
abundance and security completely restored under his 
government, but their city also wonderfully embellished 
by his orders and care. According to his own ex- 
pression, ''he found it of brick, and left it of marble : " 
he did not, however, trespass on the rights of the inhabi- 
tants, preferring to leave some works unfinished, and im- 
perfect, rather than encroach upon the property of 
others. 

The conduct of Augustus towards particular persons, 
was equally admirable. He excused the senators from all 
troublesome ceremonials, and would not suffer them to 
wait upon him at the palace, in order to conduct him to 
the senate-house : here he received their compliments and 
returned their salutations, calling them by their names. 
Nor did he extend this mildness and affability to senators 
only, and persons of distinction; he permitted all to ap- 
proach him and was accessible even to the citizens of the 
lowest classes, receiving their petitions with kindness, 
and encouraging those whom reverential awe rendered 
timid and bashful. 

Very many instances are related of his moderation and 
clemency towards those who behaved disrespectfully 
towards him. The following one will suffice. As he was 
making preparations for a journey, a senator, named Eu- 
fus, said at an entertainment : " I wish that Augustus 
may never come back again ; " and jesting about the 
number of victims which were usually sacrificed in thanks- 
giving for the emperor's return, he added that all the 
oxen and calves entertained the same wish. These words 
were carefully treasured up by some of the guests. The 
next day a slave of Rufus reminded his master of what he 
had said when heated with wine, and advised him to go 
and be the first to declare his fault with the emperor. 
Rufus followed the advice ; he hastened to the palace, 
presented himself before Augustus, and attributing his 
conduct of the previous day to a fit of madness, begged 
him to forgive his foolish temerity. Augustus granted 
his request. " Caesar," said Rufus, "no one will believe 
that you have restored me to your friendship, unless you 
make me a handsome present." The prince granted this 



6 MODERiq^ HISTORY. 

also, adding with a smile : ''for my own sake, I will take 
care not to be angry with you in future." 

However, Augustus did not always suffer the odious 
imputations cast upon his character to pass unnoticed : a 
proper care for his reputation often induced him to repel 
them, either by orations delivered in the senate, or by 
declarations publicly made in his name. But he was a 
stranger to revenge. Tiberius, who afterwards succeeded 
him, and who was of a very different character, having 
once exhorted him to punish an insult, Augustus replied: 
*' My dear Tiberius, do not abandon yourself too much to 
the vivacity of your age, and be not so indignant at those 
who speak ill of me; it is enough to prevent them from 
doing us any harm." 

Who would imagine that a man of such mildness and 
moderation had, in his youth, shed so much blood, and 
committed so many cruelties ? This change in Augustus, 
though springing perhaps from interested views, cannot 
but appear truly astonishing. Examples may be found 
) of a good natural disposition corrupted by constant pros- 
(^ perity, and especially by unlimited power ; but to find, in 
^ such circumstances, bad qualities removed, and succeeded 
\ by noble and generous feelings, is extremely rare. 
I A government so mild, and possessing so many advan- 
tages both for the state and private citizens, excited a 
general esteem and love for its wise executive. Even 
when he proposed to the senate, with more policy than 
sincerity, to resign his power, the senators, either 
through a dread of new evils, or through attachment 
to his person, entreated him to retain the supreme 
authority. He had, or pretended to have, the modesty 
to accept it only for ten years ; but it was afterwards 
bestowed upon him for ten more, when that term had 
elapsed. 

He receives the title " Father of his Country."-— 
Still more honorable for Augustus was the manner in 
which he received, in compliance with the desire of the 
whole nation, the title of Father of Ms Country, a title 
so eminently glorious when truly merited. At first, the 
people offered it to the emperor by a solemn embassy ; 
Augustus having refused, all the inhabitants of Eome in- 
sisted, and with unanimous acclamations earnestly begged 
that it should be accepted. Finally the senators agreed 



AUGUSTUS. 7 

among tnemselves to make a last effort ; and one of their 
number, Messala, in the name of all, addressed Augustus 
in these terms: "Caesar, the senate together with the 
Koman people proclaim you the Father of the Country/' 
The emperor, moved even to tears, answered: ''Senators, 
having reached the summit of my wishes, what else can I 
ask of the immortal gods, than that I should always de- 
serve and obtain from you the affectionate sentiments 
which you have just expressed?"* This was truly the 
happiest day of his life. 

Augustus' generosity towards Cinna. — Still, as 
there are always some discontented persons even under the 
most moderate governments, Augustus was not secure 
from secret conspiracies. He showed himself inexora- 
ble in the punishment of the first offenders, Ignatius Ru- 
fus, Murena and Cepion ; but he pursued a different 
course in the case of Cinna, a grandson of Pompey, whose 
party many persons of high standing had joined. The 
emperor was informed of the bold design by one of the 
accomplices, and this information threw him into the 
greatest perplexity. Must he again shed torrents of 
blood, or would it be more expedient to forgive ? This 
alternative was the subject of a conversation between him 
and his wife Livia, and to the empress is attributed the 
honor of having induced her husband to lean on the side of 
clemency. His resolution being formed, he sent for Cinna, 
named in his presence all the conspirators, whose leader 
he was, and showed himself perfectly acquainted with 
the manner, time and place which they had appointed. 
Cinna was thunderstruck at this unexpected disclosure ; 
but his surprise was still greater when Augustus, after 
enumerating the benefits he had conferred on him, added: 
"Cinna, I forgave you once, when you were found in the 
camp of my enemies ; I now pardon you a second time, 
after you have attempted to be my murderer. Let us be- 
come sincere friends, and by our future conduct towards 
each other, make it doubtful which is greater, my gener- 
osity or your gratitude. '' 

* Caesar Auguste, senatus consentiens cum populo Romano, te consa- 
lutat patriae patrem. Cui lacrymans respondit Augustus his verbis : Com- 
pos f actus votorum meorum, P. C, quid habeo aliud Deos immortales 
precari, quam ut hunc consensum vestrum ad ultimum vitse finem milii 
perferre liceat? Sueton, in August. 



8 MODERN HISTOEY. 

To this noble language, Augustus joined equally gen» 
erous acts ; he nominated Cinna consul for the ensu- 
ing year, and gave him many other marks of particular 
affection. In return, Cinna became the faithful friend of 
his sovereign, and was ever afterwards inviolably attached 
to his interests. The emperor derived a still more valuable 
advantage from his clemency on this occasion ; it com- 
pleted his popularity in Eome, and from that time, effect- 
ually prevented conspiracies against his person and au- 
thority. 

Birth of Christ. — The most memorable event during 
the reign of this prince, was the birth of our Saviour. 
Augustus unintentionally contributed to the accomplish- 
ment of the designs of Heaven : as he had issued a 
decree that the whole world should be enrolled^ every 
one in his own city, the B. Virgin was obliged to go 
with St. Joseph from Nazareth to Bethlehem, a little town 
of the tribe of Juda.* There, as the Prophet Micheas 
had foretold f , the Incarnate Son of God was born and 
commenced the work of our redemption, seven hundred 
and fifty-three years after the building of Rome, and 
thirty-one after the foundation of the Eoman empire by 
the victor of Actium, 

The birth of Christ coincided with the very uncommon 
circumstance that the temple of Janus was shut; this was 
the case only during a universal peace. From Romulus 
to Augustus, an interval of seven hundred years, it had 
been shut only twice : first, under the reign of Numa, 
and a second time, between the first and second Punic 
wars. The tranquillity which the world now enjoyed, 
was a type of that spiritual peace which the Eternal Son 
of God came to impart to mankind. 

This tranquillity originated chiefly in the moderation of 
Augustus ; no sooner did he find himself without a com- 
petitor in Rome, than his views became wholly pacific. 
He never undertook a war, except through necessity and 
when the advantages expected from it far exceeded the 
loss that might be feared. His usual saying was, that 
they who, without hesitation, purchase small advantages 
by running great risks, resemble a man fishing with a 
golden hook the value of which far exceeds that of all the 

* Luke, ii. 1, 3, etc. t Micheas, v. 2. 



AUGUSTUS. 9 

fish he may hope to catch. On the same principle, he 
frequently blamed Alexander for having continually 
sought to extend his empire by warfare, rather than gov- 
ern it in peace and watch over its internal prosperity. 

Pacification of provinces. — Still, Augustus was com- 
pelled to engage in several wars, most of which became 
successful through the ability of his generals. The Can- 
tabrians in Spain were defeated by Agrippa. Tiberius 
repressed the rebels of Dalmatia and Pannonia, subdued 
the Ehetians in despite of their mountains, and humbled 
the pride of Maroboduus, a powerful king of the Marco- 
mans ; whilst his brother Drusus, a young hero, made 
four glorious campaigns in the heart of Germany, and 
extended his conquests as far as the river Elbe. The 
Eoman arms were every where respected : the Parthians 
returned the prisoners and colors that had been in their 
possession since the defeat of Crassus (b.c. 53) ; and the 
nations of India sought, through embassies, the alliance 
and friendship of Augustus. 

Defeat of Varus in Germany. — These brilliant suc- 
cesses were followed by a disaster, the more grievous to 
the prince and to the people, as it was quite unexpected. 
Quintilius Varus, who commanded in Germany five Roman 
legions (about 25,000 men), and some auxiliary troops, 
gradually rendered himself odious to the inhabitants by 
his love of money and his great extortions. His impru- 
dence soon caused his complete overthrow. He obsti- 
nately refused to give ear to the warnings which he re- 
ceived of a threatened insurrection, and was even pre- 
vailed upon by Arminius, a young German prince whose 
fidelity he did not suspect, to divide his army into several 
separate bodies, and to station them in different quarters* 
These scattered troops were easily destroyed by the na- 
tives, and the revolt became general. At length, the 
Roman general, aware of his danger, hastened with three 
legions to subdue the rebels ; but he imprudently suffered 
himself to be blocked up between woods and marshes, and 
Arminius, with all the forces he could collect, attacked 
him in the night and amidst the horrors of a violent 
storm. The Romans fought bravely, but in vain ; they 
were cut to pieces together with their commander and 
officers, and but very few escaped to carry back the 
tidings of the defeat (a.d. 9). 



10 MODEEN HISTOKY. 

Never was Augustus so much afflicted at the news of 
any misfortune. When he was apprised of the event, he 
rent his garments in excess of grief, and was often heard 
to cry out : '' Varus, restore me my legions." He feared 
moreover that the Germans would follow up their vic- 
tory, invade Italy and attack Eome itself : but the 
danger was not so great as had been imagined, and the 
following year Tiberius easily checked the progress of the 
enemy. 

The imperial family. — Another source of grief for 
Augustus in his advanced age, was the misconduct of some 
of his children and grand-children, whom he was obliged 
to send into exile. The death of those around him 
in whom he had placed all his confidence, such as Agrip- 
pa and Maecenas, or whom he expected to be the future 
support of his throne and family, likewise pressed heavily 
upon him. Drusus, his step-son, was taken off in the 
midst of his victorious career ; Marcellus, his nephew and 
son-in-law, died at a premature age ; as did also Caius 
and Lucius Caesar, the emperor's grandsons, children of 
Agrippa. 

Agrippa. — Next to Augustus, Agrippa was beyond dis- 
pute the first man of his age, great in peace and in war, 
illustrious in the field and in the cabinet. Sicily, Greece, 
Germany, Gaul and Spain, were successively the theatres 
of his military achievements. In time of peace, his mind 
was ever occupied with grand and noble designs all tend- 
ing to the public good ; and he has rendered his name 
immortal by works far surpassing in splendor and mag- 
nificence those of any other private individual. Qualified 
to hold the first rank in a republic, he contented himself 
with the second under Augustus, who made him his son- 
in-law, colleague, and intended successor. 

The intimacy of their friendship reflects equal honor on 
both. Agrippa obtained the favor of Augustus without 
mean condescension and flattery ; and Augustus, without 
either distrust or jealousy of Agrippa's conspicuous merit, 
raised him almost to an equality with himself. After tlie 
death of so faithful a friend, he honored his remains by 
magnificent obsequies, at which he himself pronounced 
the funeral oration, and would not suffer him to be laid 
in any other tomb than that destined for himself, 

Maecenas. — Maecenas too, although indolent with re- 



AUGUSTUS. 11 

gara to Ms own affairs and person, was an able minister, 
who joined a superior mind to beneficence and modesty. 
He always endeavored to procure advantage for others, 
and on the contrary never availed himself of the emper- 
or^s friendship to promote his own interest. To him and 
to his constant protection were science and literature 
principally indebted for the high degree of perfection 
which they attained under the reign of Augustus. 

Drusus. — Drusus, as we have already said, conquered 
a great part of Germany. As a Eoman, no one surpassed 
him in noble and generous feelings ; as a general, he was 
equalled, in that age, only by Agrippa and by his own son 
Germanicus. 

In fine, Marcellus, a young prince possessed of uncom- 
mon talents, and still more admirable for his moral virtues, 
was, in every respect, deserving of his high rank and fort- 
une. He had already acquired general esteem ; he was 
the hope of the Romans and the pride of his uncle Augus- 
tus, when death exhibited in him a new instance of the 
frailty of human grandeur. This made Virgil say in the 
6th book of his ^neid : 

" This youth, the blissful vision of a day, 
Shall be just shown on earth, and snatched away." — Dryden, * 

And again, after alluding to the great hero of the same 
name, conspicuous in the second Punic war : 

" Ah ! couldst thou break through fate's severe decree, 
A new Marcellus would arise in thee." f 

These beautiful verses, when first publicly recited, drew 
tears from all who heard them, and particularly touched 
Augustus and his sister Octavia, the young prince's 
mother, who remained inconsolable till death. 

Death of Augustus. — Thus the emperor was com- 
pelled to centre, if not all his affection, at least all his ex- 
pectation in Tiberius. He now chose him for his col- 
league and successor, as the only one whom he knew truly 



* Ostendent terris hunc tantum fata, neque ultra 

Esse sinent. 
t Heu, miserande puer ! si qua fata aspera rumpas, 

Tu Marcellus eris. 



12 MODEEN HISTOKT. 

capable of upholding the empire. He himself, however, 
did not entirely withdraw from the cares of the govern- 
ment, a burden always agreeable to his ambition. Even 
when his health was declining, his mind continued ever 
busy and active. At length, whilst travelling through 
the south of Italy, on his way from Beneventum to Eome, 
he fell dangerously ill, and could not proceed beyond 
Nola in Campania. When he saw that the end of his life 
was near, he ordered a looking-glass to be brought to him, 
and his hair to be dressed ; then called in his friends, and 
asked them if they thought he had well played his part in 
the drama of life. Being answered in the affirmative, he 
cried out in a Greek verse with which the ancient plays 
generally terminated : " Give me then your applause." 
Thus at the age of seventy-six, after reigning forty-five 
years, he expired on the 19th of August, a month formerly 
called Sextilis, but to which he had given his name. He 
was buried at Kome with great pomp, and even divine 
honors were impiously paid to his memory. 

His character. — Augustus possessed, in an eminent 
degree, all the qualifications necessary to become the 
founder of the Eoman empire under its present form; viz., 
penetrating genius, energy of soul, activity, and above all, 
a consummate prudence under all possible circumstances. 
His long administration may be offered in most points, 
as a model of excellent government ; and he himself might 
be looked upon as one of the best of princes, could we for- 
get that the mild and beneficent Augustus had once been 
the fierce and cruel Odavius. Hence, the common opin- 
ion entertained respecting his public character is, that it 
would have conduced greatly to the happiness of man- 
kind, if Odavius had never been born, or if Augustus had 
never died. 

The census of the Roman citizens was taken several 
times under his reign. In the beginning, they amounted 
to four millions and sixty-three thousand ; towards the 
end, to four millions one hundred and thirty-seven thou- 
sand, and shortly after, under the emperor Claudius, they 
were found to be nearly seven millions. These numbers 
comprised, very probably, not only the inhabitants of 
Rome, but all persons in every part of the empire who had 
obtained by birth or by special privilege, the right of Ro- 



TIBERIUS. 13 

man citizenship,* such as was j)ossessed by St. Paul, a 
Jew and a native of Tarsus in Cilicia.f To ascertain pre- 
cisely the population of the city of Rome at that epoch, 
seems quite impossible ; but from a variety of circum- 
stances, it may be reasonably supposed to have amounted 
to about two millions. 

TIBERIUIS.— A.D. 14— ar. 

Accession to the throne. — Immediately after the 
death of Augustus, Tiberius, who had now completed his 
fifty-fifth year, assumed all the marks of the imperial dig- 
nity. He was the son of the empress Livia, by a former 
marriage with Tiberius Nero. His mother, indeed, by 
her credit and influence, greatly contributed to his eleva- 
tion, but it was perhaps owing chiefly to his own military 
and political talents ; and these would certainly have fitted 
him for his high station, had he not chosen to act the 
part of a vicious and tyrannical prince. 

Shortly after his accession to the throne, Tiberius 
began to manifest the perverse inclinations of his heart. 
Naturally morose and cruel, jealous of any glory acquired 
by others, he was full of dissimulation, and the more to 
be dreaded, as he knew how to conceal his anger. It 
sometimes happened that, whilst he was politely enter- 
taining individuals in his palace, sentence of death was 
pronounced against them, by his orders, in the public tri- 
bunals of Rome. The most trifling faults in matters re- 
garding his government, were visited with the penalties 
of high-treason. 

"With such a prince it was dangerous to jest. As he 
had postponed the payment of some legacies bequeathed 
by Augustus to the Roman people, a wag, who wished to 
remind him of his obligation, took advantage of a funeral 
that was passing along the street, approached the bier, 
and feigning to whisper something in the ear of the dead 
man, said, in a tone loud enough to be heard by the by- 
standers : " Pray, remember to tell Augustus that his leg- 
acies are not yet paid." The emperor, being informed of 
this piece of wit, sent for the unfortunate jester, paid him 



* See Tillemont, Histoire des Empereurs, vol. 1, p. 4, 48, 244. 
t Act. App XXI. 39; and xkh. 25, 26, 27, 28. 



14 MODERN HISTORY. 

his portion of the legacy, and ordered him to be put to 
•death immediately, saying : " Let him go himself to Au- 
gustus, and he will be able to bring him later and better 
news than that carried by the dead man/' The jest how- 
ever had its desired effect, and the legacies were shortly 
after paid to the people. 

Notwithstanding the vices and tyranny of Tiberius, his 
reign was not altogether inglorious. At home, it exhib- 
ited many acts of justice, firmness and munificence ; and 
it was marked abroad by many successful events, the honor 
of which belongs partly to Drusus, his son, but chiefly to 
Germanicus, his nephew, son of the former Drusus. 

Revolt of the legions in Pannonia. — On the re- 
ception of the first news of the late emperor's death, the 
legions stationed both in Pannonia and Germany for the 
defence of these countries, openly revolted, demanding 
from their leaders, with alarming threats, an increase of 
their pay and an earlier discharge from military service. 
Drusus and other persons of high rank, with a few cohorts, 
were dispatched to quell the insurrection in Pannonia. 
On their arrival, they found everything in dreadful con- 
fusion, which neither the presence of Drusus, nor the 
reading of his father's letters, was able to remove. He on 
the contrary, had the mortification to see his guards and 
counsellors exposed to the violence of the soldiery, and 
himself to insulting cries and clamors. The following 
night seemed to threaten the perpetration of still greater 
crimes, when, in a clear and serene sky, the moon was be- 
held suddenly, though gradually, losing its brightness. 
The overawed soldiers, unacquainted with the cause of the 
eclipse, considered it as a token of the wrath of Heaven, 
and of the frightful punishment which awaited their dis- 
obedience.* Drusus and his council skilfully availed 
themselves of this favorable circumstance, and, ordering 
the leaders of the rebels to be arrested, had them execut- 
ed on the spot. After this, most of the soldiers speedily 
returned to the strict rule of military discipline ; the 
three legions were then separated without much trouble, 
and sent to distant quarters ; by which measure, the few 

* Noctem minacem, et in scelus erupturam f ors lenivit : nam luna claro 
repente caelo visa languescere. Id miles rationis ignarus omen praesentium 

accepit sibi laborem aeternum portendi, etc. — Tacitus, Annal. lib. 1, 

n. xxvni. 



TIBERIUS. 15 

remaining sparks of rebellion were easily extinguished. 
Drusus, having thus re-established good order, and deem- 
ing his presence no longer necessary, set out for Eome. 

Campaigns of Germanicus. — Germanicus, who held 
the command in Germany, had many more diflBculties to 
encounter in staying the revolt of his numerous troops. 
It was only by extraordinary exertions, by subjecting him- 
self to every hardship and even endangering his life, by 
opportunely exercising severity or lenity, that he was 
enabled to restore discipline and regularity among the 
legions both of the Upper and Lower Ehine. 

Passing then from one extreme to the other, the soldiers 
despatched with their swords all who had been foremost 
in the rebellion ; and afterwards, in order to exercise their 
valor more properly, they asked to be led against the bar- 
barians. Germanicus readily complied with their desire. 
He threw a bridge over the Ehine, advanced into the hos- 
tile country with a numerous troop of chosen men taken 
from the legions and the allies, and suddenly attacking 
the Germans, made a great slaughter of them, whereas, 
among the Eomans, not one soldier was wounded. 

An account of this disaster soon reached several of the 
neighboring tribes. Inflamed with resentment, they took 
up arms, and posting themselves to advantage, surrounded 
the woods through which the victors were to pass in re- 
turning to their camp. After skirmishing with the front 
and the flanks of the army, they fell with their whole 
strength upon the rear. The light cohorts of the auxil- 
iary troops found themselves unable to sustain the shock, 
and began to be thrown into confusion : when Germani- 
cus, riding at full speed to one of the legions, cried aloud 
that the time was now come for them to efface, by a noble 
exploit, the guilt of the late revolt ; " Let them charge 
with courage, and gain immortal honor." Animated by 
these words, the legion rushed to the attack, and at the 
first onset, broke the ranks of the enemy. The barbari- 
ans fled to the open plain, where the Eomans pursued 
them with dreadful carnage ; from that time the march 
was unmolested, and the soldiers went into winter quar- 
ters. 

Tiberius received the intelligence of these events with 
mingled pleasure and anxiety. That the sedition was at an 
end, was to him a source oi satisfaction; but he feared that 



16 MODERN HISTOEY. 

the success of Germanicus would inspire him with the 
idea of claiming the throne for himself. This was a 
groundless suspicion; the young prince, by refusing at the 
time of the revolt the empire proffered to him by the muti- 
nied legions, had just given an incontrovertible proof of his 
constant fidelity. Still nothing could diminish the secret 
envy of Tiberius, and he only waited for some opportu- 
nity, or rather sought some pretence, to recall his nephew to 
Eome. 

In the mean time, Germanicus had matured his plan of 
operations for the ensuing summer. He opened the cam- 
paign by a sudden and successful irruption into the territo- 
ries near the Ehine. After this, he prepared to march 
against the main forces of the enemy, then assembled under 
the command of the same Arminius who had, six years 
before, obtained a memorable victory over the Romans. 
Four legions and the cavalry proceeded by land; Germani- 
cus with four other legions embarked on the German Sea, 
the more easily to reach the mouth of the river Amisia 
(the Ems). All arrived in due time at the place of desti- 
nation, and the whole army marched towards the forest 
where the bones of Varus and his legions were said to lie 
unburied. 

The remains of Varus' army found unburied. — 
As the Eomans were advancing, an awful spectacle met 
their view and excited in every breast feelings of horror. 
They saw the ground white with bones, in some places 
thinly scattered, in others lying in heaps, as the unfortu- 
nate soldiers of Varus happened to fall in flight, or in a 
body resisted to the last. Fragments of javelins and the 
limbs of horses lay scattered about the fields; human 
skulls were seen upon the trunks of trees; in the ad- 
jacent woods stood the blood-stained altars on which the 
tribunes and principal centurions had been offered up in 
sacrifice: and near the decaying intrenchments of the 
Roman camp, was the spot where some, who at first escaped 
the general massacre, were supposed to have made theii' last 
effort, and perished in the attempt. 

All were affected at this mournful sight, and with hearts 
oppressed with grief, buried the remains of their slaughtered 
countrymen. This duty performed, they pressed forward 
in pursuit of an enemy whom it was not less difficult to over- 



TIBEKIUS. 17 

take than to conquer; at length, Germanicus deeming the 
opportunity favorable, ordered his cavalry to begin the 
attack. But Arminius, taking advantage of the defiles and 
othei' difficult parts of the country, feigned a retreat to the 
forest; then suddenly wheeling about, he gave the signal to 
the troops that lay in ambush in the woods to rush out 
against the Eomans. The cavalry which had been advanc- 
ing, and the auxiliary cohort destined to support it, struck 
with surprise, were put to flight, and might have been 
entirely defeated, had not Germanicus come up with the 
legions in order of battle, and checked the career of the 
enemy. The armies parted upon equal terms, and retired 
to winter quarters, not however without the loss of many 
brave men on the side of the Eomansj while the survi- 
vors were exposed to innumerable hardships, which they 
overcame only by their fortitude and patience. 

Character and generosity of Germanicus. — In all 
this variety of events, Germanicus invariably displayed 
the greatest personal courage, extraordinary prudence, 
and a constant solicitude for the welfare of his troops. 
His ability in improving every advantage and every occa- 
sion of success, was particularly remarkable. When the 
Germans were to be attacked and driven from some post, 
he took upon himself the most arduous part of the 
attempt, leaving the easiest duties to his lieutenants, and 
yet attributing afterwards to their conduct so much of 
the success, that three of them, Silius, Apronius and 
Cecina, obtained triumphal honors. 

He looked upon the soldiers as his children, and treated 
them with truly paternal kindness. He never uselessly 
exposed them, to dangers, nor fought any battle, except 
when almost certain that he would obtain a considerable 
advantage. After an engagement, he visited the wounded, 
consoled them by placing before them the glory of the 
past and the hope of the future, supplied their wants, 
and with his own money indemnified those who had suf- 
fered any loss in the campaign. So many virtues and 
amiable qualities greatly endeared Germanicus to his 
troops, while his valor and skill made him formidable to 
the enemy. The only fault perhaps in his conduct, was 
the unrelenting and inhuman rigor with which he carried 
on the war against the Germans, spreading slaughter far 



18 MODERN HISTORY. 

and wide, and laying the whole country waste with fire 
and sword, without regard to age or sex.* 

What has already been said of the Germanic war, belongs 
to the years 14 and 15 of our Lord. To ensure the suc- 
cess of the next campaign, Germanicus determined to 
have all his troops conveyed by water into the heart of 
the enemy's country ; by his orders, a fleet consisting of 
a thousand vessels was fitted out for the intended expedi- 
tion. They sailed from the eastern channel of the Ehine, 
proceeded over the lakes, and entering the German Ocean, 
went as far as the river Amisia. There the men dis- 
embarked, and the ships were left safe at their moorings. 
The Romans advanced through the plain, crossed the 
Visurgis (Weser), and attacked the Germans, who were 
encamped on the right bank of that river. 

At the signal given by Germanicus, the infantry began 
the assault in front ; the cavalry, at the same time, 
charged the flank and rear ; both attacks were made with 
so much vigor, that the barbarians, notwithstanding their 
natural bravery, were thrown into confusion and driven 
from all their posts. Yet Arminius performed wonders ; 
by his voice, by gestures, by every means in his power, 
still endeavoring to sustain the combat. Wounded as he 
was, and nearly surrounded, he braved every danger, and 
at length by vigorous exertions, escaped from the field, 
having previously besmeared his face with his own blood, 
in order to disguise himself. 

Decisive victory over the Germans. — The enemy 
was now completely routed. The victory cost the Eomans 
little or nothing ; but the country, ten miles round, was 
covered with mangled bodies and the arms of the van- 
quished. Among the spoils was found a large quantity of 
fetters, which the Germans, in anticipation of victory, 
had destined for the Roman prisoners. The legions, on 
the field of battle, again proclaimed Tiberius emperor, 
and having raised a mound, placed on the top of it a pile 
of German arms, trophies of their victory, with an inscrip- 
tion at the base setting forth the names of the conquered 
nations. 

To the Germans nothing could be so exasperating as 



* Tacit. Annal. lib. I, n. li, lvi; and lib. It n. xxv. 



TIBEKIUS. 19 

this monument of Eoman glory. Inflamed anew with the 
desire of revenge, they raised fresh troops, and once more 
resolved to try the hazard of a battle. Their martial 
spirit was not inferior to that of the Eomans : still, after 
a fierce and obstinate combat, they were again defeated, 
and many of them, seeing that further resistance would 
be fruitless, surrendered at discretion. 

The summer being now far advanced, Gernianicus 
ordered some of the legions to return by land to winter 
quarters ; he himself sailed with the rest down the river 
Amisia to the Ocean. The weather was favorable, and 
the sea was unruffled except by the stroke of the oars and 
the rapid motion of a thousand vessels. But this calm 
was of short duration. The sky became overcast ; a 
storm of hail burst upon them with sudden fury ; squalls 
of wind drove the billows in different directions ; and the 
pilot no longer knew what course to steer. Horses, arms 
and baggage were thrown overboard in order to lighten 
the ships ; still many of them were either sunk, or wrecked 
on distant islands, where the soldiers perished by famine 
or lived only upon the carcasses of horses cast by the sea 
upon the beach. 

At length the storm abated, and the remaining vessels 
successfully reached the land. Germanicus, almost driven 
to despair, took every possible care to gather and comfort 
his troops, and furnish them with new arms and clothes. 
Having refitted the fleet, he sent ships to the islands scat- 
tered through the German Sea, in search of the soldiers 
who had been cast away ; by these timely efforts most of 
them were saved. 

The news of these disasters spreading abroad, the Ger- 
mans thought of renewing the war ; but Germanicus was 
not slow in counteracting their designs : two or three 
parties of Eoman troops very soon proved to them the 
frailty of their hopes. According to the account given 
by the prisoners, there never was seen among the barba- 
rians more general consternation : they were now forced 
to confess that the Eomans rose superior to adversity, a 
nation of heroes not to be in any way subdued ; and no 
doubt remained that another summer would terminate 
the war. 

Germanicus called to Rome. — But Tiberius could 



aO MODEKN^ HISTOKT. 

no longer brook the idea that Germanicus should acquire 
so much glory in the command of armies, and he ardently 
desired his return. All his letters were to that effect. 
In them he remarked that it would be much more expe- 
dient to abandon the Germans to their own dissensions, 
and that it was now high time for their conqueror to 
return, and enjoy in the capital the glorious rest due to 
his protracted labors. Germanicus obeyed, though with 
reluctance. His entrance into the city exhibited a mag- 
nificent spectacle ; and, that nothing might be wanting 
to the splendor of the occasion, Tiberius ordered money 
to be distributed among the people and the soldiers, in 
the name of the young prince. He moreover appointed 
him his colleague in the consulship for the ensuing year ; 
but these marks of good will, though specious, were by no 
one thought sincere. 

It is true, however, that what he had foreseen with 
regard to the termination of the war, really happened. 
The different nations of Germany, no longer dreading a 
foreign power, began, according to the custom of barba- 
rians, to quarrel among themselves. Various battles were 
fought, in which Arminius, at the head of his country- 
men, the Cheruscans, maintained his former glory, and 
. gave to the power of the Marcoman king Maroboduus, a 
fatal blow from which this prince never recovered. About 
the same time, letters were received at Eome from another 
German chieftain, in which he proposed to despatch 
Arminius, provided poison should be sent well prepared 
for that effect. These letters were read in the senate ; 
but the proposal was magnanimously rejected, and, in 
imitation of the noble conduct of ancient generals in sim- 
ilar circumstances, Tiberius answered the German prince 
that it was not by poison and fraud, but by steel and open 
force that the Eomans were accustomed to subdue their 
enemies. 

Arminius' death. — Nevertheless, Arminius did not 
long survive. When he saw the Eoman troops with- 
drawn from the German territories, and Maroboduus his 
chief rival fallen, he had the ambition to aim at the sov- 
ereign power. The independent spirit of his countrymen 
turned many of them against him : Arminius fought with 
various success, and fell at last by the treachery of his 
own relations; '^ A man," says Tacitus, "undoubtedly 



TIBERIUS. 21 

to be considered as the deliverer of Germany, and with 
far more honor than generals and kings of former days, 
as he had not merely to cope with Eome in her infancy, 
but to struggle against her, now that she had grown into 
a flourishing and powerful empire. He attacked the 
Eomans in the height of their glory, and in his efforts 
against them, was sometimes victorious, often defeated, 
yet, in the issue of the war, still unconquered.''' * He lived 
only thirty-seven years, during twelve of which he com- 
manded the Grermanic league ; leaving after him a renown 
very great indeed, but tarnished by his attempt to wrest 
from his countrymen that liberty which he and they had 
so long and so gloriously defended. 

The death of Arminius lulled the emperor's apprehen- 
sions with respect to the, Germans, who having lost their 
hero, did not for a long time excite any dangerous dis- 
turbance, but were contented with the peace which the 
Komans suffered them to enjoy. This was the great object 
which Tiberius had ardently wished for : he desired 
nothing so much as to prevent revolts and maintain 
tranquillity in the empire. Hence, while he exercised his 
tyranny in Rome, Italy and the provinces had compara- 
tively little to suffer under his government. On many 
occasions, he manifested great zeal for the due adminis- 
tration of justice, and although addicted to many gross 
vices, endeavored to stem the torrent of general corruption. 
Acting up to his own maxim, that tJie sheep must he 
sheared, not flayed, he took great care that the subjects of 
the empire should not be oppressed by excessive taxes, 
and was attentive to afford speedy assistance to those who 
experienced unavoidable misfortunes. 

Tiberius' liberality. — Thus, when many parts of Asia 
Minor were laid waste by a tremendous earthquake which 
destroyed in one night twelve celebrated cities (a.d. 17), 
the liberality of the emperor was an abundant source of 
relief to the surviving inhabitants. He granted them a 
remission of all tribute for five years, and sums of money 
proportionate to their losses. By this generosity, Tibe- 
rius gained great praise, and the cities of Asia, to 
perpetuate its remembrance, struck medals— some of 
which are yet extant. A few years after, all that quarter 

* Tacit. Annal. lib. II. n. l xxvin. 



22 MODEEN HISTOKT. 

of the capital on Mount Caelius was destroyed by a confla- 
gration ; Tiberius, without waiting to be solicited and 
petitioned, and without regard to the rank of the sufferers, 
equally indemnified all those whose houses had been 
burnt ; those who had no friend or protector at court 
were sent for, and received the sums necessary to rebuild 
their dwellings. At another time he gave a hundred 
millions of sesterces (about three millions of dollars) to 
repair the losses occasioned by a similar accident. These 
acts of generosity were the more to his honor, as he was 
very modest in his own buildings. Furthermore, there 
was another kind of public calamity that claimed and 
drew forth his munificence : the practice of exacting heavy 
interest, and the want of a good currency, having caused 
great distress among the people,, he caused a considerable 
fund to be lent out of the imperial treasury, without 
interest, for three years, on condition that the borrower, 
for the security of the exchequer, should give a mortgage 
on lands of double the value. By that seasonable aid 
public credit was revived. 

These various examples plainly show that Tiberius was 
not so regardless of the miseries of his subjects as some 
writers assert. Yet notwithstanding these generous acts, 
it must be confessed that his character was really perverse 
and cruel. From his very youth these defects had 
appeared ; so much so that his tutor declared him to be 
a lump of clay moistened with blood. Hence Rome and 
the patrician families had much to dread and suffer from 
his suspicious policy : it was even a misfortune to be 
nearly related to him, and a great part of his own family 
became the unhappy victims of his cruel and jealous 
temper. 

Germanicus in Asia. — Germanicus, after his tri- 
umph, was sent to Asia with great powers from the 
emperor and the senate, to settle some important business, 
and tranquillize many of the provinces in which consider- 
able disturbances had lately been excited. He faithfully 
executed his commission, and conferred upon those 
countries innumerable benefits, with a courteous dignity 
which enhanced their value. Everywhere, his noble and 
generous conduct attracted equally the praises and the 
affections of the people. 

His death. — But Cneius Piso, a proud and violent 



TIBERIUS. 23 

man, had been at the same time appointed by Tiberius 
governor of Syria, with secret orders, as it was believed, 
to annoy, oppose and counteract Germanicus in every- 
thing, a commission which, whether given or feigned, 
was too faithfully performed. For a long time the young 
prince bore with patience and moderation the affronts 
and injuries heaped on him by his vile persecutor, aad 
even treated him with generosity ; then an open rupture 
followed, shortly after which Germanicus fell sick and 
died at Antioch, under the impression that he had been 
poisoned by Piso and his consort Planclna. 

Intense was the grief occasioned throughout the empire 
by the death of Germanicus. When his disconsolate 
widow Agrippina carried back in an urn the ashes of her 
husband, she found the roads covered with people whose 
tears and sighs told her how deeply they shared in her 
affliction. But it would be difficult to describe the sorrow 
evinced in the capital ; the day on which the remains of 
the prince were deposited in the tomb of Augustus, was 
one of inexpressible mourning. Tiberius himself mani- 
fested exteriorly a grief in which his heart probably had 
no share, and was obliged to abandon Piso to the public 
indignation. This unhappy man was not, it is true, con- 
victed of the crime laid to his charge ; but he had com- 
mitted other crimes deserving the severity of the law. 
Piso perceived his danger : before the trial was concluded, 
he was found dead in his chamber, with his throat cut, 
and a sword lying near him on the floor ; but whether he 
had committed suicide, or had been killed by others for 
fear of what he might disclose, was left uncertain. 

The other enemies of Germanicus met with little 
severity ; on the contrary, his family supplied new victims 
to the insatiable hatred of Tiberius. So far did the 
cruelty of the emperor extend, that he caused Agrippina 
and her two eldest sons to perish by ill-treatment and 
starvation. Having a real affection for no one but him- 
self, he bore with a firmness bordering on insensibility, 
the death of his own son Drusus, who had been poisoned 
by the commander of the praetorian (imperial) guards. 

This commander was a certain iElius Sejanus, who, 
gaining the favor of Tiberius, rose from the rank of a 
simple knight to that of his chief minister. New honors 
were daily conferred upon him, and in a short time his 



24 MODERN HISTORY. 

power was not far inferior to that of Tiberius himself. 
Not satisfied with this success, he conceived the daring 
design of opening his way to the throne by the extermina- 
tion of the imperial family. After Drusus and the sons 
of Germanicus were removed, he prevailed upon the 
emperor to retire from Eome for the sak e of greater tran- 
qifillity, and to intrust the reigns of govern ment to him, 
Ms tried and faithful minister. But while Sejanus, thus 
far successful, was revolving in his mind the last step for 
the accomplishment of his designs, his treason was 
detected ; and Tiberius having, by a message, informed 
the senate of the whole affair, sentence of death was pro- 
nounced against the traitor and executed without delay. 
Most of the friends and relations of Sejanus were involved 
in his ruin. 

Preaching and death of Christ. — While these 
painful events occurred in Eome, Judea was the theatre 
of most interesting events. For more than three years, 
our Lord favored it with the public spectacle of His 
heavenly virtues and the preaching of His Gospel, which 
He confirmed by many miracles ; and finally, by His pas- 
sion and death. He completed the great work of tha 
redemption of mankind (a.d. 33). Three days after. He 
rose glorious from the dead ; frequently appeared to His 
disciples, giving them, during forty days, various nec- 
essary instructions about the establishment and govern- 
ment of His Church ; committed to St. Peter the care of 
His flock ; * commissioned him and the other Apostles to 
go and teach all nations, with the positive promise of His 
daily assistance till the end of the world ; f and then 
ascended into heaven in their presence. 

After ten days, the Apostles being all assembled in 
Jerusalem, the Holy Ghost came down upon them in a 
visible manner. They immediately began to preach with 
astonishing success. The first two discourses of St. Peter 
converted eight thousand Jews : many more afterwards 
became converts ; so that, even before the close of 
Tiberius^ reign, a numerous Church was already estab- 
lished in Jerusalem, whence the light of the Gospel be- 
gan to diffuse itself in every direction and in every part of 
the world. 

» John xxi. 16, 17. t Matth. xrviii. 19, 20. 



TIBERIUS. 25 

These are the only consoling objects which present 
themselves to our view in the midst of a deluge of crimes ; 
for no age was ever more corrupted. Tiberius, above all, 
without ceasing to pay some attention to the public weal, 
every day gave fuller scope to his unruly passions, and to 
his tyrannical cruelties against the first families of the 
empire. Informations, trials and executions were multi- 
plied, and the most illustrious personages in Eome grad- 
ually disappeared, unhappy objects of the hatred of a 
suspicious and sanguinary prince. 

Death of Tiberius. — Nothing can be imagined 
more degrading to humanity, than the scenes which 
marked the last years of his life. No less odious to him- 
self than to others, he retired into the small and at that 
time delightful island of Caprea, a name which no one 
ever after remembered and pronounced without horror. 
There he abandoned himself, for several years, to all the ex- 
cesses of the most profligate passions, his cruelties always 
keeping pace with his debaucheries. At length his con- 
stitution was broTien, and his strength began to fail. In 
the hope of finding a more salubrious situation, he left 
the island of Caprea, and went over to the continent, 
where, falling very sick at Misenum, a promontory near 
Naples, he was, on the 16th of March (a.d. 37), seized 
with a fainting fit during which many thought him dead. 
He however recovered his senses : but Macro, the com- 
mander of the praetorian guard, who had already paid his 
homage to the presumed successor, gave orders that the 
old emperor should be smothered with pillows. Thus, in 
his seventy-eighth year, and the twenty-third of his reign, 
Tiberius, who had himself so often been guilty of 
perfidy to others, perished by the perfidy of his own 
friends. 

He did not reach at once the height of wickedness 
which has justly caused his memory to be held in detes- 
tation : Tacitus well observes a striking gradation in his 
course of vice and tyranny, and accurately defines its 
differe^nt stages. "Tiberius," says he, "was much es- 
teemed while a private man, and as long as he held ofiices 
under Augustus. He was artful in feigning virtue, in 
the beginning of his own reign, until the death of Ger- 
manicus and Drusus; his actions were a mixture of good 
and evil, during the lifetime of his mother Livia ; detes- 



26 MODEKN HISTORY. 

tably cruel, but secret in his debaucheries, while he lovea 
or feared Sejanus; lastly, he abandoned himself to every 
sort of profligacy, when, freed from all the restraints of 
fear and shame, he knew and followed no other guide 
than the bent of his abominable inclinations/^ * 

Phsedrus, the celebrated fabulist, and Quintus-Curtius, 
the elegant historian of Alexander, liyed under Tiberius; 
the poets Persius and Lucan flourished shortly after. 

CAL.IOUL.A.— A.I>. 37-41. 

On"e of the soas of Germanicus, not only had escaped 
the ruin in which the rest of his family were involved, but 
even constantly enjoyed the favor of Tiberius, and became 
his adopted son. This was Oaius, better known by the 
name of Caligula (from Caliga, a sort of military boot 
which he had been accustomed to wear, whilst yet a child, 
in the camp of his father). He succeeded the late em- 
peror without opposition, and even to the great satisfac- 
tion of the whole empire ; indeed he seemed at first, by 
several acts of clemency and beneficence, to deserve this 
mark of public esteem. He restored many privileges to 
the people ; delivered innocent and calumniated persons 
from prison and banishment ; abolished arbitrary prosecu- 
tions for crimes of state ; and evinced intentions so good, 
that he received from the senate the most flattering honors. 

But the joy of the Komans was not of long duration, 
and their hopes of a prosperous government were cruelly 
deceived. Caligula was taken dangerously ill, and after 
his recovery, either because he was unwilling any longer 
to restrain his passions, or because his intellect had been 
impaired by the violence of the disease, he began to act 
like a madman, and indulged in every species of injustice, 
cruelty and licentiousness, 

Caligula's extravagance .and crueltjr. — He com- 
menced his extravagant career by spending, in games and 
foolish entertainments, two billions five hundred millions 
of sesterces (about sixty-three millions of dollars), in less 
than one year ; and when the public treasury was drained, 
he had recourse to the most frightful extortions. Daily 

* Tacit. Annal. lib. VI. n. lvi. 



CALIGULA. 37 

confiscations, oppressive taxes, rapine, plunder and mur. 
der of the wealthiest citizens, were the means to which 
Caligula resorted, in order to gather heaps of gold and 
silver for the indulgence of his uninterrupted extrava- 
gance. On one occasion, being at play, he happened to 
want money. He sent for the public register which con- 
tained the names of the property-holders, condemned a 
certain number of them to death, and said, with a smile, 
to those with whom he was playing : "How unlucky you 
are ! It has taken you a long time to win a small sum, 
and in one moment I have won six hundred millions of 
sesterces (fifteen millions of dollars).'' 

In barbarity Caligula was never surpassed. He wished 
that the Eoman people had but one head, that it might 
be struck off at a blow. This was impossible, but he at 
least caused many persons to be massacred by his 
soldierSj or thrown into the arena, there to be devoured 
by wild beasts, their tongues having been previously cut 
out, to prevent them from complaining. He forced 
others to kill themselves, among the rest young Tiberius 
his cousin, and grandson of the late emperor. Neither 
rank nor age was exempt from his fury. At a repast 
with the two consuls, he suddenly burst into a loud laugh: 
the consuls having respectfully entreated him to acquaint 
them with the cause of his extraordinary Joy : "'I was 
thinking,'' he replied, ** that it requires but a sign from 
me, to have both of you killed in an instant." It was 
his pleasure to see the victims of his monstrous cruelty 
suffer excruciating torments ; his delight to make them 
feel death, and behold their blood flowing and their limbs 
scattered. 

The more ferocious and barbarous he was towards men, 
the more kind and feeling he was towards beasts. He 
honored his horse, called Incitatus, in every manner he 
could imagine : he gave him a palace, with guards, ser- 
vants, a cook, and such other attendants as the happy 
animal might require in order to entertain his guests with 
due solemnity. He invited him to his own table, at which 
he gave him gilded barley to eat, and wine to drink in 
golden cups. Incitatus was clothed in purple, wore a 
collar of pearls, and the night before he had to run in the 
races, sentinels were placed around his palace, to prevent 
the least noise that might disturb his repose. In fine, 



28 MODERN HISTORY. 

Caligula was accustomed to swear by his horse, and he 
would hare appointed him consul, had he not been pre- 
vented by death. 

His military expeditions. — His military exploits were 
not less extravagant. In addition to the armies stationed 
in various parts of the empire, he raised new troops, and 
went with them and a band of comedians, buffoons, and 
gladiators, to join the old legions encamped on the banks 
of the Ehine. Here he found himself at the head of 
nearly two hundred and fifty thousand men. As the 
Germans scorned to fight against such a general, that he 
might not leave the frontier without some semblance of 
victory, he contrived a scheme in perfect accordance with 
his character. A detachment of his own troops was sent 
to the other side of the Rhine, with secret orders to con- 
ceal themselves in a wood. Then Caligula, crossing over 
at the head of the legions, marched against them ; the 
pretended enemy was easily routed, and the emperor re- 
turned crowned with laurels. 

His courage impelled him afterwards to go to the sea- 
coast facing Great Britain. As soon as he arrived, he 
drew up the legions along the shore, and having gone up 
a short distance in the imperial galley, returned in great 
haste and gave the signal for battle. The soldiers, with 
surprise, asked who was their enemy ; then Caligula in- 
formed them that the enemy was the ocean just con- 
quered by him in their presence, and that they had 
nothing else to do than collect the shells thrown on the 
shore, as trophies of this great victory. The better to 
perpetuate the remembrance of so glorious an event, he 
laid the foundation of a lofty tower, and set out for Rome, 
in order to give himself the honors of a triumph. 

To fill up the measure of his absurdities, he even arro- 
gated to himself divine honors. He had a temple erected 
to his name, and a statue to which sacrifices were offered. 
Of the order of sacrificators instituted for this purpose, 
the principal members were his uncle Claudius, his wife, 
his horse, and himself. 

Caligula's death. — At last it entered into the 
mind of Caligula that the Jews were a most unhappy 
people in not acknowledging him as a god ; he therefore 
resolved to have his statue placed and adored in the 
temple of Jerusalem. But before he could execute his 



CLAUDIUS. 39 

design, a violent death closed his career of crime and 
impiety. In the center of Eome he was assassinated by 
Cherea, a tribune of the praetorian guards, after he had 
reigned four, and lived twenty-nine years (a. d. 41). His 
name is everywhere recorded as that of the worst of men and 
a monster of cruelty. 

CLAUDIUS.— A.D. 41-54. 

On the assassination of Caligula, dreadful confusion 
followed in Eome. It was the wish of the senate to re- 
establish the commonwealth ; but the praetorians pro- 
claimed Claudius emperor, and the senators were com- 
pelled to submit. 

This Claudius was the brother of Germanicus, and 
uncle of Caligula ; a man of so weak an intellect and 
such unconquerable timidity, that his mother Antonia, 
when she met with any silly person, was accustomed to 
say : **He is as great a fool as my son Claudius." Such 
a man was assuredly more in need of being governed, than 
qualified to govern others ; yet, for the greater humilia- 
tion of heathen Rome, Almighty God permitted him to 
hold the sceptre during thirteen years. 

Invasion of Great Britain. — The most important 
event of his reign was an invasion of Great Britain, which 
reduced a considerable part of that country to the Roman 
power. Hitherto, the Britons had retained their original 
independence ; but at the instigation, of Beric, a British 
chieftain whom domestic factions had driven from his 
native land, the emperor commanded Aulus Plautius to 
undertake the conquest with four legions and their, auxil- 
iaries. It was with great difficulty that the troops were 
induced to engage in the attempt, and go to another world ; 
for such they considered Great Britain : at length they 
followed their general, crossed the channel, and lauded, as 
it appears, in the county of Kent. The natives, notwith- 
standing their fright at the first appearance of the invad- 
ers, made a gallant resistance ; but, overpowered by the 
well-disciplined troops of the Romans, they soon began to 
give way and Plautius, pursuing his advantage, arrived at 
the mouth of the Thames. No sooner was Claudius in- 
formed of the success of his lieutenant than he set out to 
take the command in person. He did not, however, stay 



30 MODEKN HISTOEY. 

more tiian sixteen days in the island : after receiving the 
submission of the natives in the vicinity, he returned to 
Eome, where he enjoyed the honors of a magnificent 
triumph. 

The war nevertheless was not yet ended. Plautius, 
who was left behind with a powerful army, spent four 
years more in extending and securing his conquests. Ves- 
pasian, an officer whose merit afterwards raised him to 
the throne, greatly distinguished himself in that expedi- 
tion : at the head of a Eoman legion and some auxiliaries, 
he fought thirty battles, took twenty towns, and subdued 
two of the British nations. Thus, a great part of the 
country north and south of the Thames, was reduced 
to a Eoman province. 

Five years after the beginning of the war (a.d. 48), Plau- 
tius went to receive, in the capital of the empire, the re- 
ward of his services and was succeeded in Britain by Os- 
torius Scapula, who not only kept but even enlarged 
the conquests of his predecessor. Soon after his arrival, 
he was suddenly attacked by the Britons bordering on the 
Eoman province, who thought that an extraordinary effort 
might rid them of their invaders, at a time when the new 
general was yet unacquainted with their manner of war- 
fare and the rigor of their winters. Ostorius, sensible 
how much the reputation of a commander depends on his 
first success, immediately marched against them, cut to 
pieces those who resisted, and dispersed the survivors. A 
second victory, which in a short time followed the first, 
gave him a decided superiority over the natives. 

Caractacus. — But, the Silures who lived between the 
Severn and the Irish Sea, were not so easily subdued. 
Led on by Caractacus, the greatest warrior in the country, 
they continued to defend their liberty with undaunted 
courage. Their army, by the arrival of many allies, be- 
came very numerous, and so great was their animosity 
against the Eomans, that Ostorius could with dififi- 
culty be induced to give them battle. His troops loudly 
insisting, and crying out that they were sure of victory, 
Ostorius looked upon their ardor as a happy presage, nor 
was he deceived in his expectation. No obstacle could 
successfully oppose the Eoman legions. They crossed a 
river, entered the enemy's intrenchments, and amidst a 
shower of darts, occupied the heights on which their 



CLAUDIUS. 31 

adversaries had posted themselves. The Silures were en- 
tirely defeated. The family of Caractacus fell into the 
hands of the victors, and the chieftain himself, betrayed 
by his own relations, was delivered in chains to the Roman 
general. 

This event was celebrated in Eome with great joy. 
*' The fame of Caractacus had already crossed the seas ; 
and the natives of Italy were anxious to behold the man 
who had braved for nine years the power of Rome. As 
he passed through the imperial city, he expressed his 
surprise that men who possessed such palaces at home, 
should deem it worth their while to fight for the wretched 
hovels of Britain.^" * He appeared in the presence of 
Claudius with characteristic magnanimity, and, while 
the other prisoners bewailed with tears their unhappy 
fate, he behaved and spoke like a hero. The emperor 
treated him with kindness, and set him and his family at 
liberty. 

Claudius' contemptible life and death. — The 
other events of the reign of Claudius are little worthy of 
notice. His government was a mixture of good and evil, 
from the variety of good and evil counsels which he re- 
ceived, and according as he was left to his natural moder- 
ation, or controlled by base advisers. In private, he led a 
contemptible life, and after being infamously dishonored 
by Messalina, his first wife, he was poisoned by his second 
wife Agrippina. 

This Agrippina, the daughter of Germanicus, was ^ 
wicked and ambitious princess, who used her utmost en- 
deavors to secure the succession to the throne for Domi- 
tius, her son by a former husband. Having at length 
prevailed upon Claudius to adopt Domitius, and confer 
on him the title of Caesar, to the exclusion of his own son 
Britannicus, she soon effected the object of her wishes, by 
poisoning the stupid emperor. He died in the 14th year 
of his reign, the 64th of his life, and the 64th of the 
Christian era. 



* Lingard's Hist, of Eng. vol. I. A.i>. 62. 



32 MODERN HISTORY. 



NERO.— A. D. 54-68. 

Favorable promise of Nero's reign. — The son of 

Agrippina, on assuming the imperial crown, exchanged 
his birth-name Domitius for that of Claudius Nero, the 
name of his adoptive family. He had enjoyed the bene- 
fits of a good education under the philosopher Seneca. 
While controlled by this wise tutor, and by Burrhus, the 
commander of his guards, a man of great talents and in- 
tegrity, Nero preserved a show of decency in his public 
conduct. Like Tiberius and Caligula, he commenced his 
reign by performing several laudable acts, took great care 
to have the city plentifully supplied with everything 
needful and gave considerable pensions to poor senators 
who could not otherwise support their rank and dignity. 
On a certain day, when a death-warrant was brought to 
him to be signed ; "I wish," said he, "I had never learned 
to write." When the senate, on one occasion, had offered 
him their sincere thanks, he replied : " I shall be happy 
to receive your thanks, when I truly deserve them." In 
a word, Nero's actions, in the beginning, were character- 
ized by clemency, liberality, kindness, and everything 
calculated to win the affections of the people. 

Murder of Brittanicus and Agrippina. — But his 
vices could not long brook restraint ; his true character 
appeared in its native deformity, a compound of all that 
is cruel, infamous and base. His cruelty first displayed 
itself in the poisoning of his young brother Britannicus, 
whose gentle disposition had excited his fears lest he 
should gain too much upon the favor of the Eomans. 
The poison which perfidious officers administered to the 
young prince at table, was so violent, that he presently 
lost the use of his se.ises, fell upon the floor, and soon ex- 
pired ; while Nero, who was present, and scarcely eigh- 
teen years old, beheld that awful spectacle with the 
steadiness of a tyrant already hardened in crime. 

This atrocious deed was but a prelude to another still 
more heinous, the murder of his mother Agrippina. He 
endeavored first to have her drowned in the sea ; but, this 
plan failing, she was, by his command, slain in a house 
into which she had retired. 



1 




F^^^^^^HP 


4^.- - 




1 


Ka--. • •.«»»" 


' 



AQUEDUCT OF NERO. 



NERO. 33 

Murder of Octavia and Poppea. — After such 
crimeSj nothing, how horrid soever, can appear aston- 
ishing in the life of such a monster as Nero. He spared 
neither his first wife, Octavia, whose veins were opened 
by his orders ; nor his second, called Poppea, whom, in a 
fit of rage, he killed by a blow with his foot : nor his 
tutor Burrhus, whom, it was believed, he poisoned, in 
order to rid himself of his admonitions ; nor his preceptor 
Seneca, who, together with the poet Lucan, being ac- 
cused of having taken part in some conspiracy against 
him, was commanded to terminate his own existence ; a 
command which both obeyed.* Nero sported with the 
lives of others, and Eome daily lost her most virtuous and 
illustrious citizens, victims of his tyranny. 

Corbulo in Armenia. — In the mean time, it was 
necessary to adopt measures for expelling the Parthians 
from Armenia, which they had lately invaded. Corbulo, 
a general of well-known talents, was sent against them. 
When he arrived in Syria to take the command of the 
legions, he found them greatly weakened by idleness and 
insubordination. His first care was to subject them, as 
well as the new levies, to the laws of strict discipline, and 
to train them to the hardships of war by constant labor, 
painful marches or encampments, and other military 
exercises ; by rewards properly bestowed and punishments 
Justly inflicted ; but particularly by giving to all an 
example of unshaken courage in dangers, and unconquer- 
able fortitude in enduring fatigue. 

As soon as Corbulo could rely on his troops, he led 
them against the enemy. On their side, the Parthians 
advanced against him, under the command of Tiridates, a 
brother to their king Vologeses. According to their cus- 
tom, they moved with rapidity from place to place, and 
by this wild and desultory warfare, more than by vic- 
tories, kept the country in constant alarm. Corbulo 
endeavored, but in vain, to bring them to an engagement : 
he was obliged to adopt the very plan of the enemy, and 
dividing his troops into separate bodies, at last succeeded 
in counteracting all the operations of Tiridates. 

Total subjugation of Armenia. — This, however, did 
not suflBce to terminate the war, and more decisive meas- 

* See note A. 



34 MODEKN HISTOKY. 

ures were resorted to by the Koman general. He pressed 
forward, compelled all the towns and fortresses in his way 
to surrender and finally arrived before Artaxate, the cap- 
ital of Armenia : it was taken in one day, and burnt, after 
sufficient time had been allowed to the inhabitants to 
save their lives; Tigranocerta, another important city, 
surrendered without resistance, and was spared by the 
conquerors. The Parthians, then terrified at the sudden 
and repeated successes of Corbulo, sued for peace. It 
was granted, and even Armenia, which had been the chief 
occasion of this long struggle, was given as a possession 
to Tiridates, on the sole condition that he would lay down 
his diadem at the feet of the emperor's statue in the 
Eoman camp, and afterwards repair to Eome, to receive it 
again from the emperor himself. Terms so favorable to 
his fortune, the Parthian prince readily accepted and 
faithfully executed. The Romans, on their part, strictly 
fulfilled their engagements ; thus we see that they were 
still terrible in battle, and moderate after victory. 

Suetonius in Great Britain. — What Corbulo did 
in Asia, was done in G-reat Britain by Suetonius Paulinus, 
another famous general. To him the empire was indebted 
for the reduction of the isle of Mona, now called Anglesey, 
where he established a garrison and destroyed the groves 
used by the natives for their cruel and superstitious rites. 
But the Britons, availing themselves of his absence, 
formed a powerful league to recover their freedom, and to 
throw off a yoke which the insolence and extortions of 
the Roman soldiers rendered every day more oppressive. 
The whole province rose in arms ; the colonies founded 
by the conquerors were laid waste with fire and sword ; 
London and other municipal towns were pillaged, and their 
inhabitants slaughtered to the number of seventy thou- 
sand persons, all citizens or allies. 

Suetonius had returned, and was now endeavoring to 
put down the insurrection. He formed his best troops 
into one body of about ten thousand men, and determined 
notwithstanding the enormous disproportion between this 
number and that of the insurgents, to attack them, and 
bring on a decisive battle. For this end, he selected a 
spot encircled with woods, narrow at the entrance, and 
protected in the rear by a thick forest. In that situation, 
he had no fear of an ambuscade^, and the enemy had no 



NERO. 35 

access except in front. The Britons brought into the 
open plain that lay before them, an immense multitude of 
warriors (no less than two hundred and thirty thousand, 
according to Dion Oassius), under the command of Queen 
Boadicea, a woman of masculine courage. They were 
already exulting, and so confident of victory, that they 
had placed their wives upon wagons at the extremity of 
the plain, to enable them to survey the action, and behold 
the wonders of British valor. 

His decisive victory. — When the signal for battle 
was given, the Britons seeing the Eomans silent and 
motionless in their narrow defile, advanced with rapidity, 
and discharged their darts. At that moment, the legion- 
aries rushed forward in the form of a wedge; the cavalry 
at the same time bore down upon the enemy, and over- 
powered all who dared to resist. The Britons betook 
themselves to flight ; but, as a retreat was extremely difii- 
cult, on account of the wagons which they had placed in 
the rear, a dreadful slaughter ensued in which eighty 
thousand of these unfortunate people are said to have per- 
ished ; whereas the Romans lost only four hundred men. 
This splendid victory, equal to any of ancient times, 
greatly contributed to keep Britain in subjection ; the 
more so, as Boadicea, unable to bear the idea of such a 
defeat, survived but a very short time. Still, the country 
was not entirely subdued until the reign of Domitian. 

Nero's conduct at Rome. — Whilst, at the two 
extremities of the empire, Corbulo and Suetonius main- 
tained its majesty, in Eome it was more and more degraded 
by Nero. He plunged without shame into every kind of 
debauchery. He frequently spent the night in running 
through the streets, in the garb of a slave, accompanied 
by a band of rioters, with whom he attacked every one 
that he met, and stole whatever fell in his way. His 
delight during the day was to drive chariots in the circus, 
or to act the part of a comedian on the stage : there he 
danced, sang and played on the lute, compelling the 
audience to admire him and give him their applause. 

His daily expenses were enormous : he endeavored to 
dispel the horror which his crimes excited, by making 
large donations of lands, houses, gold, silver, jewels and 
other valuable objects, to the common people; also by 
having magnificent plays and shows frequently repeated. 



36 MODERN HISTORY. 

Not satisfied with all this, he was fond of exciting sur- 
prise by the singularity of his exhibitions, and would often 
unite at the same time and place, shows of different and 
even contrary kinds: for example, a vast sheet of water, 
would, the moment after a sea-fight had been performed 
on it, be instantly drained, and become a field of battle 
for land troop and gladiators. Dion Oassius mentions a 
certain occasion on which the scene was changed in this 
manner four times in one day. 

While ]^ero thus consulted the gratification of the peo- 
ple, he was still more attentive to his own. Not to men- 
tion the extravagant luxury of his table, he built a place 
so magnificent, so profusely ornamented with ivory, gold 
and precious stones, that it received the name of the 
^* golden palace. ^^ When it was finished, Nero said that 
then, for the first time, he had a decent habitation. He 
hazarded at gaming immense sums of money; never put 
on the same coat twice; never undertook a journey with- 
out taking along with him at least a thousand carriages, 
with a proportionate number of attendants in costly 
apparel, drivers splendidly dressed, and mules shod with 
silver. Finally, he was as fond of his monkey as Caligula 
had been of his horse; and accordingly, he gave it dwell- 
ings in the town and lands in the country, and after its 
death, buried it with royal pomp. 

If to this profusion wg add his mania for building, we 
shall easily conceive how the revenues of the whole empire 
were not sufficient for Nero. As he was determined con- 
stantly to follow up his extravagant principles, rapine and 
extortion became his only resource. Towards the end of 
his reign, so exorbitant were the contributions which he 
exacted, that not only Italy, but also the provinces, all 
the parts of the empire, and even the allies, were ruined. 

His cruelties were always equal to his other enormities. 
The blood of illustrious citizens continued, under various 
pretences, to be spilt in Eome ; "At last,^"* says Tacitus, 
" Nero desired to destroy virtue itself, by putting to death 
Barea Soranus and Thrasea Psetus, the two most distin- 
guished and virtuous members of the senate. " * Corbulo, 
as the reward of his great services, received sentence of 



* Tacit. Annal. lib. XVI. n. xxi. 



NERO. 37 

capital punishment the execution of which he prevent- 
ed by killing himself; and Vespasian narrowly escaped 
the same fate, for having slept whilst the emperor was 
singing on the stage. 

Conflagration at Rome. — It seemed that nothing 
more was requisite to render Nero an accomplished monster, 
than that he should become an incendiary; and such he 
really became (a. d. 64). To him most historians attribute 
the famous conflagration which in that year destroyed two- 
thirds of Rome. It lasted nine days, during which there 
was nothing to be seen in the city but consternation and 
despair. Nero, on the contrary, from the summit of a 
tower, contemplated with delight the devouring flames, 
and in a theatrical dress, sang verses on the burning of 
Troy. Such, at least, was the common report at the time. 

First persecution of Christians. — The town was 
rebuilt upon a new and more regular plan ; but the 
wretched prince, in order to remove the just suspicion that 
it had been set on fire by his orders, laid this crime to the 
charge of the Christians, who, by the apostolic labors of 
St. Peter and St. Paul, were already very numerous in Eome. 
As the purity of their lives was a censure on the cor- 
ruption of the age, and their total separation from pagan 
festivities, an occasion of hatred and contempt, Nero 
thought them fit subjects for public vengeance.* Num- 
bers of them were arrested, and doomed to suffer the most 
frightful torments. Some, wrapped in the skins of wild 



*Thus an unjust and atrocious charge gave rise to the first persecution 
which the Church of Christ had to suffer from the Gentiles. It was fit that 
her first persecutor should be the same prince who proved an enemy to all 
virtue. But the example being once set by him, was afterwards too faith- 
fully imitated, and from this time to the reign of Constantine the Great, 
the Christians were almost continually vexed and tormented, as well under 
the good as under the bad emperors. 

These persecutions were carried on, sometimes by command of the em- 
perors themselves urged on by ruthless magistrates ; sometimes by an insur- 
reclrion of the people ; and sometimes by solemn decrees pronounced in the 
senate, upon the rescripts of princes, or in their presence. Then the perse- 
cution was more universal and bloody ; and thus the malice of unbelievers, 
ever inveterately bent on destroying the Church, was excited, from time to 
time, to new acts of fury. From these successive outbreaks of violence, ec- 
clesiastical historians reckon ten persecutions under ten emperors 

Of all the faithful, the bishops were always the most severely treated ; of 
all the Churches, the Church of Eome was persecuted with the greatest 
violence; and thirty Sovereign Pontiffs sealed with their blood that 
Gospel which they declared to the whole earth. — SeeBossuet, Discourse on 
Univ. History, part I. ad ann. 66 a,nd 95. 



38 MODERN HISTORY. 

beasts, were left to be devoured by dogs; others, fixed to a 
cross, waited in the most cruel agonies, the slow approach 
of death; others were burned alive, and many, covered 
with inflammable matter which was set on fire, served as 
torches during the night in the imperial gardens. In 
order to enjoy this awful spectacle, Nero went through the 
avenues in his chariot, in the , dress of a charioteer. It 
was during this persecution that St. Peter and St. Paul 
suffered martyrdom, the former by the cross, the latter by 
the sword, both at Eome, and on the same day. 

Nero's death. — Nero had now gone through all the 
stages of his execrable life. His power was upheld only 
by terror, and by numerous troops of satellites whom he 
amply rewarded. At length, all mankind, whose oppressor 
he was, rose up against him, after Vindex in Gaul and 
Galba in Spam had given the signal for general insur- 
rection. The news, disregarded at first by Nero, very 
soon filled him with terror and rage. It was reported 
that, in his despair, he wished to send assassins into all 
the provinces, to kill the governors, the generals of armies 
and the exiles, to poison the senators at a feast, to set fire 
to the town in various parts, and at the same time to let 
loose all the wild beasts kept for the public shows, in order 
to prevent the inhabitants from extinguishing the flames. 
He thought afterwards of raising new troops for his de- 
fence, or of moving by his tears the compassion of the army; 
and at length resolved to fly into Egypt. But he had neither 
time nor power to execute any of his designs. 

The example of Vindex and Galba was readily followed 
throughout the empire, and even in the capital itself by 
the Praetorian guards. The tyrant then retired to a 
country-house, four miles from Eome, the property of a 
certain Phaon, one of his freedmen, where he hoped to 
remain concealed ; but the senate, after having been silent 
and timid for so long a time, now ordered that he should 
be sought after, apprehended, and put to an ignominious 
death. Nero, at the first intelligence of the fatal edict, 
was struck with terror, and wept both at the approach of 
his last hour and at the loss of his musical voice. Whilst 
thus lamenting, he heard the sound of horses' feet, and the 
noise of the soldiers sent to drag him from his retreat, and 
already quite near the house ; he then wished some of his 
attendants to embolden him, by setting him the example 



GALEA.— OTHO.—VITELLIUS. 39 

of a voluntary death. As no one was disposed to be so 
complaisant, he drew a dagger, and applying it to his 
breast : "What a musician," said he, "the world is going 
to lose ! " Still he hesitated: at length, with the help of 
Epaphroditus, his freedman, he stabbed himself and ex- 
pired, in the thirty-first year of his age and the fourteenth 
of his reign (a.d. 68) ; the very same day (the eleventh of 
June) on which he had put his unfortunate wife Octavia to 
death, six years before. 

The family of Caesar Augustus became extinct by the 
death of Nero. St. Augustine assigns to him the first 
place in the catalogue of wicked emperors ; * an opinion 
which has been embraced by posterity : for, in the common 
judgment of men, no greater odium can be thrown on any 
prince, even on a profligate tyrant, than to call him a 
second Nero. 

GALBA.— OTHO.— VITELLirS— A. D. 6S-69. 

Galba. — Galba, that governor of Spain whom we have 
already mentioned, experienced no difficulty in causing him- 
self to be acknowledged emperor. He was of noble ex- 
traction, venerable for his age, and distinguished for his 
abilities in inferior employments. But when emperor, his 
conduct answered neither the eminence of his dignity, 
nor the public expectations. On the one hand, his excess- 
ive confidence in unworthy friends led him into many faults: 
on the other, his parsimony and severity provoked the ha- 
tred of the soldiers, and their fury rose to such a pitch that 
they stabbed him after he had reigned seven months. 

Otho. — Otho, a dissolute and ambitious man who 
had been chief leader of the conspiracy against Galba, suc- 
ceeded him upon the throne. Still, he was acknowledged 
only in the capital and in the neighboring provinces, the 
legions of Germany having about the same time declared 
their commander Vitellius emperor. The two rivals had 
recourse to arms to support their respective claims. 
Otho was successful in the beginning; but his forces were 
soon after defeated at Bedriacum, a village near Cremona 
in Lombardy, and though he had still numerous armies at 

* De Civit Dei, lib. V. c. xix. 



40 MODERN HISTOEY. 

his disposal, he killed himself after a reign of three 
months: the whole empire now declared for S^itellius. 

Vitellius. — This however was not so much owing to 
the abilities of Vitellius himself, as to the exertions of his 
generals and the bravery of his troops. His personal 
merit consisted chiefly in eating and drinking. He took 
four abundant and costly meals every day, and all coun- 
tries and seas were laid under contribution, in order to 
furnish the most exquisite game and fish for his table. No 
repast could be offered to him below the value of four hun- 
dred thousand sesterces (about ten thousand dollars); so 
that even the richest citizens were ruined by the expenses 
which his visits occasioned. Lucius Vitellius, his brother, 
gave him a dinner in which two thousand fishes and seven 
thousand birds were served up at the table. His guests 
lost their health in consequence of this excessive and un- 
interrupted good cheer, and one of them, called Vibius 
Priscus, having contracted a disease which relieved him 
from attending those fatal repasts, congratulated himself 
saying: '' I was undone, had I not fallen sick." 

The legions in the East proclaim Vespasian.— 
The sovereign power, thus degraded by so many con- 
temptible princes, at last passed into better hands. The 
legions of the East, justly indignant at seeing those of 
the West and the Prgetorians in Eome dispose of the em- 
pire at their pleasure, offered the crown to their own gener- 
al Vespasian, a man of low birth, but of remarkable talents. 
He hesitated for a time, fearing the unhappy consequences 
that might possibly happen ; at length, he yielded to the 
advice and entreaties of his friends, and was acknowl- 
edged emperor by all the eastern provinces. But the 
main object was to induce the inhabitants of Eome and 
Italy to declare in his favor. As they continued to side 
with Vitellius, Vespasian resolved to subdue them by fam- 
ine, and by stopping the convoys of provisions from 
Egypt. This was indeed a wise and prudent scheme, 
though it might have taken a long time to obtain full 
mccess ; but Antonius Primus, one of Vespasian's gener- 
als, rendered it unnecessary, by the bold and decisive meas- 
ure which he took to decide the quarrel at once. It is in- 
teresting to see how, in a few weeks, this general, full of 
ardor and activity, arrived from Illyria, surmounted all 
obstacles in his way, repeatedly defeated the Vitellian 



GALBA.— OTHO.— YITELLIUS. 41 

forces, and, pursuing his victorious career, attacked Eome 
itself, forced an entrance into that capital, and quickly 
terminated the contest by annihilating the party of 
Vitellius. 

Primus in Italy. — Primus entered Italy by the north, 
at the head of the Illyrian legions and some auxiliaries 
from Moesia. His march was rapid, and met with little 
or no resistance, till he reached the neighborhood of Cre- 
mona, where he found himself opposed by those same 
legions of Germany, whose valor had placed Vitellius on 
the throne. Two of them formed a sort of vanguard, 
while six others were yet at a distance. Primus judged 
that the success of the whole campaign depended on pre- 
venting their Junction, and fighting them separately. 
Accordingly, he took along with him four thousand 
horse, and leaving orders to the infantry to follow as 
speedily as possible, he advanced against the two legions. 
The victory was entirely his work. At the first attack, 
his soldiers, not expecting so vigorous a resistance, fled in 
disorder, notwithstanding the efforts of Primus to stop 
them. He appeared wherever there was extreme danger 
or some gleam of hope, pierced with his pike the standard- 
bearer whom he saw flying, and taking the standard in 
his own hands, turned it towards the enemy. His intre- 
pidity changed the fortunes of the day. Shame at the 
thought of abandoning so brave a general kept around 
him about a hundred horsemen, and while they sustained 
the shock, their companions also returned to the field of 
battle. The Vitellians began to waver, were routed, and 
retired into the city of Cremona. 

In the evening, all the forces of Primus were assembled. 
Animated by their first success, they asked to be led 
without delay to the attack of the town ; nor could their 
ardor be checked, until they received information that 
the six other Vitellian legions had just arrived, and were 
ready to renew the battle. Primus did not lose one in- 
stant : he arrayed his troops, placing the auxiliaries in 
front ; the legions five in number, in the centre ; the cav- 
alry on the wings and rear, and in this order waited for 
the enemy. 

The engagement became general towards nine o'clock 
at night, and notwithstanding the confusion which dark- 
ness necessarily occasioned, was carried on with a fury 



43 MODERN HISTORY. 

scarcely to be conceived. Nearly the whole night, the 
issue was doubtful, though there seemed to be some disad- 
vantage on the side of Primus, whose legions suffered 
dreadfully from the military engines of their opponents. 
The light of the rising moon began to turn the bloody 
contest in his favor. The shadows of bodies were project- 
ed towards the Vitellians, who, deceived by the appearance 
and believing the enemy to be nearer, did not throw their 
darts far enough : whereas they themselves were clearly 
discerned by their foes, who hurled their weapons with 
unerring aim.* 

No sooner could Primus distinguish objects, than he 
went through every rank, animating his troops, and with 
equal dexterity and success, he availed himself of the ris- 
ing of the sun : the soldiers of the third legion, who had 
served under Corbulo in Asia, saluted it with loud cries, 
according to the Syrian custom ; whence a rumor was 
spread, and obtained credit among the combatants, 
probably through a stratagem of Primus, that great rein- 
forcements had come to his army. The Vitellians be- 
gan to waver : Primus, perceiving this, pressed them with 
redoubled vigor, and breaking their ranks by a last ef- 
fort, put them completely to flight. 

Primus' victory at Cremona. — They were pursued 
with great slaughter, till they reached the camp that 
surrounded Oremona. In order to deprive them of this 
last resource, the victorious army resolved to attack the 
camp without delay. This, indeed, offered almost in- 
superable difficulties, as it was defended by a whole army, 
and well fortified by a ditch, a parapet, and powerful en- 
gines which threw with violence darts and stones. But 
nothing could check the ardor of the soldiers of Primus: 
they advanced towards the intrenchments with their 
shields joined and raised over their heads ; here again 
a fierce combat ensued. The assailants were exposed to 
an incessant shower of arrows and enormous stones from 
the Vitellian engines ; although wounded, bruised and 
repulsed, they renewed the attack, mounted upon each 

* Neutro inclinaverat fortuna, donee adulta nocte, luna surgens osten- 
deret acies, falleretque. Sed Flavianis aequior a tergo : hinc majores equo- 
rum virorumque umbrae, et falso, ut in corpora, ictu, tela hostium citrk 
cadebant Vitelliani adverse lumine coUucentes, velut ex occulto jaculantj- 
bus, incaut ofEerebantur. — Tacit. Histor. lib. III. n. xxiu. 



GALEA.— OTHO.—VITELLIUS. 43 

other's shoulders, wrested the swords from the hands of 
their opponents, leaped upon the ramparts, or broke 
open the gates, and rushing into the camp, filled it in 
one moment with mangled bodies and streams of blood. 

These three victories were the work of twenty-four hours, 
and the fruit of the most obstinate courage ever displayed 
by Eomans fighting against Eomans. The third legion 
distinguished itself on that occasion in a particular manner, 
and maintained its former glory. But no glory was equal 
to that acquired by Primus in these actions; he had, as it 
were, by a single blow, commenced and nearly finished the 
war, nor could the Vitellians ever regain their former as- 
cendency. The city of Cremona, struck with terror, sur- 
rendered to the victors, and having unfortunately done so 
without previous conditions, was abandoned to plunder and 
destroyed by fire. All the West began to follow the ex- 
ample of the Bast, and to declare for Vespasian; so that 
Rome and a few Italian provinces were all that now re- 
mained on the side of Vitellius, and even these but for a 
short time. 

After some transactions of minor importance, Primus 
with his victorious troops arrived before the walls of the 
capital. Here also they were vigorously opposed; a series 
of battles which were fought at the gates, afterwards in 
the streets, and finally in the praetorian camp, cost the 
lives of fifty thousand persons. In every one of them the 
soldiers of Primus conquered their opponents; the Vitel- 
lians were driven to their last posts, and, though they still 
resisted with determined courage, being overpowered by 
numbers, all fell, with their faces turned towards the 
enemy. 

Vitellius' ignominious death. — ^Vitellius, unwor- 
thy of soldiers so brave, shut himself up in a litter, and 
was carried to a house in a distant part of the town, from 
which he intended secretly to make his escape and retire 
into Campania. But either fear and restlessness of mind, 
or the hope of kind treatment from the conquerors, induced 
him to return to his palace; he found it changed into a vast 
solitude, and the apartments closed, all his officers and 
servants having fled. Weary of wandering about, he con- 
cealed himself behind a bed in the porter's room, but was 
soon discovered by a party of the victorious soldiers. Not- 
withstanding his entreaties, they led him away with his 



44 MODERN HISTORY. 

hands tied behind him, his clothes torn, and a cord about 
his neck, not one person showing him the least compassion. 
Nay, more, some were so inhuman as to prick his chin with 
their swords, to force him to raise his head and see his 
statues overthrown. He was dragged in this manner to 
the common dunghill, where they put him to death, and 
then threw his body into the Tiber. He had reigned eight 
months, reckoning from the death of Otho, who himself 
had reigned only three; so that the same year (a.d. 69) saw 
four successive emperors, viz: Galba, who died in January, 
Otho in April, Vitellius in December, and Vespasian who 
was left sole master before the end of this same montii, 

VESPASIABf.— A. D. 69-79. 

The year following (a.d. 70) was rendered famous by 
the entire overthrow of the Jews, and by the destruction 
of their nation, city and temple. 

From the time when Judea, like so many other countries 
of the East, after having been subdued by the Eomans, 
was formed into a province of the empire, the Jews always 
bore the yoke with extreme reluctance. Their desire to 
shake it off was continually increased by the tyranny and 
extortions of the Roman governors. Under Floras, the 
last governor, their patience was completely exhausted, 
and public animosity being raised to the highest pitch, 
they rose in arms in the year 66, two years before the 
death of Nero. 

Revolt of the Jews. — Their first endeavors were gen- 
erally successful. They defeated the Eomans, killed many 
of them, and repulsed Cestius Gallus, the governor of 
Syria, who had come to the assistance of Florus. But 
affairs on each side assumed a very different aspect, when 
Vespasian received from Nero the charge of prosecuting the 
war against the Jews. Under this able general, the 
Romans quickly recovered their usual superiority. Nearly 
the whole of Galilee and Judea was subdued in two cam- 
paigns, and, although the insurgents fought in many places 
with desperate valor, Vespasian drove them from their po- 
sitions, and approached Jerusalem. He then prepared to 
lay siege to this capital; but, being at that time proclaimed 
emperor, he departed for Egypt, and left to his son Titus thfc 
conduct of the war. 



VESPASIAN". 45 

Jerusalem, one of the principal cities of the East, was 
a place of very difficult access. Its high position on two 
mountains, a double, even treble enclosure of strong walls 
and towers where the approach was naturally easier, and 
many other fortifications, would have rendered it uncon- 
querable, had not the obstinacy and blindness of its inhab- 
itants forced, as it were, the justice of God to achieve their 
ruin. The Roman legions commanded by Titus encamped 
round the city towards the beginning of April, and, as 
this was about Easter, one of the principal solemnities of 
the Jews, an immense multitude of people happened thus to 
be shut up as in a prison. Their provisions were soon con- 
sumed, and famine began to exercise its ravages. More- 
over, there were in the town two or three furious factions, 
which, it is true, united their efforts to oppose the assaults 
of the Romans, but, as soon as the danger was over, quar- 
relled and fought among themselves. They did not per- 
haps let one day pass, without committing new cruelties, 
and staining with blood the streets of the city or the pave- 
ments of the temple. 

Siege of Jerusalem. — The siege lasted until Sep- 
tember, and during all that time, Titus unceasingly called 
upon the wretched inhabitants to surrender, giving them 
a full assurance of pardon. All was useless ; they defend- 
ed every inch of ground and opposed every attack with 
such obstinate fury that the besiegers sometimes despaired 
of success ; once, especially, when, after having labored for 
seventeen days to prepare battering rams and other en- 
gines of war, they could not prevent their being burnt 
and destroyed by the Jews in the space of a few hours. 
Titus himself, though he had already obtained possession 
of the first and second walls, was at a loss how to act in 
order to repair this loss. After much deliberation, he re- 
solved to change, in some particulars, his former plan of 
attack, and the soldiers as well as officers armed themselves 
with new courage for the execution of his designs. By 
his orders, they built all around the city, six miles in cir- 
cumference, a wall fortified by thirteen towers, to prevent 
the escape of the rebels and the introduction of provisions 
into the town. Through the wonderful activity of the 
Romans, the work was finished in three days. 

Famine in Jerusalem. — From that time especially, 
the famine raged most dreadfully in Jerusalem. The 



46 MODERN HISTORY. 

greater part of its inhabitants were reduced to eat such 
things as they could not behold without horror ; the leath- 
er of their shoes and shields, dried hay, withered herbs, 
were food which they would greedily devour. The sol- 
diers of each faction violently entered the houses, and visit- 
ed every corner to discover provisions. If they found any, 
they wrested them from the owners; if they found none, 
they put those unfortunate people to the rack, and made 
them suffer cruel torments, in order to force them to dis- 
close what might be concealed. Barbarity was carried so 
far as to take from the poorest among the people some herbs 
and grain which they had collected during the night out- 
side of the walls, at the risk of their lives, without leaving 
them a small part which they asked in the name of God. 
Neither women nor little children were spared, when 
found with a little food in their hands. 

And this was not done by the soldiers only. All hearts 
were steeled against the feelings of humanity and com- 
passion. Husbands would snatch meat from their wives ; 
children would wrest it from their parents ; and what al- 
most surpasses belief, mothers would deprive their little 
infants of the necessaries of life. . Nay, one of them 
went so far as to deprive of life itself her little child, in 
order to eat its flesh, and prolong her own -existence by 
that horrid sustenance. The houses seemed to be changed 
into graves, most of them being filled with dead and 
dying. The streets were strewed with so many corpses 
which blocked up the way, that an order was given by the 
chiefs of the rebels, to gather them into great heaps in 
some uninhabited buildings, or to throw them from the 
wall into the valley. More than six hundred thousand 
bodies were thus thrown, and, at one gate only, there 
were counted one hundred and sixteen thousand in the 
space of three months. As to the survivors, they resem- 
bled so many skeletons or walking ghosts : the whole city 
presented nothing but desolation and the image of death. 

When the Eomans heard these things, some would not 
believe them; others were moved to compassion; but the 
greater number, inflamed with indignation, became still 
more animated against the Jewish people than they were 
before. Titus heaved a deep sigh and called heaven to 
witness that he was not the author of such horrid miseries, 
since he had frequently, but in vain, offered a full pardon 



VESPASIAN. 47 

to the Jews if they would surrender. He therefore deter- 
mined to carry on the siege with fresh vigor, this being the 
only means to subdue those furious rebels. New and re- 
peated assaults took place, in which extraordinary efforts 
were made, and many persons killed on each side; at length, 
the Romans carried by storm the third wall with the lower 
part of the town, and entered the porticos of the temple 
and its exterior galleries, which they set on fire. 

Capture of Jerusalem by Titus. — It was the wish 
of Titus to save the temple itself; but one of the soldiers, 
says the historian Josephus, hurried on by a certain divine 
impulse, took a fire-brand, and being lifted up by another 
soldier, threw it into one of the inner rooms contiguous to 
the sanctuary. The flames immediately rose. In vain did 
the Jews endeavor to extinguish them; in vain did Titus 
also make the most strenuous efforts to stop the conflagra- 
tion: in spite of both the conqueror and the conquered, 
the fire spread with unusual rapidity. At the same time, 
the legions, fond of pillage, and enraged by the long resist- 
ance they had met with, slew all who had taken refuge in 
the temple and the galleries. The whole space was soon 
covered with dead bodies, over which the Romans advanced 
in pursuit of the Jews who fled before them, and streams of 
blood were running through the flames. The conflagration 
was so violent, and the building so extensive, that the hill 
upon which it stood seemed all on fire; while the outcries 
of an immense number of Jews prolonged by the neigh- 
boring echoes, were heard on all sides, and increased the 
horror of the scene. 

Burning of the temple. — The fatal day was come: 
that splendid temple, the most celebrated in the universe, 
and the centre of the true religion before the coming of 
Christ, was in a few hours reduced to ashes and a heap 
of ruins. It perished after a duration of six hundred 
years, and, by a striking occurrence, was consumed by fire 
m the same month and on the same day (the tenth of Au- 
gust ), on which the former temple, or temple of Solomon, 
was burnt by Nabuchodonosor, king of Babylon. 

Although the rebels still made some resistance in the 
upper part of the town, Titus found no difficulty in ex- 
pelling them from all the positions which they occupied. 
The Romans completed the reduction of Jerusalem on the 
eighth of September, and put everything to fire and sword. 



48 MODERN HISTORY. 

What the flames had spared was entirely demolished, and 
levelled with the ground: not a stone was left upon a stone 
in the whole city^ only some parts of the western wall and 
three remarkable towers were preserved, both for the sake 
of the Koman garrison which was to be left in Judea, and 
as monuments of so signal a victory. The booty, notwith- 
standing the ravages of the fire, was so great that gold lost 
half its value in the neighboring provinces. Eleven hun- 
dred thousand Jews perished during the siege; ninety- 
seven thousand were made prisoners, and condemned, some 
to hard labor, others to death; while many were sold at 
low price, and dispersed all over the earth. 

Thus were the predictions of our Lord concerning the 
utter destruction of Jerusalem, entirely fulfilled.* It was 
a manifest punishment of the crime of deicide, which the 
Jews had committed thirty-seven years before; and of the 
awful imprecation which they had uttered with one voice, 
during our Saviour's passion: " His blood be upon us, and 
upon our children.^f Titus himself, though a heathen, 
viewing all the circumstances of their disaster, the most ex- 
traordinary that ever befell a nation, confessed that he was 
only the instrument of divine vengeance. J 

This the Jews also would have acknowledged, had they 
not hardened their hearts, and shut their eyes against the 
light. During many years before the war, they were ad- 
monished of their impending calamity by prodigies more 
and more terrific. All their doctors confess that strange 
phenomena were daily seen in the temple; in so much, that 
a famous Eabbi cried out one day: " temple! temple! 
What is it that moves thee, and why art thou thus terri- 
fied?" 

In the year immediately preceding the beginning of hos- 
tilities between the Jews and Romans, on Easter-Day, a 
gate of the inner court of the temple, all of brass and so 
heavy that twenty men could scarcely move it, was opened 
of its own accord. Some weeks later, chariots and troops 
of soldiers in their armor, Avere beheld running among the 
clouds, and surrounding the cities. 

What is more striking than the noise heard in the sanct- 



* Matt. xxiv. — Mark, xiii. — Liike, xix. xxi. 

t Matt, xxvii. 25. 

X Josephus, Be hello Jud. lib VI.— Philost. vit. Apoll. Tyan. lib. VI. 



VESPASIAN. 49 

uary on the day of Pentecost, and that audible voice which 
issued from the inmost recess of that sacred place: "Let us 
go hence, let us go hence?'' The holy Angels, guardians 
of the temple, loudly declared that they were forsaking it, 
because Almighty God, who had there established his abode 
during so many ages, had now given it up to reprobation. 
Josephus * and Tacitus f have both related these prodi- 
gies, which therefore cannot be reasonably doubted. The 
following one, although mentioned by Josephus only, must 
however appear the least questionable of all, as having been 
visible to the whole people. Eour years before the war 
commenced, a certain man going up from the country to 
Jerusalem for the feast of the Tabernacles, J suddenly began 
to cry out: "a, voice from the east, a voice from the west, 
a voice from the four winds; a voice against the temple and 
against Jerusalem; a voice against all the people! " From 
that time he ceased not crying day and night: ''wo, wo to 
Jerusalem! " He redoubled his cries on the festival-days. 
No other Words fell from his lips ; those who pitied him, 
those who rebuked him, those who gave him tbe necessaries 
of life, could never obtain from him anything but this ter- 
rible sentence : " wo to Jerusalem ! " He was arrested, tried 
by the magistrates, and condemned to be scourged: at every 
question, and at every lash, he constantly answered, without 
ever complaining of his sufferings: " wo to Jerusalem! " 
Being dismissed as a madman, he ran up and down the 
whole country, incessantly repeating the same awful pre- 
diction, "wo to Jerusalem ! " For seven years he con- 
tinued to cry out in this manner without relaxation, the 
strength of his voice remaining ever the same. During the 
siege of Jerusalem, he shut himself up in the city, going 
incessantly round the walls, and crying with all his might: 
"wo to the temple! wo to the city! wo to all the people! " 
at last he added, " wo to myself! " and was immediately car- 
ried off by a stone shot from an engine; thus having been, 
at the sarae time, a prophet, a witness, and a visible proof 
of the divine vengeance lying heavy upon his whole nation. 



* Josephus, De hello Judaico, lib. VI. 

t Tacitus, histor. lib. V. n, xiii, 

t Thus called, from the custom of the Jews to make on that feast taber- v 
nacles or tents as a memorial of their having dwelt under tents for fortv ^ 
years m the desert. 

4 



50 MODERN HISTORY. 

Titus' triumph in Rome. — Shortly after the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem, Titus repaired by land to Alexandria, 
and thence by sea to Kome. The emperor, his father, went 
forward from the city to meet him; and they enjoyed to- 
gether, the honors of a magnificent triumph, for the suc- 
cessful conclusion of the Jewish war. 

Character of Vespasian. — The reign of Vespasian 
henceforward passed in peace. This wise prince restored 
the empire to its ancient splendor. He respected the laws, 
and caused them to be respected by others; enforced the 
rules of military discipline; prevented or punished oppres- 
sion ; encouraged virtue and talents. The luxury of the 
Eoman tables was an inveterate evil, and stronger than all 
laws: Vespasian checked it by his example, private indi- 
viduals being ashamed to indulge in extravagant expenses, 
while their emperor declared himself a lover of plainness 
and simplicity. Whatever savored of effeminacy, so high- 
ly displeased him, that being one day accosted by a young 
man strongly perfumed, who came to thank him for a pre- 
ferment which he had lately obtained; " I had rather you 
smelt of garlic," said Vespasian, with a stern and contemp- 
tuous look; and immediately revoked his commission. 

He was also very careful to procure a right and speedy 
administration of justice. The pleadings frequently took 
place before him; his tribunal was public, and his judg- 
ments obtained almost general approbation. Being not 
less beneficent than just, the disasters which Kome and 
other cities experienced, were the objects of his solicitude. 
Amiable and cheerful with his friends, merciful to his 
enemies, good, humane and affable to all, he gave free ac- 
cess to his palace, the gates of which were constantly open; 
and he was seen to shed tears over criminals whom he 
could not save from punishment. 

On one occasion only, his usual clemency' disappeared. 
A certain Sabinus had assumed in Gaul the title of Caesar; 
being defeated towards the beginning of Vespasian's reign, 
and having remained for several years concealed in a cav- 
ern, he was at length discovered and brought to Eome. 
Eponina, his wife, who had never abandoned him, threw 
herself at the emperor's feet, and by her supplications and 
tears, endeavored to excite his compassion. Vespasian was 
indeed, moved with pity, and even sensibly affected; but 
his emotion yielded to the severity of his political princi- 




ARCH OP TITUS. 



VESPASIAI^. 51 

pies, and both Eponina and Sabinus were condemned to 
death. No one knew the motives of a rigor so unneces- 
sary, at least in appearance, and which leaves a blot on 
the memory of so good an emperor. 

He is also accused of too great love of money. The charge 
may be true in some respects; but we ought not to forget 
that Vespasian ever made a noble and generous use of his 
revenues. Besides other instances of his liberality, some 
of which have, been already mentioned, he was the first who 
gave pensions to the professors of Greek and Latin elo- 
quence at Rome. He attracted to that city the best schol- 
ars, and the ablest workmen of the time, without however 
disregarding those of inferior merit and hurting their in- 
terests. One of the former, an excellent machinist, having 
offered to transport heavy burdens at a small expense by 
machines of his invention, the emperor rewarded him well 
for the offer, but would not make use of it; *' for," said he, 
"we must not deprive the poor of their means of subsist- 
ence." 

Vespasian's death. — It was by such amiable qualities, 
and by repeated acts of a good government, that Vespasian 
deserved the title of father of his country, which was con- 
ferred on him nearly in the same manner as it had been on 
Augustus. Though advanced in age, he continued to ad- 
minister the public affairs to the end of his life, and gave 
audience even in his last sickness. He was however sensi- 
ble of the danger of his situation, and said one day: "It 
Seems to me I am going to become a god; " thus deriding, 
in an ingenious manner, the apotheosis which would fol- 
low his death. "When he felt that he had but few mo- 
ments to live,. he was heard to say: "It is proper that 
an emperor should die standing: " and, making an effort 
to rise, he expired in the arms of those who supported 
him, in the seventieth year of his life and tenth of his 
reign (a.d. 79). 

Under him was made the last census of the Roman citi- 
zens. In Italy alone there were found, according to 
Pliny, fifty-four persons at least a hundred years old. 
Ten had reached the age of one hundred and twenty-five 
or thirty years, three the age of one hundred and forty, 
and two that of one hundred and fifty. 



52 MODERN HISTORY. 



TIXrS.—A.D. 79-81. 

Vespasian was succeeded by his elder son Titus, a 
most excellent prince, whose eulogium is comprised in the 
appellation of the Delight of Mankind, amor et delicim hu- 
mani generis, under which he is known. From the time 
of his accession to the throne, nothing appeared in him 
but a wonderful generosity and benevolence, from which 
his very bitterest enemies were not excluded. Two pa- 
tricians being convicted of a conspiracy against him, he 
granted them a full pardon and was so kind as to send a 
messenger to the mother of one of them, to assure her 
that her son had nothing to fear from his resentment. 
Moreover, he invited the two guilty persons to sup with 
him, and on the following day, at an exhibition of gladia- 
tors, made them sit by his side, and hold for some time 
the arms of the combatants, which were brought to him 
according to custom. 

Titus nover sent away any person discontented, never, 
at least, without some hope and consolation ; saying that 
no one should go sorrowful from his prince. Every one 
knows in what manner he once expressed his regret at 
having let a day pass without doing some good office; 
'* My friends," said he, ''' I have lost a day; " an expression 
worthy of being transmitted to the latest posterity, and 
infinitely more glorious than all the victories of Alexander 
and Julius Oassar. 

Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii.— The 
manifold disasters and calamitous events which happened 
during the reign of Titus, afforded him continual oppor- 
tunities to display his beneficence. The most dreadful 
of those visitations was an eruption of Mount Vesuvius 
in Italy. Even the mere forerunners of it were terrific: 
a violent earthquake, subterraneous sounds like thunder, 
the soil burning, the sea foaming, the heavens in a blaze ; 
all was calculated to fill every bosom with dread and con- 
sternation. Then, for three days, the volcano belched 
forth with terrific violence so great a quantity of hot 
ashes, large stones, and lurid flame, that the day was ob- 
scured, the sun was darkened, and the world seemed to be 
returning to its pristine chaos. 

Pliny the elder suffocated. — Pliny the naturalist, 
or the elder, one of the most learned and laborious writers 



TITUS. 53 

of antiquity, was at that time the commander of the Ro- 
man fleet at Misenum, a promontory at the distance of 
twenty or twenty-five miles from Mount Vesuvius. He 
saw the beginning of the eruption, without knowing ex- 
actly what it was. Desirous to have a near view of the 
phenomenon, he advanced on board a galley towards the 
volcano. Having landed, he found everything in strange 
confusion, a new promontory formed by the violence of 
the earthquake, and numbers of people flying on all sides, 
for the purpose of avoiding the continual eruption of 
stones, ashes and smoke from the volcano. He himself, 
notwithstanding his intrepidity, wished after a short stay, 
to return to his ship. It was too late : before he could 
reembark, there burst forth a sulphurous vapor accompa- 
nied with flames ; all ran from the imminent danger; but 
Pliny, having a weak breast, could not resist the suffocat- 
ing exhalation, and fell dead on the spot. His body was 
found two days after, without any external injury. 

Flight of Pliny the younger. — In the meanwhile, 
Pliny the younger, afterwards so famous for his eloquence, 
was with his mother at Misenum, in their dwelling near 
the sea. Though it was far from the volcano, they saw 
themselves exposed, with the other inhabitants of the 
town, to great perils from the violence of the earthquake, 
and the clouds of smoke and ashes, which were carried to 
a great distance in different directions. Pliny^s mother 
exhorted him to save his life by flight, saying that her ad- 
vanced age and infirmities did not permit her to make her 
escape. But Pliny would never consent to the separation; 
she was prevailed upon to follow him, and they went to- 
gether, accompanied by a great crowd of people. The day 
was changed into the darkest night; nothing guided their 
trembling steps, except the dismal flames which from 
time to time flickered on the top of the mountain. They 
were frequently covered with ashes; even the flame seemed 
to advance towards them; it did not however reach them, 
and they had the good fortune to escape. 

Fire and plague in Rome. — When the eruption was 
over, the surrounding country presented a scene of deso- 
lation. The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were 
buried under heaps of ashes, and remained so for more 
than sixteen hundred years, until the last century, when 
the people of that country, while engaged in digging 



54 MODEKN HISTORY. 

wells and quarries, discovered them at the depth of many 
feet beneath the surface. Temples and other buildings 
have been found there, with statues, inscriptions, vessels, 
even fruits, olives, wheat and bread, preserved in the 
cement and lava which covered them at the time of the 
eruption. The volcanic substances with which the whole 
country was now overspread, occasioned so dreadful a pes- 
tilence throughout Italy, that in Rome it carried oif ten 
thousand persons every day for a considerable space of 
time. Finally, a terrible conflagration added its ravages 
to those caused by the pestilence, and consumed some of 
the finest quarters of that city. 

Amidst so many disasters, Titus not only acted the 
part of a good prince, but also evinced the affection of a 
tender father for his distressed children. In order to re- 
pair, as far as possible, both public and private losses, he 
spared neither the treasure of the empire, nor his own 
money. He parted even with his jewels and the orna- 
ments of his palace, to afford the sufferers every allevia- 
tion in his power. Unfortunately he reigned only two 
years, and died at the age of forty-one (a.d. 81). Many 
believed that his death had been procured, or at least ac- 
celerated by his wicked brother Domitian. It was so gen- 
erally and so deeply lamented, not only in Eome, but also 
in the provinces, that each family seemed to have lost a 
son or a father. 

DOMITIAIV.— A.D. Sl-96. 

It is scarcely possible to find a more striking contrast 
in the character and dispositions of two successive princes, 
than is presented by Titus and Domitian. The new 
emperor, far from imitating the virtues of his deceased 
brother, abandoned himself to the most degrading ex- 
cesses. He was careful, however, to conceal his wicked- 
ness, until he had, like other tyrants, confirmed his 
authority among the people, by several acts of Justice and 
a prudent management of public affairs. 

Agricola. — The first and most distinguished per- 
sonage who had to suffer from his suspicious policy, was 
Julius Agricola, the Eoman governor of Great Britain. 
This illustrious man had completed the subjugation of 



DOMITIAN. 55 

that country,* more by mildness and prudence than by 
the terror of his arms. He continued to govern it with 
great honor, when Domitian, jealous of his glory, recalled 
him to Rome, and repaid his eminent services with 
coldness and ingratitude. Agricola, for fear of giving 
umbrage to the tyrant, withdrew from public life. He 
died some years after, excluded from dignities and public 
employments, but preserving pure and entire the fame of 
his talents and virtue. His life was written by his son-in-/ 
law, Tacitus, in a manner which does honor to both the 
conqueror and the historian. 

Most of the other wars during Domitian's reign, those 
especially which he conducted in person, proved unsuc- 
cessful : he was defeated by the Germans ; concluded a 
disgraceful peace with the Dacians ; and yet had the im- 
pudence to boast in Rome of his pretended exploits, for 
which he caused a triumph to be decreed. His only 
victories were over helpless insects ;• he frequently shut 
himself in his chamber, and spent his time in killing flies 
with a sharp bodkin. Hence a certain Vibius Crispus 
being asked if any one was with the emperor, aptly re- 
plied : ''Not so much as a fly." 

Second Persecution of Christians. — Under this ca- 
pricious tyrant, capital punishments were renewed, for a 
variety of pretexts, against the first personages of the 
state. Nor were pretexts ever wanted. To be rich, or 
of noble extraction, was a crime. An equal danger 
awaited those who enjoyed honors, and those who en- 
joyed them not ; above all, conspicuous virtue and merit 
almost infallibly proved the ruin of their possessors : this 
was the case particularly with Christians. Domitian ex- 
cited against them the second general persecution, in 
which he spared neither his own relations, nor the ad- 
vanced age of St. John the Evangelist. This venerablev 
apostle was brought from Ephesus to Rome, and plunged 
into a caldron of boiling oil, from which he came forth i 
unhurt, and even stronger than before, f The emperor 
then banished him to the small island of Patmos in 
the Archipelago, where the holy apostle wrote his 



* Not including Scotland, which never was entirely subdued ; much less 
Ireland, which was not even attacked by the Romans, 
t TertuUian, De praescript c. 36. — St. Jerom, lib. advers. Jovinianum. 



50 MODEEN HISTOET. 

Apocalypse, or Book of Kevelations. After the death of 
Domitian, he returned to Ephesus, wrote his Gospel at 
the request of the bishops of Asia, and died towards the 
end of the first century, being nearly a hundred years old. 

Cruelties of Domitian. — Not less impious than wick- 
ed, Domitian wished, after the example of Caligula, to 
be considered and honored as a god ; to have temples 
erected in his honor, and victims sacrificed to his statue. 
Next to this arrogant and sacrilegious pride, refined cruelty 
seemed to be his predominant characteristic; he took 
pleasure in making people suffer, and in feasting his eyes 
with the sight of their torments. Not satisfied with put- 
ting to death a multitude of senators, he resolved to 
frighten the others, and for this purpose, he contrived a 
scheme worthy of a tyrant. He invited them to supper, 
and as they arrived had them conducted from the gate of 
the palace to an apartment hung with black, where every- 
thing presented the image of death. By the glimmer of 
melancholy lamps, they perceived as many coffins as there 
were guests, with the name of each inscribed in large char- 
acters. A number of boys, whose skins were darkened, 
danced around the room; in the meanwhile, a mournful si- 
lence, interrupted only by Domitian reigned in the assem- 
bly, and every one believed that his last hour was come. 
When their terror was at its height, the emperor dismissed 
them all with presents. 

Domitian, by such scenes, was perhaps desirous to make 
others feel the excruciating anguish of mind which he 
himself experienced. Everything gave him offence; and 
he was continually tormented with the fear of being sur- 
rounded by assassins. He had the gallery in which he 
usually walked, overlaid with stones which reflected objects 
like a mirror, that he might see those who should attempt 
to attack him from behind. He entertained unceasing ap- 
prehensions, especially, it is said, of a certain day (the eigh- 
teenth of September), and of a certain hour of that day 
(eleven o'clock in the morning). But neither his appre- 
hensions, nor the precautions which he took to screen 
himself from danger, were able to prolong his life: that 
very day and hour, he was murdered in his apartment by 
some officers of the palace, who either knew that their 
own death had been decreed by him, or otherwise dreaded 
the effects of his resentment. Some historians relate that 



i 



NERVA. 57 

he had been forewarned of the impending evil; and also 
that the famous magician, Apollonius Tyanensis, who was 
then at Ephesus, knew the emperor's death at the moment 
it happened, and announced it in these words: "Strike, 
strike the tyrant." But this account seems rather uncer- 
tain. 

Many have drawn a parallel between Domitian and Nero; 
but a more exact comparison might be made between the 
former and Tiberius, whose sullenness of temper, malice, 
cruelty and dissimulation, he possessed in a high degree, 
as Tillemont justly observes.* He died in the sixteenth 
year of his reign, and the forty-fifth of his life (a. d. 96), 
and was the last of those emperors who have been called the 
Twelve Oassars, 

BTERVA 96-9§. TRAJAN 98-117. 

Reign of Nerva. — Nerva, a venerable old man, was 
unanimously proclaimed emperor by the army, the senate, 
and the people. During his reign of only sixteen months, 
though not always successful, he did much good by his 
personal exertions, and still more efficaciously promoted 
the interests of the empire, by the selection of Trajan for 
his colleague and successor. He died shortly after (a. d. 
98). 

Trajan's character. — Trajan was a native of Italica 
or Seville in Spain, and belonged to a family more ancient 
than illustrious. Possessed of an excellent constitution, 
an engaging and noble countenance, and great experience 
added to his natural abilities, he was moreover m that 
maturity of age which is so desirable for the government 
of a vast empire. He received the news of his election 
while commanding the Roman troops in Germany: this 
produced no change in his character and conduct. He 
sincerely believed and publicly declared himself xo be not 
less bound than the lowest citizen to observe the laws. 
Other emperors had used the same language; but what 
Trajan promised to be, tJud he in reality was. He seemed 
to retain his rank for the sole purpose of preventing an- 
archy, and, whenever his prerogatives clashed with the 
true interest of the people, he diminished them without 
hesitation. Hence the surname of Optimus was given him 
by unanimous consent. 

*Hi$toire des Empereurs, vol. TJ^p.Gi. 



58 MODERN HISTORY. 

His public works. — He carefully attended both to 
the embellishment of the capital and to improving the 
provinces. In Rome, the famous Trajan Square and Col- 
umn; in Pannonia, a bridge, more than three thousand 
feet long, thrown over the Danube; a road uniting, as it 
were the two extremities of the empire, and extending from 
Gaul as far as the Euxine sea; and many other public works 
and buildings, were striking instances of the grandeur of 
his views. 

Fully convinced that haughtiness conciliates neither af- 
fection nor esteem, and that condescension can be well al- 
lied to dignity, he lived with his people, not as a monarch 
with his subjects, but like a father in the midst of beloved 
children. His palace was open to persons of all conditions; 
he listened with patience, corrected with gentleness, and, 
like Titus, wished no one to go discontented from his pre- 
sence. As his friends one day represented to him that he 
carried indulgence and kindness too far; " I must,^' an- 
swered he " behave towards every one, as I desired that an 
emperor should behave towards me, when I was a private 
citizen." 

With regard to military talents, Trajan was, beyond 
comparison, the greatest commander of his age, and equal 
to the most illustrious generals of antiquity. Vigilant 
and indefatigable, he marched on foot, even when em- 
peror, at the head of his troops, and in this manner passed 
over vast tracts of country, without using horse or char- 
iot. Equally attentive to reward noble actions and main- 
tain strict discipline, he constantly encouraged both by 
his own example. 

Campaign in Dacia and the East. — So great 
a prince easily revived the warlike spirit of the Roman 
legions. He led them first against the Dacians, and tri- 
umphed twice over their king Decebalus, who had imposed 
a sort of tribute on Domitian. Passing afterwards into 
Asia, he subdued Assyria, Mesopotamia, and other coun- 
tries the names of which were before unknown at Rome. 
These conquests however proved more brilliant than solid: 
the new subjects of the empire availed themselves of the 
first opportunity to shake off the yoke. Trajan himself 
beheld the first success of their efforts, and was unable to 
check it, either for want of time, or on account of other 
obstacles. He died at Selinontes in Cilicia, whilst on his 



NERVA. 59 

journey to Kome, after having reigned nearly twenty years 
(A.D. 117). 

No Roman emperor left a greater reputation for 
princely ability and goodness. For a long time after his 
death, the best wish that the Eomans believed they could 
offer to any new emperor, was that he should be happier 
even than Caesar Augustus, and better than Trajan. His 
goodness however did not extend to the Christians, who 
were again persecuted under his reign. Moreover, his 
private life was far from being blameless: on the contrary, 
his intemperance and infamous debaucheries, together with 
many other instances of the same kind, show well what 
we must think in general of the greatest men that pagan- 
ism produced, even those who have been most admired for 
their virtues. 

Tacitus and Pliny. — Besides Quintillian and Juve- 
nal, who flourished about this time, the most celebrated 
writers that lived under Trajan, were Tacitus the histo- 
rian, and Pliny the Younger. Both of them were raised 
to eminent dignities, and yet acquired less glory from 
their high station than from their integrity and eloquence. 
They frequently pleaded at the bar, and were always ad- 
mired; Tacitus, for the gravity and nobleness of his dic- 
tion; Pliny, for his elegance and facility, which were so 
great that he could speak five or six hours in succession, 
without fatiguing any one but himself. He has left 
ten books of Letters, and a Panegyric of Trajan, The 
writings of Tacitus consist chiefly of Histories and An- 
nals relating to the first emperors of Eome; several books 
of his works are lost, to the great detriment of Latin lit- 
erature. 

Tacitus and Pliny, instead of entertaining any feeling 
of jealousy against each other, were, on the contrary, sin- 
cere and intimate friends. Public opinion made no dis- 
tinction between them, and in social intercourse, the 
name of the one could scarcely be mentioned without the 
name of the other. It once happened that Tacitus, being 
at a public game, had a long conversation on literary mat- 
ters with a foreigner sitting by his side, and who did not 
know him personally. At last, the foreigner asked him 
who he was. " You know me," said Tacitus, ^'from my 
writings." "Then you are Tacitus or Pliny," said the 
stranger; showing by that sudden reply, that the mere 



60 MODERN HISTORY. 

mention of literature was associated, at that epoch, with 
the names of these two illustrious writers and friends. 

In their time, a young boy, called Valerius Pudens, 
obtained, at the age of thirteen, the premium of poetry 
at the Capitolian games (a.d. 106). 

HADRIAN.— A.D. liy-13§. 

Wise policy of Hadrian. — Like Trajan, Hadrian, 
his nephew and successor, united with a wretched life in 
private, great abilities for government; but his conduct 
was far diflPerent from that of his predecessor. Being as 
great a lover of peace as Trajan had been of military glory, 
he reduced the Roman dominions to their former limits, 
and abandoned all the conquests lately made in countries 
situated beyond the river Euphrates. His utmost care, 
during the whole of his reign, was to preserve peace with 
the neighboring nations. 

To obtain this desired end, he employed two principal 
means. The first, rather an impolitic one, was to induce, 
by considerable presents, the tribes of Pannonia and Ger- 
many not to attack the empire. The second, much more 
worthy of a great prince, was to keep the troops always in 
good order, and ever ready to oppose and defeat every at- 
tempt of invasion. For that purpose he took upon him- 
self the task of visitiug all the camps of the legions scat- 
tered throughout the empire, in order to examine in what 
manner discipline was everywhere observed, and what was 
the state of the arms, engines of war, fortifications, am- 
munition, and, in a word, of everything connected with 
the military department. 

During these visits, the emperor required that an ac- 
count should be given him of the conduct of the officers 
and soldiers; which being done, he appropriately distrib- 
uted praises and reproaches, rewards and punishments; 
and, in the appointment of military offices, granted noth- 
ing to favor, but everything to virtue, merit and experi- 
ence. He animated the military exercises by his vigilance, 
his presence, his example. He suppressed with inexorable 
severity whatever promoted or favored effeminacy among 
the troops, and showed in his own person a perfect pattern 
of military discipline, living with the soldiers as one of 
them, using the most common food, wearing a plain dress 



HADKIAN. 61 

and carrying heary arms, braving the inconyeniences of 
the various climes and seasons, and walking, with his 
head uncovered, through the snow of the Alps, as well as 
through the burning sands of Africa. 

By these eflBcacious means, Hadrian revived the strict- 
ness of ancient discipline among the troops, making him- 
self however very dear to them by his kindness, affability 
and opportune favors. He paid great attention to the wel- 
fare of the soldiers, especially of those advanced in years, 
whom he honorably dismissed in due time, and of those 
who were sick, whom he was accustomed to visit in their 
tents or lodgings. 

The civil affairs were not less carefully attended to by 
Hadrian. It was one of his maxims, that an emperor 
ought to be like the sun, which by its regular course illumi- 
nates and vivifies all the regions of the earth. He spent 
many years in travelling through the various provinces of 
the empire, reforming abuses, redressing grievances, ap- 
pointing good governors, and inflicting punishments on 
those who had abused their power. He likewise, by his 
own example and assiduity, improved and facilitated the 
administration of justice, having for this purpose caused 
a collection to be made of the best ancient laws, and him- 
self having enacted wise statutes against fraudulent bank- 
rupts and a variety of other evil-doers. 

His conduct towards the senate was habitually full of 
deference and respect; towards the people, condescending 
but firm; towards the allies and subjects of the empire, 
kind and liberal. He remitted the whole sum due to the 
exchequer (nine hundred millions of sesterces, nearly 
twenty-five millions of dollars), and publicly burnt all the 
books and records which might afterwards be produced to 
revive that debt. This action of Hadrian did him great 
honor, and was justly celebrated by inscriptions and mon- 
uments. On the whole, although his government proved 
fatal to some illustrious persons whom he harassed and 
persecuted, it was highly beneficial to the state. On 
many particular occasions the emperor manifested a won- 
derful clemency, and regard for truth. One day a poor 
woman cried out to him; " Caesar, hear me and give me 
justice. '' Hadrian having answered that he had no time; 
**Why, then, are you our emperor?" asked the woman- 
The prince was struck, but not offended by this bold ques- 



62 MODERN HISTOEY. 

tion; he stopped, and listened to her complaints. How- 
ever, he took care not to be imposed upon by artful peti- 
tioners. A gray-headed man asked him a favor which 
was refused. Some time after, the same man applied 
again to Hadrian for the same purpose, with his hair 
blackened. The emperor pretended not to recognize him, 
and coolly dismissed him, saying: "What you ask, I 
have already refused to your father. ^^ 

Hadrian had remarkable talents and a very extensive 
knowledge. He was well versed in mathematics, history, 
natural philosophy, etc., and deserved to be considered one 
of the best grammarians, orators and poets of the age. 
His mind was acute and sagacious; he could at the same 
time write, dictate to a secretary, give audience to and con- 
verse with his friends. His memory also was astonishing. 
He remembered everything that he had seen or read, and 
forgot neither the nature of the affairs which passed through 
his hands, nor the places in which he had been, nor the 
names of the persons with whom he had conversed. After 
reading a book, he could repeat it from beginning to end; 
nay, if a list of names confusedly mixed together was recit- 
ed to him, he would repeat them all without. a mistake.* 

Public buildings erected under Hadrian. — His 
genius was not less elevated than extensive, and always 
prompted him to undertake great things for the splendor 
and utility of the state. No prince seems to have surpassed 
him in the number and magnificence of public buildings. 
Such were, in Eome, the bridge and castle now called St. 
Angelo; in Asia, the new city of Jerusalem; in Great Britain, 
a wall eighty miles long and extending from sea to sea, to 
protect the Eoman colonies against the attacks of the Scots; 
and in Gaul, the splendid amphitheatre of Nismes, which 
however is ascribed by some to the emperor Antoninus Pius, 
who derived his pedigree from that city. 

Revolt of the Jews. — The tranquillity of Hadrian's 
reign was disturbed only by a revolt of the Jews. Many 
of this infatuated people had already perished under Trajan 
for the same cause. Being checked for a time, but not 
subdued, they again rose in arms and committed horrid 
cruelties in Syria and Palestine, under the conduct of a 
certain Barcochebas, who called himself the Messiah; for, 

* See Spartian, Dion Cassius and Aurelius Victor, apud Crevier, Histoire 
des Empereurs Romains, vol. VIII. p. 63. 



HADKIAN. 63 

after having rejected the true Messiah in the person of our 
Saviour, the Jews were easily led to follow impostors. 
Their rebellious obstinacy obtained, as it merited, a total and 
irreparable overthrow. Hadrian sent against them numer- 
ous troops under the command of Tinnius Rufus and Julius 
Severus, two able officers, who greatly distinguished them- 
selves in this war. 

The forces of the rebels were so formidable, and their 
valor so great, that the Roman generals did not think 
proper to engage them in regular battle. They had re- 
course to a war of skirmishes and detached parties, hunting 
the Jews as they would wild beasts, and pursuing them to 
death in every part of the country. This manner of war- 
fare proved so successful to the Romans, that, within the 
space of three years (from a.d. 134 to 136), they took and 
destroyed nine hundred and eighty-five towns, besides fifty 
fortresses. In these partial engagements, five hundred and 
eighty thousand Jews perished by the sword only; it was 
impossible to tell the number of those who fell victims to 
fire, sickness, or starvation. All who escaped death were 
dispersed throughout the empire, and sold in public fairs 
like horses and cattle. In no country were they subse- 
quently greater strangers than in Judea, and particularly 
in Jerusalem, which was rebuilt shortly after under the 
name of ^lia Capitolina; they were forbidden not only to 
dwell in it, but even to approach within three miles of its 
walls. 

Dispersion of the Jews. — From that time the Jews 
have been scattered through the various parts of the 
globe, without any country belonging to them; without 
kings and princes of their own descent; without laws and 
magistrates of their own; mingled, but not confounded 
with other nations; flattering themselves with the vain ex- 
pectation of a future Messiah, while from the very words 
of their sacred records. He must have appeared upon earth 
nineteen hundred years ago. From that time we see them 
exposed, during the long course of ages, to numberless 
disasters and calamities, but always preserved by the 
mighty hand of God, tliat they may ever continue visible 
examples of His justice, and unexceptionable witnesses 
to the truth of the Ancient Scriptures, in which we read 
alike our claims and their condemnation. 

Death of Hadrian. — Hadrian did not long survive the 
conclusion of the second Jewish war : being attacked with 



64 MODERN HISTORY. 

the dropsy, and tormented by violent pains, he wished to 
end his life by the sword or by poison; but the constant vig- 
ilance and care of his adopted son Antoninus prevented the 
deed. He then vented his fury against several members of 
the senate, whom he condemned, without any legal cause, to 
capital punishment: but these also Antoninus saved from 
death, by telling them to conceal themselves. Hadrian, 
however, still continued to take part in the affairs of the 
state. At length, he retired from Rome to Baia in Cam- 
pania, where he observed no regimen, ate and drank what- 
ever pleased him without any regard to his condition, re- 
marking that " the multitude of physicians had killed the 
emperor." He died at the age of sixty-two, after a reign 
of twenty-one years (a.d. 138). As he had, towards the 
end of his life, rendered himself odious to the senate, it 
was with great difficulty that Antoninus obtained for him 
the usual honors which attended imperial obsequies. 

The truth is Hadrian neither deserved much regret, on 
account of his many private vices and some acts of tyr- 
anny, nor on the other hand did he merit the violent re- 
sentment of the senate, considering the habitual mildness, 
wisdom and prosperity of his government. It is highly 
probable that his memory would have obtained greater 
praise, had he been the immediate successor of Domitian. 
It was an unfavorable circumstance for his public char- 
acter, that he came to the throne after Nerva and Trajan, 
and immediately before Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurel- 
ius, the most excellent emperors of pagan Eome. 

Although literature was not so flourishing under Hadrian 
as it had been during the two preceding centuries, still it 
produced some celebrated writers, viz. , the Latin historians 
Justin and Suetonius; the Greek historians Arrian and Plu- 
tarch, and the renowned philosopher Epictetus. Hadrian 
himself wrote on different subjects, and even on his death- 
bed composed verses expressing his conviction of the im- 
mortality of the soul, and the fears which he entertained 
respecting his future destiny. 

ANTOKIWUS PIUS.— A.D. 1»S-161. 

The family of Antoninus was originally from Gaul, but 
he himself was a native of Italy and fifty-two years old 
when he ascended the throne. Being chosen by the late 



ANTONINUS PIUS. 65 

emperor to be his successor, he proved himself in every 
respect worthy of this exalted station. When the demise 
of Hadrian put him in possession of the sovereign power, 
the whole empire seemed to be exulting with joy; nor did 
this extraordinary esteem entertained for Antoninus suffer 
any diminution during a reign of more than twenty-two 
years. The surname of Pius was given him, to perpetuate 
the remembrance of his tender affection for his adopted 
father, his family, and all his subjects. What he had 
hitherto been in private life and in inferior employments, 
that he continued to be when seated on the imperial throne; 
mild, generous, affable, listening with patience to every 
one, granting all that was reasonable and just, and return- 
ing good offices for insults and ingratitude. 

Character of Antoninus Pius. — Thus when, on occa- 
sion of a conspiracy which was happily detected, he could 
not rescue its authors from the rigor of the law, he at least 
put a stop to all inquiries about their accomplices. "I 
would not," said he, "begin my government with acts of 
severity;" adding, with a smile: " It would be both dis- 
honorable and unpleasant to me, to find, upon inquiry, that 
I was hated by a number of my fellow-citizens." The son 
of one of the chief conspirators not only was not involved 
in his father's punishment, but, on the contrary, always 
found in the emperor a protector and a friend. This clem- 
ency of Antoninus, like that of Augustus, produced an ex- 
cellent effect, and no more conspiracies were formed against 
a prince who revenged himself in so noble a manner. 

The same kindness and generosity appeared in his con- 
duct towards a Grecian philosopher, by whom he had been 
shamefully offended. When he was proconsul of Asia 
Minor, being at Smyrna, he took his lodging in the house 
of this man, called Polemon, who then happened to be ab- 
sent. Upon his return home, Polemon, instead of finding 
himself much honored, was highly displeased at seeing his 
house occupied by the proconsul. He began to utter loud 
complaints, and went so far as to oblige him, in the middle 
of the night, to seek another lodging. This was a crying 
insult; yet Antoninus never thought of punishing it other- 
wise than by innocent raillery. When Polemon afterwards 
came to Eome, he received him kindly, and ordered an 
apartment to be provided for him in the palace, saying with 
a cheerful voice: '^Let no one be so bold as to expel such a 

5 



66 MODERN HISTORY. 

guest^ even during the day. " A comedian having also com- 
plained that the same Polemon had driven him from the 
stage — "■ At what hour," asked the emperor, " did this hap- 
pen? " "At mid-day," answered the comedian. "Why! " 
exclaimed Antoninus, "he once expelled me from his house 
at midnight, and I bore it patiently." 

Many other instances might be adduced of his surprising 
meekness; it always rose superior to injuries and affronts, 
yet n€ver degenerated into weakness. He employed rigor 
against guilty persons, whenever good order and necessity 
required; but then, not to offer, in such circumstances, too 
much violence to the benevolent inclination of his heart, 
he found out such expedients for moderating that rigor, 
as could not by their example be prejudicial to the commu^ 
nity. Thus, for instance, a senator having been convicted 
of parricide, as it was not possible to save the life of such 
a monster, the emperor, not to be shocked by the sight of 
his punishment, caused him to be transported to a barren 
island, where he might perish by hunger and misery. 

A friend of peace. — Antoninus, both from taste and re- 
flection, was a constant friend of peace. He often repeated 
this saying of Scipio: "I like better to preserve one citizen, 
than to kill a thousand enemies." He generally had the 
satisfaction of enjoying the tranquillity which he so much 
desired ; and, not being distracted by the cares of war, he 
applied himself entirely to the promotion of public and 
private happiness. His attention was constantly occupied 
in governing the state, as a good and diligent father gov- 
erns his children and household. Far from making ex- 
actions, he obliged his intendants, under severe penalties, 
to levy the taxes with moderation. To the many calamitous 
events which happened during his reign, he applied all tht* 
remedies in his power, and showed in numberless instance!* - 
that he had nothing so much at heart, as to lighten tht 
burden of his people. 

His favorable disposition towards Christians.— 
This excellent prince was also favorably inclined towards thfo 
Christians, so much exposed at that time to public hatred. 
The prejudices of the pagan world against their religion, 
and the calumnies with which they were blackened, rjon- 
tinually raised storms against them, and, even unde», the 
best princes, led many of them to martyrdom. No a ^jner 
was Antoninus, through the eloquent apology of St. Jus- 



I 



ANTONINUS PIUS. 67 

tin and other documents, well informed of their innocence, 
than he endeavored to shelter them from the blind fury 
of the populace, and from the injustice of magistrates 
and governors. In a rescript directed to those of Asia 
Minor, he took the part of the persecuted, extolled their 
fidelity to God, their courage in suffering death, and turned 
his praises of their virtues into reproaches against the vices 
of their persecutors. He concluded the rescript by declar- 
ing that the Christian name was by no means a just cause 
of condemnation, and that, if any were brought before the 
courts upon no other charge, they ought to be acquitted, 
and their accusers punished. 

The benefits arising from so excellent a government, 
were not confined to the Eomans and subjects of the empire: 
the reputation of Antoninus for justice, impartiality and 
wisdom, gained him a degree of authority and influence 
over the neighboring nations, which he never would have 
obtained by force of arms. Foreign princes came to pay 
him homage in Kome; the Indians, the Bactrians, the Hyr- 
canians, testified their respect for him by solemn embassies. 
He prevented by letters the Parthian king from invading 
Armenia; and the very barbarians near the frontiers fre- 
quently chose him as an umpire to settle their claims and 
differences. 

His death. — It was in these noble occupations that 
Antoninus spent the whole of his reign, the blessings of 
which he completed by the appointment of Marcus-Aurelius 
for his successor. After a short illness, he died a tranquil 
death, at the age of seventy-three years (a.d. 161), leaving 
a name so dear to the Eomans, that, for nearly a century, 
all his successors added it to their own names: it seemed 
as if it were impossible for either the soldiers or the citi- 
zens to acknowledge as emperor any one who should not 
have some resemblance, were it but a nominal one, with 
Antoninus. Yet, it would have been infinitely better for 
him if he had left as unblemished a reputation for purity 
of life as for wisdom of government; and if his many excel- 
lent qualities and princely virtues had been sanctified by 
the only true religion, whose followers indeed he admired, 
but whose doctrines he had not the happiness to embrace. 



68 MODERN" HISTORY. 



MARCUS AIJREI.IUS— A.D. 161-1§0. 

Maecus Aurelius considered it his boiinden duty to 
walk in the footsteps of his predecessor, and to govern 
the state upon the same principles. Although he was not 
so firm, prudent and free from prejudices as Antoninus, 
yet he displayed the same zeal for the public good, the 
same application to affairs, the same moderation and gen- 
erosity; so that his reign, notwithstanding the vices of 
Lucius Verus whom he had taken as his colleague, was 
also a period of glory and happiness for the Eomans. 

War against the Parthians. — About this time the 
Parthians invaded Armenia, which they had long since 
threatened. They destroyed the. legions which defended 
that country, and advancing into Syria, tilled every place 
with terror and desolation. Marcus Aurelius being detained 
in Italy, took proper measures to repel the invaders. Avi- 
dius Cassius, one of his generals, not only defeated the 
Parthians, but also crossed the Euphrates and continued 
his march as far as the royal city of Seleucia, which he 
plundered and reduced to ashes. But these brilliant ex- 
ploits were dearly purchased. The victorious legions, on 
their return, brought along with them a pestilence which 
produced so dreadful ravages in the empire, especially in 
Italy, that more persons were carried off by it within the 
space of a few months, than would have perished during 
many years of the most disastrous war (a.d. 166). 

War against the Marcomans, etc. — The thun- 
dering legion. — This expedition against the Parthians 
was followed by another against the Marcomans, the Quadi, 
and other barbarians, who, driven from the north of Asia 
and Europe by more powerful tribes, or enticed by the 
hope of pillage, were striving to break through the barriers 
of the empire. Marcus- Aurelius went to put himself at the 
head of the legions, and evinced during the whole cam- 
paign a skill and valor which drew upon him general ad- 
miration. However, after many victories, he suffered 
himself and his troops to be entangled in narrow defiles 
amidst the mountains of Bohemia, where, being surrounded 
on all sides by the enemy, they were on the point of per- 
ishing with heat and thirst. In that extremity, the sol- 
diers of the twelfth legion, all Christians, betook them- 




COLUMN OF MARCUS AURELIUS. 



MARCUS-AUEELIUS. 69 

selves to prayer, and presently the clouds gathered, and an 
abundant rain fell, which refreshed the Romans; whereas 
hail, thunder and lightning spread confusion among the 
barbarians, and enabled Marcus- Aurelius to gain a com- 
plete victory (a.d. 174). On this occasion, his army salu- 
ted him Imperator for the seventh time, and the name of 
Thimdering was given, or confirmed to the twelfth legion. 

This prodigy, which pagan writers themeslves relate,* 
and which is still seen engraved on the Antonine pillar at 
Eome, stopped for a time the persecution that the Chris- 
tians were then suffering; the war, however, had but little 
interruption, and lasted till the end of the emperor's life 
(a. d. 180). He died at Vienna, near the Danube, having 
obtained a great reputation for political and military ac- 
quirements, and still greater celebrity for his moral virtues, 
which were not however without a mixture of many great 
failings, viz., his religious bigotry, his weak connivance at 
the vices of his son Commodus and of other persons under 
his control, etc. He had lived fifty-nine years, and reigned 
nineteen. 

Besides being a great emperor and general, Marcus- Au- 
relius was also an estimable author: he has left twelve 
books of wise rules of morality. 

COMMODUS 180-192.-PERTIXAX 193.— DIDIUS 
JULIAXUS 193, 

Commodus. — Commodus succeeded his father on the 
throne, but followed a very different line of conduct. A 
monster, rather than a man, he seemed to have no relish 
but for atrocious deeds of every description. He imitated 
Noro in his worst and basest inclinations, and surpassed 
Doniitian in his cruelties, except that he did not persecute 
the Christians. After having gone on in this way for 
many years his unrelenting thirst for blood at length 
caused his own death, by inducing the persons of his 
household to poison and strangle him, on the last day of 
the year one hundred and ninety-two. 

Pertinax. — On the following day, Pertinax, a venerable 
man, whose uncommon merit amply compensated for his 

*Dioii Cassius, Capitolinus, Claudian, etc. apud Tillemont vol. n. p. STO 



70 MODERN HISTORY. 

very humble extraction, was chosen and unanimously ac- 
knowledged emperor. Under him, the paternal and firm 
administration of Antoninus began to revive. In a very 
short time the laws were again put in force, the debts were 
paid, the public revenues increased without laying jiew 
taxes, and powerful encouragements were given to agricul- 
ture, as the surest means of prosperity both for the state 
and for private families. In a word, the sound policy of 
Pertinax, seconded by his ability and experience, promised 
lasting as well as universal happiness; but these flattering 
hopes were soon blasted. At the end of three months, the 
praetorian soldiers incensed at his exertions for the resto- 
ration of military discipline, slew him in his palace (a.d, 
193). 

Didius Julianus. — After this outrage,, the rebels were 
not ashamed to expose the empire to sale at public auction. 
Purchasers were found, and after bidding for some time, 
Didius Julianus, a rich senator, carried the point, by offer- 
ing twenty-five thousand sesterces (about six hundred and 
twenty-five dollars) to each praetorian. 

This shameful transaction drew universal contempt upon 
Didius. Severus, commander of the Eoman troops in Illy- 
ria, caused himself to be proclaimed emperor by them, and 
suddenly departing, crossed the Alps, and made his ap- 
pearance in Italy, before the news of his march had ar- 
rived. As he approached Eome, Didius showed nothing 
but weakness and hesitation. This unfortunate man saw 
himself gradually abandoned by the praetorians, betrayed 
by the Italic cohorts, and condemned by the senate. His 
death, after a precarious reign of sixty-six days, delivered 
Severus from a contemptible rival. 

SEPTimiUS SEVERUS.— A.D. 193-211. 

Competitors. — Two other and much more powerful 
competitors were yet in his way, Olodius Albinus and Pes- 
cennius Niger, men of great valor and reputation. Like 
Severus himself, they were, after the death of Pertinax, 
proclaimed emperors in their respective governments, Al- 
binus in Great Britain, and Niger in Syria. Severus was 
determined to destroy them both; still, not to be engaged 
at once in two dangerous wars, he made first an agreement 
with Albinus, by which he granted him a sort ^ii partici 



SEPTIMIUS SEVEKUS. 71 

pation in the imperial authority, and prepared to attack 
Niger. 

Septimius Severus' victory. — After a short stay in 
Eome, Severus departed for the East with numerous and 
well disciplined troops. Niger had on his side the legions 
of Syria and Asia Minor. From the character, 'firmness 
and ability of the two rivals, a war of long duration was 
anticipated; it was however terminated in a few months 
by three battles, in which all the troops of Niger were 
overcome, not by Severus in person, who was then oc- 
cupied in besieging Byzantium, but by his lieutenants. 
The last battle was fought near the town of Issus in Cili- 
cia, on the same spot where Alexander the Great formerly 
gained a splendid victory over the Persians. The victory 
of Severus was also complete. , Niger lost twenty thousand 
men, and saw no other resource than to retire beyond the 
Euphrates; but being overtaken in his flight by some 
horsemen of the victorious party, he was slain by them, 
and his head carried to Severus (a.d. 195). 

The conqueror inflicted heavy penalties on the towns 
which had embraced the party of his opponent; especially 
on Antioch, the capital of the East, and on Byzantium, 
which surrendered to him only after a long siege and a 
most obstinate resistance. He deprived the former of its 
privileges; the latter he almost entirely destroyed. Such 
private individuals as had been most devoted to the same 
cause, were also treated with great rigor; some suffered 
capital punishment; others lost their estates or were con- 
demned to pay enormous fines. 

Motives of policy, and the fear of rendering himself too 
odious, prevented Severus from carrying severity farther. 
He published an amnesty for the common soldiers, and 
would not suffer a pompous inscription in honor of Niger 
to be erased, saying it was rather fit that it should remain, 
to let the world know what an enemy he had conquered. 
The main object which he now had in view was to destroy 
Albinus, and thus obtain exclusive possession of the throne. 
Albinus, on his part, was little satisfied with the inferior 
title of Caesar, and seeing himself supported by a pow- 
erful army and a respectable portion of the Roman senate, 
he publicly assumed the title of Augustus. 

This bold step was precisely what Severus desired: his 
artful policy made him always endeavor to have appear- 



72 MODEKN HISTORY. 

ances on his side, and permit his adversary to become the 
aggressor. He was returning from the East to Eome, when 
he received information of the open defection of Alhinus. 
Severus did not fail to improve this favorable opportunity 
of inveighing against his rival, and having him declared a 
public enemy; from that moment, the two competitors 
openly marched against each other; Severus from Moesia, 
and Alhinus from Britain. 

It appears that the intention of Alhinus was to penetrate 
into Italy, and cause himself to be acknowledged in Eonie. 
Severus, fully aware how essential it was for his interests to 
prevent the execution of any such design, detached some 
bodies of troops to guard the passages of the Alps, and fol- 
lowed with all possible speed, at the head of the main por- 
tion of his army. He set the example of invincible forti- 
tude in the greatest fatigues. No difficulty on the way 
was able to stop his march; he was bare-headed, disregarded 
snow and frosts, and both by words and actions, infused 
into the breasts of others the ardor with which he himself 
was animated. He was thus enabled to prevent the en- 
trance of his enemy into Italy, and to come up with him 
near the city of Lyons in Gaul. 

Albinus' defeat. — The quarrel between these two fierce 
rivals was now about to be decided. The two armies, iii- 
cluding at least one hundred and fifty thousand combatants, 
were equal in number, in courage, and in the advantages 
of being headed by their respective emperors. All these 
circumstances contributed to render the battle terrible, 
and to leave the victory for a long time doubtful. The 
left wing of Albinus was broken, and the fugitives were 
pursued to their camp; but his right wing obtained at first 
a considerable advantage. The legionary soldiers of whom 
it Avas comj)Osed had dug before them a great number of 
ditches, and covered them over slightly with clay, so art- 
fully that no one could perceive the snare. To draw the 
enemy into it, they pretended to be afraid, and hurling 
their javelins from afar, immediately retreated. The strat- 
agem was successful: the troops of Severus, anxious to 
come to a close engagement, and despising their adversaries, 
advanced without any precaution; but they were stopped 
at once by an obstacle as formidable as it was unexpected. 
Coming to the place which was overspread with clay, the 
earth sunk under their feet, and the whole first line fell 



tne ■■ 



SEPTIMIUS SEVERFS. 73 

into the ditches. As the lines were very close^ the second 
had no time to retrace their steps, and fell upon the first. 
Those who followed, terrified at this, drew back hastily, 
and bore down their companions behind them; so that the 
whole left wing of Severus was thrown into utter confu- 
sion. 

In this extreme danger, Severus, with the imperial guard, 
flew to the assistance of his disheartened troops. But at 
first, far from remedying the evil, he saw even his praeto- 
rian soldiers scattered and cut in pieces, and had a horse 
killed under him. This served only to animate him the 
more: rallying some of the fugitives, and putting himself 
at their head, he fell, sword in hand, upon the enemy, de- 
termined to conquer or die. His little troop, animated by 
his example, hewed down all before them, without distinc- 
tion of friend or foe. Numbers of fugitives were thus 
forced to return to the charge; and the conquerors, who, 
through eagerness, had already broken their ranks in order 
to pursue their advantage, were now compelled to fight 
in their own defence. 

The battle was renewed with fresh fury: but the victory 
still remained doubtful, till Lsetus, the commander of the 
horse of Severus, decided the fate of the day. He had de- 
clined engaging in the beginning of the fight, perhaps 
through a perfidious design to let the two emperors destroy 
each other, in order to set up afterwards for himself. 
But when he saw that fortune began to declare for Severus, 
being sensible of the danger to which his unwary inactivity 
exposed him, he fell upon the flank of the enemy, while 
Severus attacked them vigorously in front. Unable any 
longer to keep their ground, they fled, and took shelter 
within the city, together with Albinus, who either died of 
his wounds, or killed himself in despair. By this complete 
but bloody victory, Severus was left (a.d. 197) without a 
competitor; having, in less than four years, destroyed three 
emperors, Didius-Julianus, Niger and Albinus. 

Septimius Severus' cruelty. — He made a terrible use 
of his prosperity, and showed himself more cruel and inex- 
orable than ever. After Albinus had expired, his violent 
enemy spurred his horse on the dead body, which he caused 
to remain exposed until it was devoured by dogs, and 
sent the head to the senate, with alarming threats against 
those who had followed the party of that unfortunate gen- 



74 MODERN HISTOEY. 

eral. His wife, children and friends, all those who could 
be discovered to have been his leading partisans, were put 
to death. Many towns in Gaul and Spain had to mourn 
the loss of their worthiest citizens, especially of such as 
were rich, whose wealth was too frequently their only 
crime. 

By means like these, Severus amassed immense treasures, 
of which he made use chiefly to gain the affection of the 
soldiery by favors and largesses. His return to Eome with 
his victorious troops, spread terror through the city, and 
in a few days forty senators fell victims to his revenge. 

Geta and Caracalla. — On this occasion, Severus re- 
ceived a striking lesson from his younger son Greta, who was 
then only eight years old. The boy, having heard his father 
declare how he would revenge himself, seemed greatly con- 
cerned. In order to quiet his apprehensions, Severus said 
that the persons who had been marked out for death, were 
enemies, of whom he was going to deliver him. Geta then 
asked how many there might be of those unfortunate peo- 
ple. Being told the number, he grew still more pensive, and 
again asked whether these unhappy men had any relations 
or friends alive; and, as he was answered that most of them 
had several; '' Alas! " replied he, *^ there will be then more 
persons sorry for our victory, than will partake of our joy." 
Severus was struck by a remark at once so judicious and 
humane; but the prefects of his guards urged him to accom- 
plish the proposed slaughter, and his eldest son, Caracalla, 
proposed that even the children of their enemies should 
be put to death with their fathers. Upon which Geta, 
with a look of indignation, said to him: '^Disposed as you 
appear to be to spare the life of none, you would also be ca- 
pable of killing your own brother." Words evincing extra- 
ordinary sagacity, and which were afterwards too well ver- 
ified. 

One of the two prefects of the guards just mentioned, 
was Plautian, a proud and an ambitious man, whose fate 
was exactly similar to that of Sejanus under Tiberius. 
Like him, he obtained great influence, which he most 
shockingly abused, until, by his insolence, he brought 
about his ruin, and that of his friends and family. 

Persecution of the Christians. — In the meanwhile, 
the Christians everywhere acknowledged and faithfully 
obeyed Severus. For this reason, and also from a motive 



SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS. 75 

of personal gratitude towards one of them who had cured 
him of a dangerous sickness, the emperor for some time 
treated them kindly. A mistaken policy induced him after- 
wards to change his conduct in their regard. The follow- 
ers of Christ had multiplied exceedingly, in consequence of 
the long peace they had enjoyed since the reign of Mar- 
cus Aurelius. The miracles which Almighty God daily 
wrought by their hands, and the spectacle of their extra- 
ordinary virtue, drew over to them great numbers of pros- 
elytes.* " We fill" said Tertullian to them at that very 
time, "your cities, your towns, your senate and your 
armies; we leave you only your temples and theatres."! 
So rapid an increase threatened the downfall of idolatry. 
This was probably, together with the clamor of the heathens, 
the chief consideration which induced Severus to renew the 
persecution against the Christians. At first permitting 
the magistrates to execute the former laws on this subject, 
he afterwards expressly authofrized their conduct by a new 
edict issued in the tenth year of his reign (a.d. 302). 
Then the persecution became general, and countless num- 
bers received the crown of martyrdom. The most illustri- 
ous of those martyrs were St. Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, 
and St. Leonides, the father of Origen who afterwards 
became so celebrated for his genius and learning. Being 
at that time but seventeen years old, Origen, in a moving 
letter, exhorted his father to die courageously for the faith 
of Christ, and he himself, desirous of martyrdom, would 
have gone to present himself before the persecutors, had 
not his mother compelled him to remain at home by 
concealing his clothes. 

Spread of Christianity. — The fire of persecution 
raged for many years throughout the empire; but, far from 
destroying the Church, it served only to purify her, and 

* These undoubtedly, with the assistance of inward grace, were the only 
causes of the stupendous diffusion of Christianity; and such persons as 
have, like Gibbon, attempted to prove the contrary, have proved only the 
perverseness of their own views and scepticism. Nothing short of a con- 
stant and special interposition of God could have induced men, buried Be 
they were in vice and idolatry, to embrace a religion so contrary to all pas- 
sions and vices, so destitute of all human support, so violently attacked 
by all the powers of earth, by calumnies, vexations, tortures and death. 
Since Christianity was not only unaided, but even opposed by all natxiral 
and human causes, most certainly its propagation must be attributed to 
a cause supernatural and divine. 

t Tertull. Apolog. c. 37. 



76 MODERlSr HISTORY. 

make her^ sliine with greater lustre. The Christians prfe« 
sented themselves with.eourage before the tribunals;, and 
viewed with calmness the racks and other instruments 
prepared for their torture, ready to meet death in its most 
cruel shapes. The more of them were immolated, the 
more their number increased; the sight of these wonderful 
examples of fortitude, and of the miracles which the Al- 
mighty was pleased frequently to perform on those occa- 
sions, leading many of the spectators, sometimes the very 
executioners and judges, to embrace the Christian religion. 

Learning also and eloquence concurred with virtue an(? 
miracles in the vindication of Christianity. In order to 
refute polytheism, the holy priest Clement of Alexandria 
made deep researches into every part of heathen mythology, 
and successfully used them as mighty weapons against its 
doctrines. Minutius Felix, a celebrated lawyer at Rome, 
wrote an excellent dialogue setting forth, with great force 
of reasoning and puritv of style, the absurdities of idolatry 
and the excellency of the Christian doctrine. But the 
most powerful work published at that time was the Apol- 
ogetic of Tertullian, a priest of Carthage: in it, he gave a 
deadly blow to paganism, by exposing its manifold errors; 
and victoriously refuted every calumny broached against 
the Christians, by exhibiting the purity of their lives, their 
piety towards God, their mutual charity, their love of their 
enemies, their horror for every vice, their patience and con- 
stancy in suffering all kinds of torments, even death itself, 
for the sake of virtue. This was plainly showing the in- 
justice of the persecution which they suffered. 

Character of Septimius Severus. — Notwithstanding 
these and other acts of tyranny exercised by Severus, he is 
not to be reckoned among such abominable princes as we 
haVe frequently had occasion to mention. With religious 
fanaticism and an inflexible spirit of revenge he united 
many great and laudable qualities, viz., frugality, vigilance, 
firmness in the government, prudence in the management 
of the public revenues, assiduity and equity in the admin- 
istration of justice, in fine, a wonderful foresight and soli- 
citude in providing even for the future wants of the peo- 
ple. When he died there was in the public granaries a 
quantity of wheat sufficient to support the inhabitants of 
the capital for seven years; and all Italy was supplied with 
oil for five years. 




ARCH OF SEPTIMUS SEVERUS. 



SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS. 77 

The predominant characteristic of that emperor was his 
active and warlike spirit, and the most striking feature in 
his life is to be found in that rapidity of conquests which 
rendered him almost equal to Julius Csesar. Besides his 
exploits in civil wars, he made two successful campaigns 
against the Parthians and other nations of the East, one 
after the defeat of Niger, and the other after the ruin of 
Albinus. In the latter especially, he was so often victori- 
ous as to acquire the surname of Parthicus Maximus. He 
failed only in the siege of Atra, a well fortified town near 
the Tigris, which had also repelled Trajan; but he con- 
quered many other towns in Assyria and Mesopotamia; and 
in particular, secured to the Eomans the possession of the 
important city of Nisibis, which became the strongest bul- 
wark of the empire on that frontier. 

The last expedition of Severus was made in the north of 
Great Britain against the Caledonians, whom he drove 
back to their mountains. In order to confine them within 
due limits, and preserve the Eoman colonies from subse- 
quent invasion, he raised a wall similar to, but more solid 
than the intrenchment of Hadrian, and, like it, extending 
from one sea to the other. Some of its ruins are yet to be 
seen between the Friths of Forth and Clyde, and excite 
the astonishment of the traveller. 

As he was going one day to conclude a treaty with the 
barbarians, in presence of both armies, a sudden cry of 
horror was heard; Severus turned, and beheld his eldest 
son, Caracalla, in the act of advancing, sword in hand, to 
stab him from behind. The outcry stopped the arm of t"he 
unnatural son, and his father, without uttering a word,- 
resumed the negotiation of the treaty. 

Magnanimity towards Caracalla. — Having return- 
ed to his tent, he sent for Caracalla, and, in the pres- 
ence of Papinianus and Cursor, his chief attendants, re- 
proached him with his heinous crime. Then presenting 
him with a drawn sword, he added: "If the desire of reign- 
ing impels you to imbrue your hands in the blood of your 
father, satisfy your desire here rather than in the sight of 
all, both friends and enemies." No other punishment did 
he inflict upon him. But neither the just reproaches nor 
the paternal indulgence of Severus produced any feeling 
of remorse in Caracalla. On the contrary, he persisted in 
his detestable intention, and besides requesting some of 



78 MODERN HISTORY. 

the physicians of the court to accelerate his father's death, 
diligently circulated seditious principles among the soldiersj 
insinuating, for instance, that it was a disgraceful thing to 
obey an old man who was infirm, attacked with the gout, 
and unfit to command them any longer. Eeports like these 
produced a revolt in that portion of the army, the direction 
of which his too indulgent father had confided to him. 
Severus, assembling the legions, passed sentence of capital 
punishment against the accomplices of his son, not however 
against the young prince himself, and even, it appears, 
granted at this time pardon to all, at their earnest entrea- 
ties. Then addressing himself to them with a loud voice 
and a majestic air: " You see now," said he, "that it is the 
head which governs, and not the feet." 

Shortly after, he fell dangerously sick in the city of York, 
and the most painful reflections upon the atrocious conduct 
of Caracalla preying upon his mind, he felt that his days 
were drawing to a close. He then called his two sons to 
his bed-side, and declared his intention of leaving the em- 
pire to be possessed by them both, exhorting them at the 
same time to mutual forbearance and concord (an advice 
which became as fruitless as it was necessary); and added 
that, having found the state in disturbance and confusion, 
he left it quiet and respected. 

Death of Septimius Severus. — Some moments before 
expiring, the emperor cried aloud: " I have been all things, 
and all things are nothing; and I nowhere found solid con- 
tent and happiness." Having ordered the urn which was to 
contain his ashes to be brought to him, he addressed it in 
these terms: ''Thou wilt contain him for whom the whole 
earth was too little." In order to terminate more speedily 
his acute and increasing pains, he asked, it is said, for poi- 
son; but no one being willing to comply with his desire, he 
took so great a quantity of food that he was suffocated. 
This happened in his sixty-sixth year, and about the eigh- 
teenth of his reign (a.d. 211). He left behind him the rep- 
utation, not of a good, but, in many respects, a great mon- 
arch, and, next to Trajan, the most warlike of the Eoman 
emperors. Such was the natural activity of his mind, that, 
even at the last moment of his life, he was asking whether 
there was anything to be done. 

Making due allowance for the peculiarities necessarily 
occasioned by the difference of time, place and other cir- 



CAKACALLA.— MACRIXUS.— HELIOGABALUS. 79 

cumsfcaiices, there is not perliaps, in all history, a single 
prince wlio so strikingly resembles tlie great conqueror of 
a later age, Na})ole()n BonapaiLc. Not that Napoleon 
was so revengeful and inexorable as Severns ; but we see in 
both the same active and warlike genius; the same bold- 
ness in undertaking, and quickness in executing; the same 
talents and firmness in government; tlie same ardor for 
the advancement of their families, and, in fine, the same 
indifference for the lives of other men, when their own 
interest and ambitious views were to be promoted. 

CARACALLA 211-217.— MACRII^IJS 217-21 S. 
— HELIOOABALVS 21§-222. 

Caracalla. — The death of Severus would have caused 
little or no regret, had he not been succeeded by so great 
a monster as his son Caracalla, whose name was derived 
from a Gallic vestment which he was fond of wearing. 
He commenced his reign by the murder of his brother 
Geta, and continued, for six years, through such a course 
of debaucheries, cruelties and rapines, which Europe, 
Syria, and Egypt successively witnessed, as fully to de- 
serve the name of the second Caligula, which is given 
him by some historians. He was murdered at the age of 
twenty-nine years, by Martialis, a centurion, whom he 
had offended by an act of injustice; but the chief, though 
secret leader of the plot, was Macrinus, the commander of 
the imperial guards, whom the cruel emperor had fre- 
quently threatened with death. This revolution happened 
in the year 217, and was quickly followed by another. 

Macrinus. — Macrinus experienced little difficulty in 
obtaining the place of Caracalla; but he did not, by his 
government, conciliate the affection and esteem of the 
people: on the contrary, he drew upon himself the con- 
tempt of the troops, by concluding a disgraceful peace 
with the Parthian king, and earned their hatred, by 
refusing them the favors which they requested. A new 
revolt broke out in favor of young Bassianus, other- 
wise called Heliogabalus (from his being a priest of the 
sun), who now claimed the sceptre as being a relation, 
by his mother, to the Severian family. Both parties 
had regQur.se tQ ^rn^s^ 3,ad an engagement took place, 



80 MODERN HISTORY. 

which proved fatal to Macrinus: he was defeated, over- 
taken in his flight by the conquerors, and deprived riot 
only of the empire, but also of his life, after a reign 
of only fourteen months (a.d. 218). 

Heliogabalus. — All the worst tyrants hitherto men- 
tioned seemed to revive in the person of Heliogabalus. 
Never was there a more effeminate and despicable, a more 
dissolute and wicked prince. Every day added to his ex- 
travagances, and increased the public indignation. Sensi- 
ble of the danger to which he was exposed, and unwilling 
to receive death from any other hands than his own, he 
prepared silken strings and golden swords, for the pur- 
pose of either strangling himself or cutting his throat, if 
necessary. Moreover, a tower was built for him, sur- 
rounded by a pavement of precious stones, in order that, 
should he be obliged to precipitate himself from the top, 
he might at least have his head and limbs bruised in 
a splendid manner. 

All these silly precautions proved useless. Helioga- 
balus was slain in a privy by the soldiers, and the multi- 
tude seizing upon his body, dragged it through the streets 
of Rome, and threw it into the Tiber (a.d. 222). He had 
reigned nearly four years, and was succeeded by his cousin 
Alexander Severus, whose reign presents a spectacle as 
pleasing as that of his predecessor was execrable. 

ALEXANDER SEVERUS.— A.D. 222-235, 

Alexander Severus' g^ood government. — A natural 
inclination to virtue, fostered by an excellent education, 
rendered Alexander ^verus one of the most amiable and 
accomplished princes mentioned in the annals of the world. 
Justice, goodness and generosity were his favorite virtues. 
He often repeated this maxim, which he had learned from 
the Christians: do to all 7nen, as you loould have all men do 
to you; he caused it to be engraved on the walls of his pal- 
ace, and made it the rule ' of his conduct. He also fre- 
quently paid religious homage to our Saviour, whose image 
he kept in a sort of a chapel, together with those of Abra- 
ham, Orpheus, and other signal benefactors of humanity. 
This is indeed a singular collection of names; but the fact 
serves at least to show the happy inclination of that prince 
to honor virtue, wherever he found it sincere and active. 



ALEXANDEK SEVEKUS. 81 

Although Alexander was scarcely fourteen years old 
when the sovereign power devolved upon him, his admin- 
istration was truly admirable, almost from the beginning. 
For this he was partly indebted to the prudence of his 
mother Mammsea, and to a numerous counsel composed, 
by her care, of the most virtuous senators, the best ofl&cers 
in the army, and the ablest jurisconsults in the state. 
Aided by such counsellors, and urged on by his own ex- 
cellent dispositions, Alexander commenced a reign worthy 
of being proposed as a model to all future sovereigns. 

Reform of civil government. — The whole empire 
needed a thorough reformation; but innumerable were the 
difficulties to be encountered in the attempt. Alexander 
was not frightened by their number and magnitude, but 
immediately set about this great work with vigor. Be- 
sides degrading and dismissing all the iniquitous judges 
and bad officers appointed by Heliogabalus, he made an 
exact review of all the orders of the state, of the senate, 
the knights, the tribes and the armies, expelling from 
them all bad and corrupt members. No guilty person 
was spared. Even the crimes of those connected with 
the emperor by the ties of consanguinity or friendship, 
met with condign punishment; on such occasions he 
used to say that the commonwealth was dearer to him 
than his family. 

No criminal did he punish with greater severity than 
governors who oppressed the people, and judges who suf- 
fered themselves to be bribed. So great was his abhor- 
rence of these persons, that, when he beheld any of them, 
he could not restrain his indignation, but was obliged, as 
Lampridius relates, to throw up bile; and his fingers, by 
a sort of natural impulse, were directed towards the face 
of the criminal, as if to tear out his eyes.* Nor did he 
stop at mere menaces: great severity was used, in order to 
repress the abuse. 

He treated with no less rigor those who made an im- 
proper use of the favor which they enjoyed near him, and 
betrayed his confidence. A certain man, called Vetronius 
Turinus, who frequently approached the emperor, re- 
ceived from different persons large sums of money, under 
the false pretence that the benefits of the court were 

* Lamprid. in vit. Mexandr, Sever. 



82 MODERK HISTORY. 

granted through his means; this conduct he called selling 
smoke. Having been detected in this shameful proceed- 
ing, Alexander ordered that he should be tied to a post, 
about which a fire was made of green wood, so that the 
smoke might suffocate him; and a herald cried out during 
the execution: ''The seller of smoke is punished with 
smoke." 

An example like this was certainly well calculated to 
check the evil; but, the more efficaciously to root it out, 
Alexander directed all his attention to a good choice of 
governors and of magistrates. None could obtain public 
employments who had not first merited his esteem and 
that of the people: * it was even a maxim with him, that 
they who shunned dignities were the most worthy of 
them. He highly approved the custom used in the Chris- 
tian Church, of publicly proclaiming the names of those 
tVho were to be promoted to the priesthood, in order that 
any objection against them might be made known, and 
seriously examined. Alexander adopted this plan, declar- 
ing beforehand the names of those whom he intended to 
appoint governors of the provinces. But at the same 
time, not to excite against them the fury of envy and 
malice, he insisted that the accusations should be of a se- 
rious nature and well proved; otherwise, the accusers were 
punished as vile calumniators. 

With equity and justice, the young emperor united ad- 
mirable clemency. Being well informed that a senator of 
illustrious birth, named Ovinius Camillus, had set on 
foot a plot to raise himself to the sovereign power, Alex- 
ander sent for him, thanked him for his willingness to 
share the troubles annexed to the crown, and began to 
treat him as his colleague. At that time, a military ex- 
pedition was to be made against some barbarians who had 
revolted. Alexander offered the command to Camillus, 



* Among the virtuous men in whom Alexander chiefly reposed his con- 
fidence, must be reckoned the celebrated historian Dion Cassius, a native 
of Nice in Bithynia, an-l well known at Rome for his manifold merits, 
which had raised him under the preceding emperors, to various offices of 
state, even to the consulship. By Alexander Severus he was entrusted 
with the government of many important provinces, and appointed consul 
a second time. After having travelled, and collected documents during 
ten years, he wrote a complete Roman History in eighty books, many of 
which are entirely lost, while many others are extant only in extracts 
and abbreviations. 



ALEXANDER SEVERUS. 83 

and, on his refusal, with prudent generosity invited him 
to partake at least in the glory of the campaign. They 
started together on foot. Camillus, being soon tired, was 
advised by the emperor to take a horse for the rest of the 
journey, and afterwards to make use of a carriage. These 
proceedings, so flattering in appearance, mortified him so 
much, that he abdicated his honors, and hastily returned 
to his country seat, where Alexander permitted him to 
live unmolested. 

His conduct toward the army. — In the conduct of 
this prince with regard to the troops, prudence and firm- 
ness, kindness and severity were admirably blended. He 
kept them under strict discipline, marched at their head, 
used the same food and clothing as themselves. How- 
ever, while he required of them an exact performance of 
their duties, he was affable to all, and took particular 
care that they should not want anything, especially in 
time of sickness. 

By these means Alexander won the unbounded affec- 
tion of the soldiers, who considered him as their father 
and brother, and obtained a surprising influence among 
them, notwithstanding his youth. Once particularly, be- 
ing surrounded with discontented legionary soldiers who 
expressed their displeasure on account of a punishment 
inflicted on some of their number, he endeavored first to 
appease their murmurs by exhortations and meraces. As 
they persisted in their clamors, Alexander said to them, 
with a tone of indignation: "Citizens, retire, and leave 
your arms." The astounded legion laid down their arms, 
took off the military insignia, and retired in silence. 
But, after having thus vindicated his authority, the em- 
peror, moved by their supplications, received them again 
into favor, and ever after enjoyed their inviolable fidelity 
and attachment. 

The public treasury replenished. — Another impor- 
tant object of Alexander's care was the public treasury. 
He managed the revenues of the state with so much wis- 
dom, that he was enabled to reduce the taxes imposed by 
Heliogabalus, in the proportion of thirty to one; and still, 
far from abolishing the usual favors granted to the sol- 
diers and the people, he, on the contrary, seemed con- 
tinually occupied in bestowing benefits. Liberality regu- 
lated by prudence formed one of the most remarkable fea- 



84 MODERN HISTORY. 

tures in his character. He took particular pleasure in 
giving to the poor, especially to those who, having a cer- 
tain rank to support, were destitute of the means of so 
doing, and had not fallen into distress through their own 
fault. In a word, history hears him the glorious testi- 
mony, that he never suffered a day to pass without per- 
forming some act of humanity. 

It should not then appear astonishing, that the venera- 
tion and love of the Romans for Alexander was carried to 
a sort of enthusiasm. Whenever he had to depart from 
Eome on some distant expedition, he was accompanied to 
a distance by the whole senate and all the people, who 
manifested by abundant tears, their affection for so good 
a prince and their grief for his departure, he himself 
mingling his tears with theirs. When he returned, he 
could scarcely advance through the streets, on account of 
the immense multitude of people that surrounded him 
and cried aloud, with transports of joy: " Eome is happy, 
since she sees Alexander alive." 

Rise of the second Persian empire. — The chief 
occasion that made him leave the capital for a time, was 
an important event which had Just happened in the East. 
By a sudden revolution, the Parthian empire, which civil 
feuds had previously weakened, fell, after a duration of 
four hundred and fifty years, and the ancient Persian 
monarchy was re-established by a certain Artaxerxes, son 
of Sassan, and first king of the dynasty of the Sassanides 
(a.d. 226). This great change was of no advantage to the 
Romans, as the Persians gave them, for many centuries, 
as much trouble at least as the Parthians had given them 
before. In the very beginning of their new monarchy, 
they attacked Mesopotamia and Syria with an army of 
one hundred and twenty thousand horse, and seven hun- 
dred elephants carrying wooden towers, each containing 
many archers. However, formidable as they were, the 
Persians could not resist the intrepidity of the Roman 
legions commanded by their emperor in person; and, after 
suffering considerable loss, they were compelled to retire. 
This is the most probable account given of that expedition, 
which was no sooner over, than Alexander, upon informa- 
tion of the disturbances excited by the Germans in the 
West, speedily returned to Rome, where he received the 
honors of a splendid triumph. 



ALEXANDEK SEVERUS. 85 

At his departure from the East, he left a sujfficient 
number of troops to prevent or repel any subsequent inva- 
sions of the enemy. These and other troops employed by 
Alexander in the Persian war, were not only brave in the 
field, but likewise so well trained by good discipline, that 
in their marches and in their whole deportment they 
rather resembled so many bodies of grave senators: hence 
every one highly extolled this excellent prince for the 
great benefits which he conferred both on the armies and 
the subjects of the empire. 

Far more difficult, and terribly fatal in the result, was 
the attempt to establish the same good order among the 
legions of Gaul and Germany. Alexander had now re- 
paired to those countries for the purpose of driving back 
the Germans beyond the Ehine. Accustomed as some of 
these legions were to disorder and licentiousness, they 
could not bear the idea of being subjected to the yoke of 
strict discipline. Wherefore, by the secret direction of 
Maximin, one of their generals, they attacked the young 
emperor in his tent; when he, perceiving that all resist- 
ance would be useless, covered his face with his cloak, 
and yielded himself an easy victim (a.d. 285). 

Death of Alexander Severus.— Alexander lived 
nearly twenty-seven years, and reigned thirteen: a prince, 
equal, if not superior, to the most renowned among the 
Eoman emperors. Trajan, Marcus-Aurelius, and some 
few others, performed perhaps greater exploits, or were 
more successful in some respects : but we should remember 
that they had reached a more mature age when they 
mounted the throne, than Alexander when he was precip- 
itated from it. No greater misfortune could have befallen 
the empire than his premature death; it was followed, 
during fifty years, by so many treasons, civil wars and 
other calamities, that the third century has derived 
from them the name of iron age. Of the many emperors 
who reigned in that period until Diocletian, scarcely one 
escaped a violent death. As they were generally raised 
to the throne by the arbitrary choice of the soldiery, we 
will comprise most of them under the head of Military 
Usurpers. 



86 MODERN HISTOET. 



MILITARY IJSIJRPER§.-A.D. 235-26§. 

Maximinius Thrax 235-238. — As it was not known at 
the time of Alexander's death, that Maximin had been its 
chief promoter, the whole army, through esteem for his 
natural bravery, saluted him emperor. He was of Gothic 
extraction, a native of Thrace, and had been a shepherd 
before enlisting among the Eoman troops. He was of 
an enormous size, being, we are told, about nine feet 
high, and stout in proportion; nor was his strength less as- 
tonishing than his stature. He could, without assistance, 
move a wagon heavily laden, and with a blow of his fist 
break the teeth or leg of a horse. Hence he was com- 
pared with Milo the Crotonian, Hercules, and Antaeus, 
those prodigies of strength in pagan antiquity; like them 
also he was an extraordinary eater and drinker, requiring, 
it is said, forty poimds of meat and seven gallons of wine 
for his daily allowance. 

This great bulk of body was accompanied in Maximin 
with that brutality which is its almost necessary append- 
age in an uncultivated mind. He was, it is true an excel- 
lent warrior, and gained many bloody victories over the 
Germans; but we may say without exaggeration that he 
shed still more blood throughout the empire, by perse- 
cuting the Christians, whom his predecessor had on the 
contrary favored, and by putting to death numbers of 
persons, who either knew the meanness of his extraction, 
or by their eminent merits excited his jealousy and fears. 
The people also suffered very much from his rapine and 
extortions. 

Having, by so many acts of tyranny, provoked universal 
hatred, Maximin was murdered by his own troops, near 
Aquileia, after a reign of three years (a.d. 238). Four 
competitors, whom the senate had opposed to him, viz., 
the two Gordians in Africa, and Maximus with Balbinus 
in Rome, also perished about the same time, by the fury 
of the soldiery. 

Gordianus III. 238-244. — After them Gordian the 
younger or the third, reigned six years. His youth and 
virtuous inclinations, his prosperous government, and 
great victories ever the Persians, made him a living copy 
of Alexander Severus. He resembled him likewise in his 



MILITARY USURPERS. 87 

aeath, being murdered by the orders of Philip, the pre- 
fect of his guards (a.d. 244). 

Philippus Arabs 244-249. — Philip reigned five years, 
after which he was slain in battle while endeavoring to 
repress the revolt of Decius, one of his generals (a.d. 249). 
He governed with prudence and courage the empire that 
he had acquired by crime, and was favorable to the Chris- 
tians. 

Decius 249-251. — Decius was on the contrary one of 
the most cruel enemies of Christianity, and the seventh 
general persecution, of which he was the author, made 
an incredible number of martyrs. Nothing else of great 
importance is known concerning this emperor, except 
that, having undertaken a war against the Goths, which 
was at first successful, he afterwards rashly entangled 
himself in marshy places, was entirely defeated, and 
perished with his son and nearly his whole army (a.d. 
251). 

Gallus 251-253. — Grallus, a Eoman general whose 
treacherous advice was probably the cause of this disaster, 
remained in possession of the sovereign power, but kept 
it only one year and a half. He carried on the persecu- 
tion commenced by Decius, and, like him, miserably per- 
ished. 

iSmilianus 253. — ^milian, who succeeded him, was 
put to death by his own troops, after a still shorter 
reign of four months (a.d. 253). 

Valerianus 253-260. — The imperial dignity was now, 
by the unanimous consent of all the orders of the state, 
conferred on Valerian, a venerable senator, who had 
greatly distinguished himself in inferior employments. 
He continued to evince great prudence in common and 
easy affairs; but for matters of importance, his talents and 
mind proved inadequate: in the seventh year of his reign 
he suffered a signal defeat from the Persians, and owing 
to his own imprudence, was taken prisoner (a.d. 260). King 
Sapor treated him with the utmost indignity. When he 
wished to get on horseback or to enter his chariot, he 
forced the unhappy emperor to bend his body and present 
his neck as a stirrup. While riding, he compelled him 
to run by his side, though loaded with chains. At last, 
after several years of the most ignominious and cruel cap^ 
tivity, Valerian was not only put to death, but also flayed 



88 MODERN HISTORY. 

and his skin, painted red, was suspended in a Persian 
temple, to serve as a lasting monument of the disgrace of 
the Romans. 

General persecution of Christians. — The heathens 
wondered at the dreadful fate of Valerian; but the Chris- 
tians easily perceived in it the hand of God falling heavily 
upon a prince who, contrary to his own judgment and in- 
clination, had cruelly persecuted them. For, although 
he knew their fidelity, and was naturally good and mod- 
erate, superstition and evil advice induced him to com- 
mand the eighth general persecution. It lasted three 
years and a half, and was extremely violent, especially 
in Africa, where, among others, St. Cyprian, archbishop 
of Carthage, was beheaded; and in Rome, where the holy 
deacon St. Lawrence was burnt by a slow fire. Ecclesias- 
tical historians relate of this illustrious martyr, that, 
when one side of his body was burnt, he himself requested 
that the other side also should be presented to the fire; 
and adding, after a few moments, that he was now sufii- 
ciently roasted, he calmly expired in the midst of his horrid 
torments. 

Gallienus 260 268. — ^Under Gallienus both the capi- 
tal and the provinces were visited by calamities of every 
description. Within the space of the next few years, the 
time of the " thirty tyrants, ^^ a number of pretenders were 
seen exerting themselves to obtain possession of the sov- 
ereign power. The frontiers were attacked and the 
Roman territories invaded by the Persians, the Sarma- 
tians, the Germans, the Goths, and other barbarians. 
Moreover, earthquakes, famine and pestilence made 
frightful ravages from one extremity of the empire to the 
other, and particularly in Rome, where the plague some- 
times carried off five thousand persons in one day. 

So many disasters seemed to indicate the approaching 
downfall of the empire; but it was saved from destruction, 
and even restored to its ancient splendor, by. a long 
series of great emperors, the first of whom, according to 
the order of time, was 



CL.AUDIUS II.— A.D. 268-270. 



m 



A HAPPY union of moral, civil and military acquire- 
ments, raised Claudius II. to an equality of merit with 



CLAUDIUS II. 89 

Trajan. He was guilty, it is true, of sharing in the 
murder of his predecessor ; but afterwards nothing ap- 
peared in him but love of justice, true patriotism and 
heroic magnanimity. Notwithstanding the shortness of 
his reign, he displayed these princely virtues on several 
occasions, and, when circumstances required, he did not 
hesitate to practise them against his own interest. Thus, 
when a woman came to complain of the wrong she had 
formerly suffered from a certain officer named Claudius, 
the emperor, understanding that the allusion was to him- 
self, did not take offence at the boldness of the complaint, 
but presently repaired the wrong, and, by so doing, evinced 
his readiness to sacrifice every selfish feeling for justice. 

Defeat of the Goths.— This excellent prince reigned 
just long enough to destroy a hostile fleet of two thousand 
sail, and an army of three hundred and twenty thousand 
Goths who had invaded Macedonia. He attacked them 
first near Naissus, in a battle which lasted long and was 
obstinately disputed. The Romans gave way in several 
places; but at length, a detachment of their troops going 
round by roads which seemed impassable, fell upon the 
rear and flanks of their enemies: this unexpected attack 
decided the victory, and the Groths were forced to retreat, 
after having lost fifty thousand men. They rallied how- 
ever their shattered forces, and hazarded a new battle, 
which proved as disastrous as the first one. Those who 
escaped were closely pursued by Claudius; yet such was 
the fierceness and valor of the barbarians, that, even in the 
deplorable condition to which their army was now re- 
duced, they once more rallied, and rendered doubtful the 
event of the battle. Falling with desperate courage upon 
the Roman infantry, they threw it into confusion, cut 
part of it into pieces, and would probably have completed 
its destruction, if the horse of Claudius, wheeling round, 
had not compelled their wearied troops to retire. The 
sad remnant took refuge in the passes of mount Hsemus, 
and fell victims to famine and disease. 

In the meanwhile, the Gothic fleet, after scouring the 
seas, returned loaded with booty to Macedonia, In order to 
rejoin the land army. But that army was already dis- 
persed, and the arrival of the sea-soldiers at that fatal 
shore, served only to increase the disasters of their nation. 



90 MODERN HISTOET. 

The ships, being deprived of their defenders, were easily 
destroyed; and the men, unable to penetrate into a coun- 
try in which everything opposed them, found themselves 
compelled to disband and take different directions. Most 
of them were slain, or carried off by diseases; so that of 
this incredible multitude of barbarians, only a few strag- 
glers escaped. 

Death of Claudius. — After this exploit, one of the 
greatest ever performed by any Eoman general or emperor, 
Claudius was attacked by the plague which had broken 
out among his troops, and died at Syrmium in Pannouia 
(a.d. 270). His death caused inexpressible grief among 
the people as well as in the army. No sooner had he ex- 
pired than the legions of Illryia chose as his successor^ 
Aurelian, one of his bravest generals, who immediately 
went to Rome to take possession of the sovereign author- 
ity. 

AURELIAN.— A.D. 270-275. 

The military feats of Aurelian had been great before; 
they were still more conspicuous after his accession to the 
throne. He began by checking the inroads of numerous 
hordes of Germans, Vandals and other barbarians, who 
had advanced so far as to invade Italy itself; then after a 
short stay in the capital, he departed for the East, where 
the state of affairs demanded all his attention. 

Zenobia. — A powerful monarchy had been recently 
founded there by the illustrious queen Zenobia, a woman 
of distinguished abilities. Naturally possessed of great 
talents, she improved them by study and application; be- 
came perfectly acquainted with history, on which she her- 
self wrote a book; and besides the Syriac, her native 
tongue, knew also the Egyptian, Greek and Latin lan- 
guages, which she had learned at the school of the cele- 
brated rhetorician Longinus. After the death of her 
husband Odenat, prince of Palmyra, who had been a 
constant friend and useful ally to the Eomans, Zenobia 
took advantage of the many calamities of the empire, to 
invade its fairest provinces in Asia and Africa, and 
having established an extensive monarchy, she maintained 
her independence for five or six years with great honor 
and success. 



AURELIAN. 91 

Aurelian proceeds East. — It was against this prin- 
cess that Aurelian now directed all his efforts; one year was 
sufficient for him to put an end to her prosperity, not- 
withstanding the many obstacles that he had to surmount. 
On his way from Eome to the East, he was obliged to 
fight against numerous bodies of barbarians who pillaged 
the country. His progress was also arrested in Asia Minor 
by some towns which sided with Zenobia, Tyana, in par- 
ticular, seeming disposed to offer a vigorous resistance. 
Aurelian, exasperated at this hindrance, swore in his 
anger that he would not leave a dog alive in that auda- 
cious town; a resolution highly pleasing to the soldiers, 
who rejoiced beforehand in the hope of obtaining great 
booty. After the city was taken, the troops entreated 
Aurelian to keep his oath. " I have sworn," replied he, 
"not to leave a dog alive in Tyana: kill, then, if you will, 
all the dogs, but I forbid you to do any harm to the in- 
habitants." This generous answer, though it disappointed 
cupidity, obtained universal applause. 

In the meanwhile, Zenobia, with numerous troops, had 
come forward to oppose the further progress of Aurelian. 
After two actions which took place near Antioch, and the 
result of which was unfavorable to her cause, the two 
armies, amounting each to about seventy thousand men, 
engaged in a general battle under the walls of Emesa. At 
the first onset, the Palmyrian cavalry gained a considerable 
advantage over that of the Romans: being more numer- 
ous, and the Eomans having made a movement in order to 
extend their front and prevent themselves from being sur- 
rounded, the enemy's horse, which attacked them at that 
very instant, easily broke their disordered ranks, and put 
them to flight. But, yielding too much to their ardor, 
the conquerors caused the rest of their army to lose the 
fruit of their good fortune, by occupying themselves ex- 
clusively in the pursuit of the fugitives. The Eoman in- 
fantry, whose strength was invincible, seeing the other 
Palmyrian soldiers deprived of the assistance of their 
cavalry, made a vigorous attack upon them, and threw 
them into disorder. The cavalry of the Romans, reani- 
mated by the success of this attack, rallied and enabled 
Aurelian to gain a decisive victory. 

Siege of Palmyra. — The enemy had suffered consid- 
erable loss. Zenobia, unable to keep the field any longer, 



93 MODERN HISTORY. 

shut herself up in Palmyra^ her capital, where she was 
soon besieged by the Eomans. Palmyra, a town famous 
in antiquity, had been founded by Solomon,* and had grad- 
ually increased in prosperity and wealth, till, under 
Odenat and Zenobia, it reached a surprising degree of 
splendor, as its magnificent remains still testify. The sit- 
uation of that city in the deserts of Syria, between the 
Roman and Persian dominions, rendered it a very impor- 
tant place; the more so, as it was well fortified, and abun- 
dantly supplied with troops, arms and engines of war. 

By these means of defence, Zenobia sustained the siege 
with a courage proportioned to the vigor of the attack, so 
as to excite the admiration of Aurelian himself. "Truly 
incredible," he said in a letter which he then wrote, "is the 
quantity of darts and stones which she pours upon us; she 
does not leave us one moment of rest, day or night.'' Un- 
happily for the besieged, bodies of auxiliary troops upon 
which they relied for assistance, were defeated by Aure- 
lian, and provisions began to fail in the town. In this ex- 
tremity, the queen set out during the night, to go and im- 
plore the aid of the Persians. But the emperor, being in- 
formed of her escape, sent a detachment of cavalry, which 
overtook her, and made her a prisoner as she was about to 
cross the Euphrates. She was immediately conducted to 
Aurelian, and appeared before him with an undaunted 
air; to his question, why she had been so bold as to oppose 
the emperors of Rome, this witty and skilful princess 
answered: "You I consider as real emperor; but Gallienus 
and such as resembled him, I never thought worthy of 
that title, nor could I see any reason why I should not 
maintain my power against them, and refuse to submit to 
their control." 

Surrender of Palmyra. — On the news of the capture 
of the queen, Palmyra surrendered, and being well and 
generously treated by the conqueror, appeared to him a 
secure conquest. However, the submission of the Palmy- 
rians lasted little longer than the time of his presence 
among them: after his departure, they revolted and 
slaughtered the Roman garrison. As soon as the news of 
this treacherous act reached the emperor on his return to 
Rome, he hastened back with his victorious troops, took 

* II. Paralip. vin. 4. 



AUKELIAN. 93 

Palmyra a second time, and putting the inhabitants to the 
sword, reduced the town to a state of desolation equal to 
its former glory. As for Zenobia, she was led to Rome, 
and obtained from her conqueror an honorable retreat, 
where she spent in quiet the remainder of her life. 

Besides the eastern provinces, Aurelian also recovered 
Gaul and some other countries of the West, which, from 
the time of Grallienus, had been either occupied by the 
barbarians, or formed under their governors into separate 
states. Most of those exploits were performed with 
surprising rapidity (a.d. 273). 

Death of Aurelian. — Having thus pacified tlie whole 
empire, and restored it to its ancient limits, Aurelian ap- 
plied himself to establish order in every department of the 
public administration. He took many excellent measures 
for that purpose; but he did not sufficiently curb the vio- 
lence of his temper which prompted *him to acts of 
cruelty: his severity, after causing the death of many, 
became the occasion of his own ruin. Suspecting Mnes- 
theus, his secretary, of malversation, he threatened him 
with severe punishment; and it was well known that 
punishment usually followed his threats. Mnestheus, who 
probably knew himself to be guilty, resolved to escape the 
danger by every means in his power, even the most unlaw- 
ful. For this end he devised the following horrid plot: 
counterfeiting the emperor's hand-writing, which he had 
long copied, he drew up a proscription list of the prin- 
cipal officers of the army, and found, means to bring it to 
their notice. The officers did not suspect the forgery. 
AlaBmed at their supposed danger, they leagued to- 
gether, and, during the march of the troops whom Aure- 
lian was then leading against the Persians, they fell upon 
him at a moment when he was accompanied by a small 
guard, and despatched him with their swords, in the fifth 
year of his reign, and sixty-third of his age. All his 
murderers were punished, Mnestheus first, and the others 
sooner or later; and though Aurelian was little regretted 
by some persons, the people and the army seemed to vie 
with each other in honoring the memory of a prince who, 
notwithstanding the short duration of his government, 
had rendered highly important services to the empire 
(A.D. 275). 

The Christians did not at first sufEer any particular 



94 MODEEN HISTORY. 

hardship from Aurelian; he rather seemed disposed to 
treat them according to the laws of equity, as he did 
his other subjects. But his feelings being afterwards 
changed in their regard, the ninth general persecution 
broke out, and though short, made many martyrs. 

TACITUS.— A.D. 275-276. 

The death of Aurelian gave rise to an event almost un- 
exampled in history, a protracted contest of mutual defer- 
ence between the army and the senate. During the space 
of six or eight months, they several times referred to each 
other the election of a sovereign; and, what is still more 
extraordinary, affairs remained perfectly quiet all that 
time. 

At last the senate, yielding to the wishes of the troops, 
named Tacitus, one of its own members, a man of great 
wisdom and experience, and a descendant, so at least he 
considered himself, of the illustrious historian of the same 
name. He accepted the dangerous dignity with a reluc- 
tance which appeared as unfeigned as it was reasonable 
and just; for, notwithstanding the equity of his adminis- 
tration and the success of his exertions against the barba- 
rians, he was after a very short reign killed by a rebellious 
soldiery. Some relate however that he died of a fever. 

PROBUS.— A.D. 276-282. 

The legions of the East now raised to the throne their 
commander Probus, a general of uncommon merit, and 
who, to genuine probity signified by his name, joined a 
surprising courage and greatness of soul. A prince of this 
character was peculiarly fitted for the time and circum- 
stances in which he lived. The empire was attacked on all 
sides by the barbarians: Probus defeated them all, and 
drove them back beyond the frontiers; the Germans es- 
pecially felt the invincible strength of arms, by the heavy 
losses which he inflicted on their nation. In a single cam- 
paign he destroyed four hundred thousand of them, and 
those who escaped were so much intimidated, that, for 
several years, they did not venture to renew their incur- 
sions. 



PKOBUS. 95 

Probus resolved also to check the pride of the Persians, 
and marching into the East, stationed his troops upon the 
mountains of Armenia, from which the enemy's country 
was seen. Here he received ambassadors from the Per- 
sian king Varanes; the audience which they obtained, 
recalls to mind the plainness and magnanimity of the 
Romans of ancient times. Probus was seated on the 
grass, and eating his dinner, which consisted of old peas 
and salt meat, when the Persian ambassadors arrived in 
his presence, "I am," said he to them, " the Roman em- 
peror; go and tell your master, that if he does not, on 
this very day, bind himself to repair the damage which he 
has done to the Romans, he will see, before the end of the 
month, every part of his kingdom laid waste, and as bare 
as my head is." At the same time he took off his cap, to 
let them see his head which was entirely bald. He added 
that, if they wished to eat, they were welcome to a part 
of his dinner; if not, they must leave the camp without 
delay, their commission being executed. The king of 
Persia, alarmed at this news, hastened in person to the 
camp of the Romans, and concluded the treaty on the 
conditions laid down by the emperor. 

Probus' character. — Not long after this, Probus, to 
prevent the soldiers from remaining idle, made them 
drain a marsh near Syrmium in Pannonia. They revolted, 
and killed this most excellent emperor, whose loss was se- 
riously felt and very Justly regretted by the whole empire. 
For, among all the princes that ever sat upon the throne 
of the Caesars, it would be difficult to name one superior 
to Probus. Though always successful in war, he had re- 
course to arms through necessity only, preferring honor- 
able peace to military glory. As moderate perhaps as 
Marcus-Aurelius, he was more fit for war; as a general, at 
least equal to Aureliau, he was milder and more gentle in 
his disposition, always attentive to the happiness of his 
subjects, always engaged in useful undertakings, and in 
endeavoring to make the labor of his soldiers conducive to 
the advantages of peace. During his reign, a space of 
about six years, he built or repaired seventy cities, and 
formed a great number of excellent generals, several of 
whom successively became emperors after him, viz., Carus, 
Diocletian, Maximian-Hercules and Constantius-Chlorus. 
The empire, raised from its declining state by Claudius II,, 



96 MODERN HISTORY. 

and restored to its former glory by Aurelian, attained 
under Probus its greatest splendor; and, had not the 
crime of the soldiers shortened his days, he might have 
revived the fortunate age of Antoninus or of Augustus. 

CARUS AND HIS TWO SOWS CARINUS AND NU- 
MERIAN.— A.D., 282-2S4. 

After the death of Probus in 282, Carus, the com- 
mander of the praetorian guard, was judged by the soldiers 
worthy of filling his place. He reigned sixteen months, 
during which he found sufficient time to overthrow the 
Sarmatians in a great battle, and, besides defeating the 
Persians also on different occasions, took some of their 
principal cities, and carried terror into the very heart of 
their empire. He intended to pursue his advantage fur- 
ther, but was killed, according to common report, by a 
thunderbolt, while in his tent near the river Tigris. 

He left two sons, Carinus and Numerian; the former, a 
profligate and brutal, the latter, a gentle and learned 
prince, and so fond of his father, that he lost his sight 
by weeping for the death of Carus. Both seemed to 
have mounted the throne only to be assassinated; Nume- 
rian, by his father-in-law, while he was borne in a litter; 
and Carinus, during a battle, by one of his officers. 

DIOCL.ETIAN AND MAXIMIAN, 

afterwards 

CONSTANTIUS-CHLORUS AND OAI.ERIUS.— 
A.D. 284-305. 

Two Aug"usti. — Diocletian had no share in the mur- 
der of his predecessors; but, upon the unanimous choice 
of the army, he willingly occupied their place, for which 
his high office in the army seemed to have fitted him. 
Shortly after his accession, he associated with himself in 
the government of the state, Maximian, surnamed Hercu- 
les, a greater warrior than himself, though not so skilful a 
politician. Both of them sustained by their victories 
against the surrounding barbarians, the majesty and repu- 
tation of the empire; Great Britain, however, was severed 
from it for ten years under the skilful usurper Carausius 
and his successor Allectus. 



DIOCLETIAN AND MAXIMIAK 97 

Two Caesars. — But the hostile tribes of Pannonia and 
Grermany seemed to be multiplied by their defeats, and 
meditated new invasions. In order to oppose so many en- 
emies with greater facility and success, it was resolved by 
the two emperors, that each one of them should take an 
assistant, with the inferior title of Caesar. The choice of 
Maximian fell on Oonstantius-Ohlorus, a man still more 
worthy of esteem for his equity, wisdom and liberality, 
than for his noble extraction and great ability in arms. 
He ruled with admirable prudence the portion of the em- 
pire allotted to him, namely, Spain, Gaul and Great 
Britain, which last he reconquered. The barbarians were 
overcome by his repeated victories, and the people enjoyed 
great happiness under his truly paternal government; in 
return, he possessed the affection of all, as the following 
anecdote, related by Eusebius, testifies.* 

Constantius, for fear of distressing his provinces, levied 
so few taxes that the treasury was empty. Diocletian, 
who was of a very different disposition, sent to reprove 
him for his neglect. Constantius requested the deputies 
to remain for some days with him, and during that inter- 
val, sent notice to the richest inhabitants of the provinces 
that he was in want of money; all hastened to bring their 
gold and silver to the treasury, which was soon filled. 
Then Constantius requested the deputies to examine the 
money, and said to them: ''All that you see has long 
since been mine; but I had left it in trust in the hands of 
my people." He then returned the whole to the owners; 
being certain of obtaining the same assistance, whenever 
he would be in want, and Justly persuaded that the safest 
treasure of a prince is the love of his subjects. 

War with Persia. — The choice which Diocletian 
made of Galerius for his assistant in the East, was not so 
happy. This Galerius had been a cow-herd, and, though 
he afterwards passed through the usual military grades, 
he still retained much of his low origin. In his actions as 
well as his corpulence, there was much more to inspire 
aversion and terror, than to conciliate affection and 
esteem, f His only talent was for war, and even in war 

* Eusebius, in vita Constant, lib. I. c. 14. 

t Erat corpus moribus congruens, status celsus, caro ingens, et in hor- 
rendam magnitudinem diffusa et inflata. Denique et verbis, et actibus, et 
aspectu, terrori omnibus ac formidini fuit. — Lactantius, De Morte Perse- 
cutorum rx. 
7 



98 MODERN HISTORY. 

he sometimes evinced greater valor than prudence: being 
sent by Diocletian to oppose the Persian king Narses, 
who threatened Syria with an invasion, he imprudently 
risked a battle with a small number of troops, and was 
defeated. The emperor, who liked nothing so much as 
prudence, was indignant at a defeat caused by such temer- 
ity, and when Galerius returned, wishing to make him 
feel his displeasure, he let him follow his car a considera- 
ble way on foot, though vested in purple. 

Galerius, instead of being discouraged by these affronts, 
conceived a most ardent desire of effacing the disgrace of 
his defeat. Ke succeeded beyond expectation: with a 
body of twenty-five thousand men, he attacked the Per- 
sians in their camp, killed twenty thousand of their num- 
bers, and took a great number of prisoners, with an 
immense booty. Narses, thus deprived of his army and 
resources by a single blow, sued for peace, which was 
granted him upon the cession of several provinces (a.d. 
297). 

If Galerius had been humbled by his defeat, he was not 
less elated with his victory: he from that time assumed a 
greater share of authority in the government, and chiefly 
directed his exertions against the Christian religion. His 
mother, a peevish woman and much devoted to the wor- 
ship of her idols, had inspired him with a mortal hatred 
against the Christians, and he left nothing undone to 
prevail upon Diocletian to persecute them to death. The 
emperor, naturally moderate, for a long time rejected the 
cruel proposal. Galerius then had recourse to the cal- 
umny formerly made use of by Nero on a similar occa- 
sion; by secret orders and management, he caused the 
imperial palace at N"icomedia to be set on fire, laid the 
odious deed to the charge of the Christians, and the bet- 
ter to show his conviction of their guilt, ran away with 
apparent fright, saying that he did not like to be burnt 
by those enemies of both gods and emperors. 

General persecution of Christians. — At length 
Diocletian yielded, and in the year 303, issued his edicts 
for the tenth general persecution, the most violent and 
bloody that the Church ever suffered. Eacks and fires, 
boiling oil and melted lead, sharp stakes and red hot 
pincers, in a word the most acute and exquisite torments 
were employed against the worshippers of Christ, and of 



J 



DIOCLETIAN AND MAXIMIAN. 99 

every age, rank and state of society, were the innumer- 
able victims of that frightful persecution. A particular 
account of its enormities belongs rather to Ecclesiastical. 
History. It suffices here to say, with Lactautius and 
Eusebius, both grave, learned and contemporary histo- 
rians, that the whole earth, with the exception of Gaul, 
was a prey to the fury of three wild beasts,* and that it is 
impossible to tell how many offered themselves in every 
city and country, as martyrs in the cause of Christ, f At 
Nicomedia, where the persecution commenced, persons of 
every description were put to death: on account of their 
numbers, whole companies were burned together, while 
others were cast into the sea or beheaded; many perished 
in this manner with their bishop Anthimus. At Tarsuis, 
Alexandria, Antioch, in Mesopotamia, Pontus, etc., 
crowds of Christians were likewise tortured in different 
ways. In Thebais, it frequently happened, during the 
course of several years, that from ten to a hundred per- 
sons suffered martyrdom together on the same day. A 
little before, in the north of Italy, six thousand six hun- 
dred soldiers, who composed the Theban legion, chose to 
be butohered by their companions, rather than renounce 
their faith. In Phrygia, a whole town, inhabited entirely 
by Christians, was surrounded by a large body of soldiers, 
who set fire to it, and all the inhabitants were consumed 
in the flames, while invoking the name of our Saviour. J 

In a word, such was the rage of the persecutors, and 
such the quantity of Christian blood spilt by them 
throughout the empire, that they impiously boasted for a 
time of having destroyed Christianity. But they boasted 
in vain; the Church of Christ stood, under the sword of 
persecution, as firm and strong as ever, whereas dreadful 
calamities began to fall on its persecutors. 

Diocletian's resignation and death. — Diocletian 
had hitherto reigned with great glory, and with a 
superiority of political talents that conciliated to him the 
respect of all his associates in the empire; but, in the 
year 304, he lost his health, and various misfortunes 
harassed him and frequently disturbed his reason. In 



* Lactant. De Morte Pers. n. xvi. 
t Euseb. Eccles, Hist. lib. vin, c. 4. 
1 See note C. 



100 MODERN HISTORY. 

that state, Galerius advised, or rather compelled him by 
threats to give up the government, and to quit, together 
with Maximian, the imperial purple. They did so in 305, 
and were thus reduced to the condition of private citizens; 
whilst Constantius-Ohlorus and Galerius became emperors, 
two new Caesars being appointed to fill their vacant 
places. 

After his resignation, Diocletian retired to Salona in 
Dalmatia, his native country, wtiere he lived eight years 
longer, amusing himself in the culture of a small garden; 
an occupation which he began to prefer to the honors of 
the throne. But life became burdensome to him, when 
he learned the destruction of his statutes and the triumph 
of Christianity under Constantine. Lactantius relates* 
that, seeing himself despised and loaded with disgrace, 
he was in perpetual uneasiness, and could neither eat nor 
sleep; he was heard to sigh and groan continually, fre- 
quently shed tears, and threw himself sometimes on his 
bed, sometimes on the ground. At last excessive grief 
and starvation, and perhaps poison, carried him off in the 
sixty-eighth year of his age. 

Fate of Maximian. — The fate of Maximian was 
not less wretched. He attempted two or three times, 
but in vain, to resume the sovereign power which he had 
abdicated, and even to murder his son-in-law, Constan- 
tine. Being detected, he hanged himself in despair. 

Death of Galerius. — The justice of God, however, 
nowhere appeared more visible than in the death of 
Galerius, who had been the most cruel of these barbarous 
persecutors. He was attacked with a frightful disease; 
the same exactly which, in more ancient times, had afflict- 
ed the impious kings Antiochus and Herod Agrippa, for 
having also waged war against God and his servants, f 
An ulcer corroded and laid open his very bowels. His 
body became a mass of corruption, and swarmed with 
vermin: the stench infected, not only his palace, but also 
the whole neighborhood in the city of Sardica, and was 
intolerable even to his own servants, as Eusebius testifies. J 
His pains were so acute as to wring from him the most 
agonizing cries; nor could any means be devised to allevi- 

* Be Mort. Persec. n. 42. 

t 2 I^Iacchab. ix. — Act. Apost. xii. 

j Eccles. Hist. I. vin. c. 16- 



DIOCLETIAN AND MAXIMIAN. 101 

ate his sufferings: the horrid distemper continued to 
increase in violence, till at length it put an end to the 
emperor's life, in the nineteenth year of his reign, 

Constantius-Chlorus. — Thus did the persecutors of 
Christianity disappear from the earth, with the evident 
marks of the wrath of God upon them. As Constantius- 
Chlorus had not imitated their example, so likewise he did 
not share in their disasters. If he could not easily prevent 
all acts of violence in the provinces which were under his 
jurisdiction, he himself at least never tormented the Chris- 
tians; on the contrary, he always manifested the most favor- 
able dispositions towards them. When the bloody edicts 
of Diocletian were brought to him, he feigned at first to be 
willing to put them in execution: assembling the Chris- 
tians of his palace, he told them that they must, in com- 
pliance with the imperial orders, renounce either their 
religion, or their employments and dignities. Some 
indeed were not ashamed to sacrifice spiritual to temporal 
interest; but the majority appeared fully disposed to lose 
everything on earth for conscience' sake. Then Constan- 
tius, disclosing his real sentiments, dismissed the former 
from his service, saying that persons so attached to their 
OAvn interests, and so treacherous to their God, would not 
be more faithful to their prince. But he kept near his 
person those who had continued firm in their faith, 
declaring them worthy to be intrusted with the care of 
his most important concerns. 

One thing gave him much uneasiness, namely, the 
absence of his eldest son, Constantine, who having been 
long before sent to the court of Diocletian as a hostage 
for his father's fidelity, was unjustly detained there by 
Galerius, and charged by this wicked prince with a 
thousand perilous commissions. Constantius, informed 
of these continual dangers to which his son was exposed, 
most urgently solicited his return; to this, at last, Gale- 
rius pretended to consent, by giving the young prince 
permission to set out on the following day from Nico- 
media, yet resolving at the same time, to find some new 
pretext for delay. But Constantine, aware of the danger, 
started at night without the knowledge of the treacher- 
ous emperor, and travelled with the utmost haste, taking 
care to kill or disable all the post-horses on his road, to 
prevent the possibility of his being overtaken. The fol- 



102 MODERN HISTORY. 

lowing day, Galerius was transported with rage at the 
news of his escape, and ordered that he should be pur- 
sued; both his rage and order were equally unavailing: 
Constantine was already beyond the reach of danger. 

His Death. — He joined his father just in time to 
close the eyes of that excellent prince, who died at York 
in Great Britain (a.d. 306). Constantius displayed, in 
his last moments, the same wisdom and prudence which 
had characterized his whole life. Instead of meeting 
with any of the catastrophes which befell contemporary 
princes, he quietly expired in the midst of an affection- 
ate family, having the consolation of leaving behind 
him a son perfectly worthy of being his successor, and 
who was moreover destined by Divine Providence to be 
the first emperor that should make an open profession of 
Christianity, and give peace to the Church after three 
hundred years of sufferings. 



PART II. 

FROM THE ACCESSION OF CONSTANTINE (A.D. 306) TO THE DOWIf. 
FALL, OF "BHE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE WEST (A.D. 476). 

€OBf§TAIVTIXE THE OREAT.— A.D. 306-337. 

Possessed of an elevated genius, heroic valor, a noble 
appearance, and a generous heart, Constantine seemed 
from the beginning, well qualified to reign over the uni- 
verse. For some years, however, his authority was con- 
fined to Britain, Spain and Gaul : the other provinces 
were yet under the sway of Galerius and his associates, 
Licinius and Maximin II. ; to whom must be added 
the son of Maximian-Hercules, Maxentius, who had made 
himself master of Rome and of all Italy. 

Besides this partition of the empire, which necessarily 
weakened the forces of each emperor, the dominions of 
Constantine were much exposed to the inroads of the 
German tribes, and particularly of the Franks. He en- 
gaged in a long struggle against them, and on his part 
conducted it with great vigor and severity, allowing no 
quarter in order to force them into submission. They 
werei checked for a time ; and when they began to med- 
itate new attacks, he sent against them his eldest son 
Crispus, who gained a signal victory, and joyfully re- 
turned through snow and ice to offer his father the fruits 
of his first triumph. The Franks, after this severe 
lesson, remained quiet during the whole reign of Con- 
stantine. 

War against Maxentius.— He had now to contend 
with more formidable enemies. Maxentius, the tyrant of 
Rome, a prince sullied with every vice, had declared his 
hostile designs against him, and was ready to support 
them by the force of arms, having, one hundred and 
eighty-eight thousand warriors at his command. Con- 
stantine had scarcely half that number, and was moreover 

103 



104 MODEEN HISTORY. 

obliged to leave a part of his army in Gaul, to defend its 
frontiers against the barbarians. Aware of this great 
disparity of forces, he began to think of obtaining the as- 
sistance of heaven : the dreadful fate of the persecutors 
of Christianity had already given him some just ideas re- 
specting the true God whom the Christians adored ; that 
God he fervently invoked, entreating him to be his pro- 
tector, and the Almighty heard a prayer which came from 
a sincere and upright heart. 

" Hoc signo vinces. " — As the emperor was march- 
ing with his troops into Italy, on a certain day in the 
afternoon, he saw in the sky, just over the sun, the fig- 
ure of a luminous cross, with the following inscription : 
(EN T0YTi2 NIK A) In THIS CONQUER. His army also saw 
the splendid prodigy, which struck all the beholders 
with astonishment.* Constantine was inspired to make 
a representation of that cross, and to use it as a standard 
in battle. He accordingly made the famous banner 
called Laharum, and being thus encouraged by evident 
marks of the divine protection, confidently commenced 
the war against Maxentius. 

He first presented himself before Suza, a strong town 
at the entrance of Italy, took it by storm, and then ad- 
vanced towards Turin. He found there an army waiting 
in good order and ready to give him battle ; a body of 
horse completely armed after the manner of the eastern 
cavalry, was its principal strength. Constantine, who 
knew that these cuirassiers, confined as they were in their 
armor, could only advance, and that the least motion 
either backward or to either side was extremely difficult 
for them, opened his ranks to receive them, and immedi- 
ately his soldiers, with great clubs, struck down both 
horses and riders, and killed them all, without losing a 
single man on their side. The rest of the army of Max- 
entius was easily and completely routed. Turin received 
the conqueror with joy ; Milan, soon after did the same, 
and the whole country on the left of the Po, from Turin 



* The miraculous apparition of the cross to Constantine is placed be- 
yond the reach of reasonable doubt, by the concurring testimony of Soc- 
rates the historian, Sozomen, Philostorgius, etc., but especially of Euse- 
bius, who expressly declares that he had learned it from the mouth of 
Constantine himself, who confirmed the assertion with his oath. — Euseb. 
in vit& Constant. Hi. 1, c. 27, 28. 




RUINS OP THE BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE. 



CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. 105 

to Brescia, willingly accepted his laws. His mildness 
greatly served to facilitate his conquests : he was not one 
of those haughty conquerors who mark their progress 
with terror and devastation ; on the contrary, the cities 
which submitted to him had reason to rejoice at their good 
fortune, as they experienced from him nothing but benev- 
olence and generosity. 

At Brescia, he was again opposed by a great body of 
horse ; but this also yielded and retreated towards Verona, 
where a fresh and numerous army had been assembled, 
by order of Maxentius, under the command of Euricius 
Pompeianus, a general of great repute. Constantino, hav- 
ing safely crossed the Adige, did not hesitate to be- 
siege Verona, and successfully repelled all the attacks 
made' to hinder his approach. Euricius fearing that the 
city would soon be compelled to surrender, secretly with- 
drew, and raising a new supply of troops, returned with 
them in order to fight Constantino, and force him to 
abandon the siege. The emperor was, by that means, 
between the city and an army of enemies coming to attack 
him in his camp. In this perplexing situation, he formed 
his plan with equal bravery and judgment, and leaving 
a part of his troops to continue the siege of Verona, 
marched with the rest against Euricius. He had fewer 
men than his adversary, and was obliged to draw up his 
whole army in a single line, in order to present a front 
equal to that of the enemy. But his prudence and valor 
made him a match for the foe, notwithstanding this dis- 
parity of numbers. No sooner had he given the signal, 
than he threw himself into the thickest of the battle, 
with so little regard for his own safety, that his principal 
officers thought themselves bound to complain of it after 
the victory, and to entreat him, with tears in their eyes, 
not to expose his life so much in future. 

The battle having commenced late in the evening, 
lasted until the night was far spent. Euricius was killed 
upon the spot ; his army was destroyed or dispersed ; and 
the besieged city, having no longer any hope, surrendered 
to the conqueror. The neighboring towns followed the 
example, and the whole country, as far as Eome, sub- 
mitted to Constantino, who soon appeared at the head 
of his victorious army, in sight of that capital. 

Maxentius, who had hitherto remained in Eome, wai at 



106 MODERN HISTORY. 

last prevailed upon to pnt himself at the head of his re- 
maining legions. He accordingly marched out of the 
city, and set them in battle array along the Tiber ; Con- 
stantine, on his side, when he drew near the enemy, ar- 
ranged his troops as advantageously as possible. During 
the battle, he displayed his usual skill as a. warrior and a 
general, and was so well seconded by his officers and sol- 
diers, that the numerous troops of Maxentius were broken 
almost at the first onset. Those resisting were cut to 
pieces ; the rest endeavored to cross the Tiber, either over 
a bridge or by swimming ; but the bridge being broken 
by some accident, or by the weight and multitude of the 
fugitives, most of them were drowned, and Maxentius 
also perished. This happened on the twenty-eighth of 
October (a.d. 313). 

Constantine enters Rome. — On the following day, 
Constantine made his solemn entry into Kbme, where he 
was received with universal applause and exultation, as 
the deliverer of the empire. In order to transmit to 
posterity the memory of these great events, a magnifi- 
cent triumphal arch which is yet extant, was built at the 
foot of Mount Palatine, near the amphitheatre of Vespa- 
sian. A statue also was erected in one of the public places 
of the city, representing the conqueror with a cross in his 
hand, and bearing the following inscription, a token of 
his religious gratitude : "By this salutary sign, the true 
mark of courage, I have delivered your city from the yoke 
of the tyrants, and restored the senate and the people of 
Eome to their ancient splendor." 

Christianity recognized by the State. — Constan- 
tine made no other use of the great power he had acquired 
by his victory, than to disband the praetorians, whom he 
reduced to the rank af common soldiers, and to destroy 
their camp, which had been so frequently, since the reign 
of Tiberius, the scene of disorder and rebellion. He made 
no changes in the government, magistracy and offices, and 
abrogated no laws, except such as were useless or unjust, 
e. g. those against the Christians, which he expressly an- 
nulled by a solem_n edict. Moreover, he himself began 
from that time to give his open support to Christianity, 
and to build splendid churches in honor of the true God, 
by whom he had been so visibly protected. By his edict 
of Milan, in 313, he put it on an equal footing with pa- 



CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. 107 

ganism, and by that of Nicomedia ten years later, he 
practically made it the state religion, though himself still 
a heathen. It was only tovvai-ds the close of his earthly 
career that at tlie hands of an Arian bishop, he openly 
embi'aced the Christian faith. 

Licinius in the East. — About the time when Rome 
and Italy were delivered from the tyranny of Maxentius, 
Asia was likewise rescued from her tyrant Maximin II., 
one of the two Caesars formerly appointed by Galerius, and, 
like him, one of the most cruel persecutors of the Church 
of Christ. Blinded by his ambition, he invaded the prov- 
inces of Licinius, but was conquered, near Byzantium, by 
a much smaller army than his own. The conquerors pur- 
sued him as far as Tarsus in Cilicia, where seeing himself 
almost in the hands of his enemy, he tried to shorten his 
life by poison. The poison instead of producing immedi- 
ate effect, brought on a dreadful disease: he was inwardly 
burnt, with excruciating tortures: in the excess of his 
pains, he rolled himself on the ground, and roaring in a 
frightful manner, dashed his head against the walls with 
such violence, that his eyes started from their sockets: a 
visible punishment of the cruelty with which he had 
caused the eyes of numbers of Christians to be put out, 
during the persecution. He expired, after several days 
of intolerable sufferings, in rage and despair. 

By his death, Licinius remained sole sovereign in the 
East. But Licinius himself, although a skilful general, 
was a cruel and worthless prince, an enemy to men of 
learning, and, in his heart, a foe to religion, though to 
please Constantine, he at first joined with him in publish- 
ing edicts in favor of the Christians. Believing himself 
injured by the proposal of his colleague for a new and 
more adequate division of the empire, he raised armies to 
oppose the armies of Constantine. The two emperors, each 
at the head of his troops, met near Cibalis in Pannonia, 
where they commenced a sharp and well contested battle. 
It lasted from morning till night; when at length Constan- 
tine's right wing began to obtain a decided advantage, 
which led in a short time to a complete victory. Licinius, 
finding himself totally defeated, fled to Syrmium, and 
thence t© Adrianople in Thrace, where he hastened to 
raise new forces, in order to stop the progress of his enemy. 
Accordingly, another battle was fought near a place named 



108 MODERN HISTORY. 

Mardia. Here neither of the parties could claim the vic- 
tory, nor could either of them be said to have been van- 
quished, though Licinius suffered more than his adversary;* 
but their nearly equal losses induced a compromise. 
Constantine, on account of his previous success and great- 
er actual resources, dictated the terms of the treaty, and 
obtained a considerable increase of his dominions (a.d. 
314). 

Constantine sole emperor 323.— This treaty, though 
greatly disadvantageous to Licinius, was not, like most 
treaties of the kind, of short duration. It lasted eight 
years, during which the empire was enabled to recover 
from the continual shocks and disturbances it had suf- 
fered ever since the death of Constant] us-Chlorus. But, 
in the year 323, hostilities were again provoked by Li- 
cinius. Constantine, ever quick and active, immediately 
entered his enemy^s territory, and went in search of 
him, with an army of one hundred and twenty thousand 
foot and ten thousand horse. The troops of Licinius 
amounted to one hundred and fifty thousand infantry and 
fifteen thousand cavalry. He had, besides, a powerful 
fleet consisting of three hundred and fifty galleys, to 
which Constantine could only oppose two hundred gal- 
leys, under the command of his son Crispus. 

The two land armies came in sight of each other near 
Adrianople, but were still separated by the river Hebrus. 
Licinius, being advantageously posted upon an eminence, 
kept himself on the defensive. Constantine earnestly 
desired to attack him, and as the river was an obstacle, 
his warlike ardor, which could not bear a state of inac- 
tivity, made him contrive a stratagem to surprise the 
enemy. He ordered a quantity of wood to be cut, and 
cables to be prepared, as if he intended to throw a bridge 
over the Hebrus, and while the men of Licinius were 
trying to impede the progress of this work, Constantine, 
with a small detachment, went higher up the river, to a 
place where he knew it to be fordable, and crossing it at 
the head of some horsemen, was soon after followed by 
his whole army. Licinius, thus unexpectedly attacked, 
and unable to retreat, was forced to fight. A great part 

* This was, during the long reign of Constantine, the only battle in 
which he was not completely victorious. 



I 



CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. 109 

of his troops made but little resistance: they were discon- 
certed by the success of the enemy in passing the river, 
while the troops of Constantino were elated with the 
hope of victory. The event justified the fears of one 
party, and the expectations of the other. The army of 
Licinius was completely defeated, and his camp forced 
and taken; he himself fled with all possible speed to 
Byzantium, leaving thirty-three thousand of his men on 
the field of battle, the rest having scattered themselves 
through the neighboring woods and mountains. During 
the following days, all these vanquished fugitives surren- 
dered, and were kindly received. 

Constantino pursued Licinius, and blocked him up by 
land in Byzantium. In the meanwhile, two naval battles 
were fought on the narrow seas between Europe and Asia, 
in which Crispus, though much inferior in forces, so well 
availed himself first of the narrowness of the strait, and 
then of a strong and favorable wind, that the enemy's 
fleet was almost entirely destroyed. This enabled the 
victorious fleet of Constantino to advance towards Byzan- 
tium and to blockade it by sea^ as it was already besieged 
by land. Licinius, aware of the imminent danger that 
threatened him, fled to Chalcedon on the opposite shore, 
not despairing of being still able to raise a sufficient force 
to try his fortune again. 

Surrender and death of Licinius. — He was indeed 
thus far successful; for we find him at the head of 
one hundred and thirty thousand men, when his adver- 
sary, likewise crossing the strait, overtook him on the 
other side. The armies engaged near Chrysopolis, a 
suburb of Chalcedon; and Licinius, in spite of all his 
efforts, experienced a new and signal overthrow. One 
hundred thousand of his men were either killed or taken 
prisoners, the rest dispersed, and he himself, seeing his 
party entirely ruined, consented to surrender (a.d. 323). 
He obtained leave to retire to Thessalonica, but shortly 
after was put to death, with his son and his chief general, 
either because he meditated new disturbances, or for 
other political reasons on the part of Constantino, who 
perhaps did not in this transaction sufficiently consult the 
natural generosity of his heart. 

The other partisans of Licinius received much better 
treatment from the conqueror, being left by him in the 



110 MODERN HISTORY. 

full possession of their estates and dignities. This clem- 
ency, not less than the perfect ability with which he had 
conducted the war, subdued to his power all the provinces 
of the East, and he was now acknowledged, without fur- 
ther obstacle, in the whole empire. Being thus free from 
the occupations and tumults of warfare, he applied him- 
self to repair the evils of past disturbances by the advan- 
tages of a profound and lasting peace. He enacted a 
variety of excellent laws, some in favor of poor laborers, 
children, orphans, widows, prisoners and slaves; others 
against iniquitous judges and governors, in a word, 
against all the oppression of his people. In a rescript 
which he addressed to all the subjects of the empire, he 
thus expressed himself: *'If any one, of what rank and 
condition soever he may be, is confident that he can 
plainly and manifestly prove any injustice done to him by 
those who exercise authority in my name, let him apply 
to me personally; I will myself hear him; I will take cog- 
nizance of the cause; and if 1 find his allegations true, I 
will severely punish the man who shall have deceived me 
by a false appearance of integrity. So may the Almighty 
always favor and protect me, and keep the republic safe 
and flourishing.'^ 

Such were the admirable views of Oonstantine with 
regard to the civil administration. He likewise applied 
himself with great care to maintain good order among the 
troops, and his zeal was crowned with success. It is 
remarkable that in the great number of civil wars in 
which he was engaged, no mutiny, no revolt occurred in 
his armies. He owed the lasting tranquillity he enjoyed 
in this respect, to his great qualities which commanded 
the esteem and admiration of his ofiicers and soldiers, and 
to his behavior towards them, which was properly tem- 
pered with indulgence and resolution. 

Like all other great princes of every age and country, 
Oonstantine loved and patronized letters. He himself 
cultivated them, and endeavored to procure the same 
advantage for his sons, Crispus, Oonstantine, Constantius 
and Constans, giving them all an education suitable to 
their birth, and to the high rank to which they were des- 
tined. Besides choosing for them excellent masters in 
every department of literature, he himself was their first 
master, instructing them in Christian piety, in the sci- 



CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. IH 

ence of government, and in military exercises. He taught 
them early the necessity and pleasure of doing good, by 
employing their tender hands, as soon as they could write, 
in signing gratuities and rewards. 

Council of Nice 325 — This great and good prince 
was particularly anxious to make Christianity flourish. 
Nothing afforded him more pleasure than to learn its 
daily progress, and he himself contributed towards its 
advancement by his exhortation and example. "While he 
gloried in openly professing that holy religion, he invited 
by an edict all his subjects, without however forcing any 
one, to renounce their old superstitions, and embrace the 
true faith which Almighty God had manifested to the 
whole world in so signal a manner. The zealous em- 
peror endeavored also by letters to inspire Sapor II., king 
of Persia, with favorable sentiments towards the Chris- 
tians of his kingdom; and not being able to succeed in 
this, he granted a safe and honorable retreat to those who 
were compelled to fly from the persecution raging in their 
country. Moreover, it was through his protection that 
the first general council of the Church was convened at 
Nice in Bithynia (a.d. 325). In this venerable assem- 
bly, three hundred and eighteen bishops, together with 
the legates of Pope St. Sylvester, condemned the Arian 
heresy with its author Arius, who, contrary to the 
Scriptures and to the belief of preceding ages, denied 
the divinity of Christ. 

Until about that time, Constantine had reigned with 
such wisdom and happiness as to have made him 
equal, perhaps superior, to the most accomplished and 
celebrated princes. But in the last twelve years of his 
life, he tarnished in some degree the great glory which 
he had previously acquired. An excessive goodness made 
him leave unpunished the bad practices of many among 
the magistrates and other public oflBcers ; this gave rise to 
a greater number of vexations and miseries among the 
people. He also too easily gave credit to crafty and 
hypocritical persons, who abused his confidence, and in- 
duced him to banish, or exclude from favor, some of the 
most worthy men of the empire. His greatest fault was 
towards his own son Crispus, a young prince of uncom- 
mon merit; the emperor was so far deceived by an artful 
calumny, as to believe him guUty of an atrocious design, 



112 MODERN HISTORY. 

and, in the first moment of his indignation, caused him 
to be put to death. He soon detected the falsehood, and 
severely punished its authors; too late however for the 
unfortunate Crispus, whose hasty execution he could but 
bitterly lament. 

Constantinople founded. — Constantine is likewise re- 
proached with some faults in his administration and polit- 
ical views, chiefly with having disunited the empire by 
the foundation of a second capital. How far this can be 
just matter of reproach, it is difficult to determine: the 
emperor's intention seems to have been pure, and worthy 
of a Christian prince. Wishing to make his residence in 
a place entirely purged from the remains of idolatry, and 
being exceedingly pleased with the situation of Byzantium 
in Thrace, he built on that spot a magnificent city, called 
from his name Constantinople, and from that time estab- 
lished in it the principal seat of the empire (a.d. 330). 

The faults of Constantine, though real stains on his 
memory, must not however destroy the esteem and admi- 
ration due to his eminent qualities. Activity, application 
to affairs, piety and benevolence always shone conspicuous 
in him.* His alms to the poor and to all persons in dis- 
tress, were immense; his inclination to forgive injuries, 
was wonderful. In a revolt which occurred in Egypt, 
probably at Alexandria, the mutinous populace insulted 
the statues of the emperor; the courtiers, in order to 
aggravate the crime of the seditious represented that 
they had gone so far as to throw stones at the face of their 
prince, which still bore the marks of so foul an outrage. 
Upon this, Constantine, with a smile, put his hands to 
his face, and mildly answered: *^I do not feel any hurt;" 
thus refuting the exaggerated charge of the courtiers, and 
reducing them to silence by a magnanimous reply which 
will never be forgotten by posterity. The emperor acted 

' * Pagan writers themselves bear testimony to the virtues of Constantine. 
Libanius asserts {orat. id) that he was always engaged m contriving or 
executing some great design for the public utility. Eutropius, in his 
Roman hist. lib. x. writes of him thus : " Vir primo imperii tempore optimis 
principibus, ultimo mediis comparandus; innumerse in eo animi corpo- 
risque virtutes claruerunt." The same, in substance, is said by Praxa- 
goras, Aurelius Victor, and others, whose testimony, not being liable to 
any charge of party; prepossession, are by far preferable to the invectives 
of the angry Zozimus and of Julian the Apostate, both of them the worthy 
predecessors of our modern infidels, in their hatred against a prince who 
Was the Constant protector of Christianity. 



CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. 133 

consistently with his principles. Pitying the frenzy of 
those who had been guilty of such disrespect^ he contented 
himself with taking proper measures to prevent the like 
disorders in future. 

Government and character of Constantine.— This 
indulgence and goodness of Constantine towards his 
people, gained him the affection of all; while his greatness 
and glory attracted the respect, not only of the Komans, 
but even of all the neighboring nations. His palace was 
crowded with ambassadors from the Germans, the Goths, 
the Sarmatians, the Persians, the Indians, the Ethiopians, 
and other distant nations, as different from each other in 
their features and complexion, as in their dress and orna- 
ments, but all filled with sentiments of deep veneration 
for the emperor. According to the difference of their 
countries and climes, they brought him a great variety of 
presents, such as crowns of gold, diadems enriched with 
precious stones, arms of a particular kind, animals un- 
known in Europe, etc. Constantine graciously received 
their presents, and in return made them others of much 
greater value. Many of these foreigners were so much 
struck at the splendor of his court, so delighted with his 
noble and affable behavior, and conceived such an esteem 
for his virtue, in proportion as they became better ac- 
quainted with him, that, forgetting their own country, 
they attached themiselves to the service of so great and so 
excellent a prince. 

The glory of arms contributed to crown the splendor of 
his latter years. He had already, during the interval of 
his wars against Licinius, defeated the Goths and the 
Sarmatians in many battles; but, that first lesson not 
having suflEiciently subdued their restless spirit, upon 
their renewing hostilities in the year 332, he again so 
signally defeated those fierce nations, that they were 
obliged to sue for peace, and to give hostages. Moreover, 
he showed the same resolution against the Persians who 
had lately attacked Mesopotamia: though much advanced 
in age, he prepared to march against them, and the mere 
terror of his name made them retire beyond the Tigris. 

Constantine's death. — Shortly after, Constantine 

fell dangerously ill, and having prepared himself for 

death by greater piety, departed this life, on the 23d of 

May (a.d. 337), at the age of nearly sixty-four, after a 

8 



114 MODERN HISTORY. 

glorious reign of thirty-one years, the longest since that 
of Augustus. The splendor of his military, political and 
religious achievements, gained him the surname of Great J 
which posterity has confirmed. No grief was ever morel 
universal, more sincere, and more strongly expressed,' 
than that occasioned by his death. No sooner was the 
melancholy event made known, than his guards rent their 
garments, and in the excess of their sorrow, beat their 
breasts and fell to the ground, calling him with lamentable 
sobs and cries their beloved master, sovereign and father. 
The tribunes, the centurions, and the soldiers seemed 
unwilling to survive a prince whose liberality they had 
constantly experienced, whose heroic valor they had so 
frequently admired on the field of battle. The inhabi- 
tants of Nicomedia ran confusedly through the streets, 
sighing and weeping; it seemed as if each family had lost 
the best of parents. In a word, all the empire, and Home 
itself, which he had left for another residence, were 
plunged in the deepest affliction; and so dear to all was 
the memory of their deceased sovereign, that both the 
people of this capital, and the many legions scattered 
through the provinces, unanimously resolved, without the 
possibility of common deliberation, to acknowledge none 
as emperors, except the sons of Constantine. 

COXSTANTIUS AWD HIS BROTHERS CONSTAN- 

TIIVE II. AMD COSfSTAXS.-A.D. 337-361. 

Division of the empire. — The three brothers divided 
the empire among themselves, in the following manner: 
Gaul, Britain and Spain were allotted to Constantine, who 
was the eldest; Italy, Illyria and Africa, to Constans, who 
was the youngest; and the provinces of the East, to Con- 
stantius. It might seem that everything had been settled 
to their common satisfaction; however, Constantine re- 
mained only a short time contented with his department. 
After several useless complaints, he endeavored to en- 
croach upon the territories of Constans, but perished in 
the attempt, being slain in ambuscade near Aquileia 
(a.d. 340). Constans then seized the estates of Constan- 
tine, and added them to his own. 

Constantius took no share in the quarrels of his brothers. 
Being moderate and humane by nature, but weak, sua* 



CONSTANTIUS AND HIS BROTHERS. II5 

picious, jealous, even cruel through ambition, and always 
surrounded by evil counsellors, who knew how to conceal 
their wickedness under the mask of virtue, he made it his 
chief occupation to disturb the Church in favor of the 
Arians, and obstinately to persecute the great St. Athana- 
sius, patriarch of Alexandria, and the other def endef s of 
the Nicene faith. He was also engaged for many years 
in opposing the repeated attacks of the Persians, and 
this he did with very little ability and success; yet the 
enemy did not gain any decisive advantage, and having 
three times assaulted the city of Nisibis, was as many 
times repelled with considerable loss. 

Constantius unites the empire. — Another revolu- 
tion in the West soon attracted the attention of Con- 
stantius. In the year 350, his brother Constans fell a 
victim to a conspiracy artfully contrived by a certain 
Magnentius, who commanded troops in Gaul, and pre- 
tended to reign in his place. At the first news of this 
disastrous event, Constantius hastened from the East to 
punish the usurper, who, on his side, had made extensive 
preparations to repel the attack. The famous battle of 
Mursa which cost the lives of sixty thousand men, decided 
the contest in favor of Constantius. After extraordinary 
exertions made by both parties, the troops of Magnentius 
were completely routed, and either destroyed by the 
cavalry of Constantius, or precipitated into the river 
Drave. In this distress, Magnentius, seeing himself on 
the point of falling into the hands of the enemy, cast off 
the imperial insignia, took the horse and garments of a 
common soldier, and fled in full speed across the Alps, 
until he arrived at Aquileia. After a short stay there, he 
retired to Lyons in Gaul, where he tried the chance of 
another battle, but was again defeated. At length, find- 
ing himself abandoned by his own troops, he put his 
family to the sword, and then killed himself, after an 
usurped reign of three years (a.d. 353). 

Julian. — Thus all the parts of the empire were again 
united under the same sovereign. But such a burden 
was too heavy for Constantius, and he himself being sen- 
sible how much he stood in need of an assistant, made 
choice, for this purpose, of his cousin Julian, who had, 
on account of his tender age, been spared in the massacre 
of his family. He conferred on him the title of Caesar, 



116 MODERN HISTORY. 

and sent him to defend the frontiers near the Ehine 
against the inroads of the Germans. After having freed 
himself from the cares of war^ he applied more than ever 
to his favorite occupation of promoting the cause of 
Arianism. By his orders, the orthodox bishops were 
driven from their sees, banished, imprisoned, and com- 
pelled by threats and ill-treatment to sign ambiguous 
formulas which might afterwards be made to serve as 
a confirmation of the heresy. But neither artifice nor 
violence could make Arianism prevail in the Church, and 
even in the midst of the storm, the far greater number of 
both the pastors and the faithful always closely adhered 
to the profession of the true faith, as is attested by St. - 
Athanasius,* Sulpitius-Severus,f and others. 

While Constantius disturbed the whole Christian flock, 
Julian was discharging his duties and fulfilling his peril- 
ous commission in Gaul with great success. This prince, 
who afterwards deserved the surname of Apostate, at first 
displayed only great qualities. His principal care was 
to re-establish good order in the provinces, and discipline 
in the armies. Attacked by numerous hordes of Alemanni 
and Franks, he not only delivered the country from their 
invasion, but entirely defeated seven of their kings in a 
great battle near Strasburg, pursued them beyond the 
Khine, and subdued them by repeated victories. 

The emperor became Jealous and alarmed at the in- 
creasing glory of the young Caesar; and, being moreover 
attacked anew by the Persians, he thought it a proper 
opportunity to deprive Julian of a considerable portion 
of his troops. Accordingly, some legions were com- 
manded to depart from Gaul into Asia. This order 
caused general discontent, both among the soldiers, and 
the inhabitants who entreated them not to abandon a 
country which they had so well defended; at last, the 
troops revolted, and proclaimed Julian emperor. With 
real or feigned reluctance, he accepted the title offered 
him by the soldiers, took the diadem, and not being able 
to settle his difference with Constantius in a peaceful 
manner, advanced as far as Sirmium to fight against that 
prince, who after all had been his benefactor as well as 

* S. Athan. Epist. ad Jovianum Imper. n. 2. 
t Sulp. Sever, hist. sacr. lib, ii. passim. 



JULIAN. 117 

sovereign. Fortunately for his cause, the death of Oon- 
stantius, which happened just at that time (November 
361), delivered him from his perplexing position, and pre- 
served the empire from the horrors of a new civil war. 

JIJL.IAIV.— A.D. »61-363. 

Apostacy of Julian. — Julian now proceeded without 
opposition to Constantinople, where he was immediately 
acknowledged emperor, as well as in all the provinces. 
The beginning of his reign was remarkable for the ardor 
with which he affected to redress the abuses of the late 
government; and it cannot be denied that he greatly im- 
proved, in a short time, many parts of the civil and mili- 
tary administration. But in this prince, good was always 
attended with evil. He aimed at nothing so much as the 
restoration of the worship of idols, and the destruction of 
the religion of Christ, which he had already publicly re- 
nounced. He pursued this twofold object with incessant 
and unaba.ted activity; though he endeavored to effect it 
more by dissimulation and artful measures, than by open 
force and violence. While all favors were lavished on a 
crowd of miserable sophists and magicians by whom he 
was constantly surrounded, the Christians experienced 
nothing from him but contempt, vexations and disgrace. 
On all occasions he loaded them with insult, and openly 
violated in their regard the most common laws of equity; 
excluding them from the rights of citizens, and from 
fair trial in the courts of justice; forbidding them to 
teach and to be taught in the schools; not admitting any 
one to offices of trust and authority; continually endeavor- 
ing to make apostates; and, notwithstanding his feigned 
moderation, often giving secret orders to put to death those 
on whom other means of seduction had produced no effect. 

The rebuilding of the temple at Jerusalem 
attempted. — Julian desired above all things to bring dis- 
credit upon the predictions of our Saviour* and of the 
prophet Daniel f concerning the entire and irreparable 
destruction of the temple of Jerusalem. Nearly three 
hundred years after it had been destroyed under Vespa- 
sian and Titus, he undertook to raise it from its ruins. 



* Matt, xxiv., 2. t Dan. ix.j 27. 



118 MODERN HISTORY. 

Although the Jews had no great share in his affection, 
he invited them, by a flattering letter, to concur in the 
enterprise; and, uniting effects with promises, he sent a 
great number of workmen to Jerusalem, ordered his treas- 
urers to furnish money and everything necessary for the 
rebuilding of the temple, and appointed one of his confi- 
dential officers, named Alypius, to enforce the execution 
of his orders. 

The news was no sooner spread abroad, than the Jews, 
elated with joy, flocked from all parts to Jerusalem. Im- 
mense quantities of stone, brick, timber and other ma- 
terials were prepared for the important work. When 
everything was in readiness, the workmen began to clear 
the ground, to dig up the earth, and to remove the old 
foundations; Jews of all ranks, young and old, 
women and children, shared in the labor, with so 
much eagerness, that some made use of silver pick- 
axes and spades, in honor of the undertaking. St. 
Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem, beheld these mighty prepara- 
tions without anxiety. Full of confidence in the divine 
predictions, he said that the Jews, far from being able to 
rebuild their temple, would, on the contrary, fully verify 
the prophecy of Christ, by entirely removing the former 
foundations which still existed, and thus be instrumen- 
tal in the literal fulfilment of what our Saviour had fore- 
told, that of all this splendid temple there should not be 
left a stone upon a stone. 

The trenches were now open, the new foundations were 
ready to be laid next morning, and the Jews already began 
to triumph; when, during the night, a sudden earthquake 
destroyed the trenches, overturned the adjacent buildings, 
and buried many workmen under the ruins: at the same 
time, the prodigious heaps of lime, sand and other ma- 
terials which had been prepared, were scattered by whirl- 
winds. This first failure astonished the Jews, but did 
not conquer their obstinacy; and they again set to work, 
under the direction of Alypius. At this moment, from 
the bowels of the earth, near the foundation, there burst 
forth a flaming torrent and balls of fire, which dislodged 
the stones, melted the iron instruments, burned the work- 
men, and afterwards, running through the place and 
amidst the multitude of spectators, consumed or suffo- 
cated the Jews, whom the avenging element singled out 



JULIAN. 119 

with a sort of instinct. This awful prodigy was often re- 
peated, and what showed more and more visibly the super- 
natural intervention of the divine power, was that the fire 
reappeared whenever the work was resumed, and ceased 
only when the attempt was entirely given over. 

There is not in all history a fact more certain and in- 
contestible than this, as it happened, to use the words of 
an illustrious historian,* in the presence of the whole 
world, and was equally attested by Christians, Jews and 
Gentiles. f Many among the witnesses of this prodigious 
event, whether Jews or Heathens, confessed the divinity 
of Christ, and asked for baptism. The unhappy Julian, 
on the contrary, still continued blind and hardened in the 
midst of so much light, and now directed his principal 
thoughts to another object. 

War with Persia. — He had been, all this while, mak- 
ing preparations for war, in order to avenge the many 
insults offered to the empire by Sapor, its inveterate 
enemy. This Sapor is famous among the Persian kings, 
for his warlike disposition, violence and cruelties, during 
a reign of seventy years: he had lately overrun that part 
of Mesopotamia which belonged to the Romans, and de- 
stroyed the important city of Amida. Julian resolved, not 
only to drive him from his frontiers, but also to subdue the 
whole Persian monarchy, and then, like Alexander the 
Great, to proceed to the conquest of India. 

With this view, he crossed the Euphrates at the head of 
sixty-five thousand men, and marched through Carrae in 
Mesopotamia, a spot rendered famous by the defeat of 
Crassus. He also visited the sepulchre of Gordian III. 
who had been murdered at the end of a glorious expedition 
against the same Persians. Thence, the Romans followed 
the course of the river, taking by storm and firing such 
cities as offered any resistance; a numerous fleet loaded 
with provisions accompanied the army. 

At a short distance from the royal city of Ctesiphon, 
Julian discovered the remains of an ancient canal, which 
had been dug by the Babylonian kings, to unite the Eu- 
phrates and the Tigris, but which was now filled up, and 
could scarcely be distinguished from the other parts of the 

*Lebeau. Hist, du Bas Empire, ad ann. 363, vol. in. p. 264, 
t See Note D. 



120 MODERN HISTORY. 

plain. The emperor caused it to be cleared, and the fleet 
following the current of the water, easily passed from the 
Euphrates into the Tigris. After a short stay, the whole 
army crossed the Tigris itself, in spite of numerous bands 
of Persians who, from the other side of the river, vigor- 
ously opposed the passage, but who, not being able to 
resist long the impetuous shock of the Roman legions, were 
completely routed. The success of the day was owing 
chiefly to the intrepidity, firmness and presence of mind 
of Julian. 

He did not however attempt to besiege Otesiphon, for 
fear both of spending too much time in this undertaking, 
and of being himself shut up between that town and a 
formidable army conducted by Sapor, which was daily ap- 
proaching. He then resolved to follow up the Tigris, 
until he should reach the confines of Armenia; but spe- 
cious advice, given him by a Persian deserter whose fidelity 
he did not suspect, made him again alter his plan. Under 
the pretence that the fleet would be scarcely able, even 
with extraordinary exertions to overcome the rapidity of 
the current, he gave orders, notwithstanding the objection 
of the whole army, that the vessels should be set on fire; 
he then left the banks of the Tigris, the more quickly to 
penetrate into the heart of the enemy's country, and car- 
ried his imprudence so far as to continue for several days 
on the route which his perfidious guide pointed out to 
him, even after the treason was detected. 

Death of Julian. — The army first advanced through a 
rich and fertile country, but soon found itself in the midst 
of vast plains where everything had been purposely de- 
stroyed and burnt by the Persians. The troops of Sapor 
then appeared and, thinking the occasion proper for battle, 
attacked the Romans. The latter indeed remained victo- 
rious; but they had now to struggle against more dangerous 
enemies, namely, fatigue, anxiety and famine. The dan- 
gers of the march increased every day; and, to complete 
their misfortune, they lost just at that time the man who 
alone could have saved them without dishonor, and have re- 
paired his own imprudence by the natural resources of his 
genius. In a battle fought on the twenty-sixth of June 
(363), Julian, having exposed himself without a cuirass, 
had his liver pierced with a dart thrown by an unknown 
hand. He was carried back to his tent almost sense- 



JOVIAN. 121 

less, and, notwithstanding the cares of his physicians, 
expired the following night, at the age of thirty-one after 
a reign of nearly two years. According to some, he died 
with great apparent composure and tranquillity; but 
others * relate that, when he felt himself mortally wound- 
ed, he threw a handful of his blood towards heaven, utter- 
ing these blasphemous words against Christ: " Thou hast 
conquered, Galilean"; and that he likewise upbraided 
his own gods, charging them with ingratitude towards 
him. 

Julian's character. — It would be impossible to give a 
precise outline of Julianas character. It was a most singular 
compound of some good and many bad qualities, modera- 
tion and malice, love of justice and blind hatred, courage 
and temerity. He united a cultivated genius with a bigoted 
mind; he was a slave to vanity and credulity; superstitious- 
ly attached to the meanest, and perhaps also, after he be- 
came a public apostate, to the most abominable practices 
of idolatry: for we are told by some grave authors f that, 
besides an incredible number of animals, he likewise sac- 
rificed human victims, for the purpose of discovering 
future events by an examination of their palpitating en- 
trails. In a word, his defects were real, his virtues more 
apparent than sincere, his talents more brilliant than 
solid. 

The only genuine qualities perhaps that Julian pos- 
sessed, were his intrepidity in war and the talent he had 
for transforming his soldiers into heroes. King Sapor did 
not cease to trettible for the safety of his crown, till he re- 
ceived the intelligence of the emperor^s death. He mani- 
fested the greatest joy on being apprised of it, and wished 
to reward the soldier by whom Julian had been wounded; 
but no one presented himself to receive the recompense. 

JOVIAN— A.D. JJ63-364. 

Most distressing was the situation to which the Eomans 
were now reduced in the midst of a hostile country, 
without food and deprived of their leader. The chief 
officers assembled to appoint a successor to Julian, and, 

*Theodoret, Sozomen, etc. 

t Especially Theodoret, Hist. Eecl. lib. m. c. 21. 



123 MODERN HISTORY. 

upon the refusal of Sallust, prefect of the East, Jovian, 
one of the commanders in the imperial guard, was pro- 
claimed emperor. After a slow and painful march for 
several days, he concluded with the Persians a disadvan- 
tageous treaty of peace ; a step deemed necessary to save 
the army from starvation, but disgraceful to the empire, 
which lost, by this means, five provinces and the best 
towns of Mesopotamia. Such was the result of Julian's 
imprudence and temerity. 

Although the Romans, in their retreat, were no longer 
interrupted by the enemy, still they encountered many 
dangers, especially when they undertook to recross the 
Tigris; and their march continued difficult and harassing, 
until they reached their own territory. Jovian, on his 
arrival at Antioch, immediately turned his attention to 
the government of the state, and the restoration of peace 
to the Church. He had, even during the storms of the 
two preceding reigns, always adhered to the orthodox 
faith, and anxious to preserve it in others, he labored to 
heal the wounds inflicted by Julian on Christianity in 
general, and by Constantius on the Catholics. His ex- 
cellent intentions and many good qualities, though less 
dazzling than those of Julian, promised a prosperous 
reign; but, having set out from Antioch in the dead of 
winter, he was found lifeless in his room (February, 364), 
before he could reach Constantinople. The cause of his 
death was never ascertained; but the most common 
opinion is that he inhaled the fumes of charcoal. Jovian 
had lived thirty-three years, and reigned eight months. 

VAIiEIVTIXIAN— A.D. 364-375, AND VAL.ENS— A.D. 

364-37§. 

Valentinian. — The army set about a new election, and 
proclaimed emperor, Valentinian, an officer of distin- 
guished merit. His noble size and features gave him a war- 
like and majestic appearance ; he was renowned for pru- 
dence, valor, learning, sincere attachment to religion and 
great love of justice. Pure in his morals, grave in his de- 
portment, he spoke little, but always with great judgment 
and natural eloquence. Unhappily, these truly valuable 
qualities of body and mind were offset in him by some 
notable defects, such as violence of temper and excessive 



VALENTINIAN AND VALENS. 123 

severity, whence finally arose the painful accident which 
terminated his life. 

Valentinian had no sooner assumed the purple, than he 
associated to himself his brother Valens in the govern- 
ment of the empire. Still, before publicly declaring his 
intentions, he consulted his chief officers on the subject. 
All remained silent, except one, who was generous enough 
to say : " Prince, if you love your family, you may choose 
your brother ; if you love the state, select the fittest man 
for so great a dignity. '' This advice struck the emperor ; 
however, he persisted in his design, and declared Valens 
his colleague. He allotted to him the provinces of Asia, 
with Egypt and Thrace, and kept for himself the other 
provinces situated in Africa and Europe. 

Valentinian governed his portion of the empire with 
vigor and firmness. Making his residence, sometimes in 
Milan, sometimes in Triers, Paris or Kheims, he was always 
ready to defend his frontiers, and to repel the attacks of 
the barbarians posted beyond the Rhine and the Danube. 
He kept in constant awe the restless tribes of Germany, 
and triumphed over them in every battle. 

His death. — But, while his bravery and military 
science struck terror into the minds of the barbarians, his 
irascible temper was almost equally dreaded by his own 
subjects, till in the end it proved fatal to himself. The 
Quadi, a poor and timid nation, having incurred his dis- 
pleasure, sent ambassadors to appease his anger by an 
humble apology. Valentinian was offended at the mean 
appearance of the ambassadors, and violently breaking 
forth exclaimed that it was a shame for the empire and 
the emperor, that he had to treat with such ill-looking 
people. He spoke with such warmth and passion, that he 
broke a large blood-vessel, and fell senseless to the ground, 
his blood gushing forth abundantly from his mouth. In 
a very few hours afterwards- he expired, suffering most 
excruciating pain, at the age of fifty-four, after a reign of 
nearly twelve years (a. d. 375), leaving his sceptre to his 
sons Gratian and Valentinian II. 

Valens. — The East was still under the sway of his 
brother Valens, a prince of good morals and steadfast in 
his friendship; but at the same time indolent, and without 
genius and experience, he often suffered his ministers to 
make a tyrannical use of his authority. He showed no 



124 MODEEN HISTOEY. 

energy except in protecting the Arians and cruelty per- 
secuting the Catholics. But the faith of the latter was 
successfully defended by the illustrious doctors, St. Gregory 
ISTazianzen and his intimate friend St. Basil, archbishop 
of Caesarea, against whom all the emperor's efforts proved 
fruitless. 

With regard to military achievements, Valens, by the 
skill of his generals and the bravery of his troops, con- 
ducted, with considerable success, several campaigns 
against the Groths, the Persians, and the usurper Proco- 
pius, who, after many vicissitudes of fortune, was be- 
trayed by his own friends, delivered up to the emperor, 
and beheaded. 

Beginning of the migration of nations. — But the 
last expedition of this prince had, through his own fault, 
a quite different result. Numerous bodies of Huns, a bar- 
barous people from the north of Asia, were at that time 
(a.d. 375) driving before them all the tribes whom they 
met in their devastating course. Two hundred thousand 
Goths, finding themselves more and more harassed by 
these formidable enemies, asked and obtained of Valens 
leave to cross the Danube, and to settle in Thrace a^ sub- 
jects or allies of the empire. They were followed by other 
bodies of their countrymen whom it was not possible to 
keep far off when so considerable a portion of their 
people were on the other side of the river ; and the Roman 
officers stationed on the frontier were at the same time so 
exceedingly imprudent and inhuman, as to exasperate by 
ill-treatment that immense multitude dying with hunger 
and supplied with arms. 

The Goths revolted against the terrible cruelties of 
their oppressors, and, being excited both by distress and 
the desire of revenge, they began to overrun the country 
and put everything to fire and sword. 

The generals of Valens endeavored, but too late, to stem 
this torrent. Several bloody battles were fought to no 
purpose; and the emperor, not satisfied with the result. 
Judged it necessary to repair in person to the field, and 
put himself at the head of his troops. This step served 
only to increase the danger; for the commander of the 
Goths, Fritigern, was an able and experienced general; 
while Valens had neither ability nor prudence. Instead 
of waiting for the arrival of his nephew Gratian, who, 



THEODOSIUS THE GREAT. 1^5 

after gaming a great victory over the Germans, hastened 
to his assistance, the unwary prince, contrary to the ad- 
vice of his best officers, marched with precipitancy and 
confusion against the enemy; and, with troops harassed 
by fatigue, commenced near Adrianople a battle more dis- 
astrous, it is believed, than any that the Eomans had 
ever fought from the time of their defeat at Cannge by 
Hannibal. Here also they experienced a most signal over- 
throw, and lost nearly their whole army, with an incredi- 
ble multitude of chief officers, and the emperor himself, 
whose body could never be found. According to common 
report, he was wounded, and carried in that state to a 
hut, which the Goths, not knowing who was in it, set on 
fire; and Valens perished in the flames. He had reigned 
about fifteen, and lived nearly fifty years (a.d. 378). 

THEODOSIUS I., SURWAMED THE GREAT.- 
ORATIAIV ASn VAEENTIWIABJ 11.-378-395. 

The Eoman empire had perhaps never been so much 
exposed to the danger of total ruin, as immediately after 
the battle of Adrianople. Though the Goths were 
unsuccessful in their attacks upon that and some other 
towns, they together with the Huns and Alans continued, 
with impunity, to plunder, waste and destroy everything 
in Thrace, Hlyria and the neighboring provinces. The 
Suevi, Alemanni and Franks were at the same time pre- 
paring to invade Gaul, and the provinces of Asia were 
also threatened with fresh attacks from the Persians. 
Gratian, upon whom the whole burden of the government 
devolved by the death of his uncle Valens, was fully 
aware that he could not by himself repel so many enemies, 
nor could he as yet derive any assistance from his brother 
Valentinian, a child seven or eight years of age. Stand- 
ing in need of more powerful succor, he was candid 
enough openly to acknowledge his situation, and wise 
enough to choose as his associate the ablest man of 
the empire, viz. : the great Theodosius, with whose name is 
associated the recollection of every civil, religious and 
military virtue. 

Victories of Theodosius. — Theodosius was a native 
of Spain, and son of the celebrated Count Theodosius, 
who, after having by his brilliant campaigns under Valen- 



126 MODEEN HISTORY. 

tinian I., saved Great Britain and Africa from powerful 
invaders, had lately perished on a scaffold at Carthage, 
the victim of an atrocious and artful calumny. Pre- 
vious to this melancholy transaction, his son had on sev- 
eral occasions, displayed great military talents; but, after 
the tragical death of his father, he led a retired life in 
his native country; until Gratian called him back to 
court, and offered him the purple, which he at first re- 
fused through sincere modesty, but afterwards accepted 
from a sense of duty. It was agreed among them 
that he should rule over the East, Gratian reserving 
the West for himself and his young brother Valentinian. 

The accession of Theodosius almost immediately 
changed the desperate state of affairs, and gave a salutary 
check to the inroads of the barbarians. The Goths were 
the first who experienced the effects of his indignation 
and invincible bravery. He obliged them either to sur- 
render, or retire beyond the Danube. The Huns and the 
Alans were soon compelled to do the same; the Persians, 
informed of his rapid successes, sued for peace; and, in a 
few years, the name of Theodosius was respected through- 
out the world. 

Theodosius as legislator. — During the tranquillity 
which followed his victories, he enacted several admir- 
able laws, conducive alike to the prosperity of the state at 
large, to the repression of vice and the advancement 
of good morals among private individuals, to the 
security of life and property, etc. All his legislation 
breathes, as it were, an ardent love of the public good, of 
justice and religion, happily blended with a dignified 
clemency towards those who might possibly offer him per- 
sonal insults, by outrageous language against his person, 
conduct and government. "If such persons,^' said he in 
one of his rescripts, "act and speak thus through levity, 
we should disregard their fault; if their conduct proceeds 
from blindness and folly, we should pity them; if from 
ill-will and malice, we should forgive them." His heart 
was so inclined to benevolence, that, once dismissing sev- 
eral prisoners, he exclaimed: "0 that I could restore the 
dead to life !;^ 

His religious zeal. — Theodosius endeavored likewise 
during the whole course of his reign, to promote, by wise 
and prudent means, the advancement of true piety, and ' 



THEODOSIUS THE GREAT. 127 

of the orthodox faith which he sincerely professed. 
Arianism, not being able to obtain the least favor from so 
religious a prince, rapidly dwindled into insignificance. 
The Macedonian heresy against the divinity of the Holy 
Ghost, was solemnly condemned by the second general 
Council, held under his patronage at Constantinople 
(a. d. 381). In fine, the pious efforts of the emperor 
gave the death blow to heathenism, and his zeal, equally 
mild and firm, judicious and constant, was not satisfied 
until the public worship of idols disappeared from his do- 
minions. 

Usurpation of Maximus. — The example of Theodo- 
sius was in most respects faithfully imitated by Gratian, 
the emperor of the West. This prince, although very 
young, would perhaps have become equal to his virtuous 
colleague in glory and wisdom, had it not been for a sin- 
gle defect, which being disregarded, tarnished the lustre 
of his excellent qualities, and brought upon him a terrible 
disaster. Being excessively fond of hunting, the natiiral 
consequence was that he paid little attention to the affairs 
of his court, where discontent began to prevail, at the 
sight of the honors and benefits conferred upon strangers. 
Maximus, one of the chief officers in Britain, caused 
himself to be proclaimed emperor by some of the soldiers; 
nor did the defection confine itself to that island, but 
passing over to the continent, it spread among the legions 
of Gaul with such rapidity, that in a few weeks Gratian 
saw himself abandoned by nearly all his troops. No other 
resource was now left him than a precipitate flight; and 
even that proved insufficient to save him from the hands 
of his enemies: he was overtaken at Lyons, and cruelly 
murdered at the age of twenty-four, after a reign of eight 
years (a. d. 383). 

Death of Maximus. — Maximus abstained for a time 
from pursuing his audacious and ambitious career; fixing 
;his residence in Triers, he contented himself with reign- 
ing over the provinces which Gratian had governed. 
Still, he was making slow and powerful preparations to 
oppose young Valentinian in Italy, as he had done his 
brother in Gaul; but Valentinian having received timely 
warning of the designs of his enemy, fled at full speed to 
Thessalonica, persuaded that he would find a zealous pro- 
tector in Theodosius. His hopes were not deceived : The- 



128 MODERN HISTORY. 

odosius received him with open arms, and marched with 
him at the head of his army, against Maximus, who was 
coming forward to meet them, with more boldness than 
prudence. One single and short campaign terminated the 
contest. The numerous troops of the usurper were con- 
quered in two battles, and he himself being taken prisoner 
in Aquileia, whither he had retired after the second en- 
gagement, was led to Theodosius, with his hands tied be- 
hind him. At the sight of his captive, the generous con- 
queror felt inclined to compassion and forgiveness; but 
his officers, less indulgent, led Maximus away, and im- 
mediately beheaded him. No search was made after his 
partisans, and Theodosius added to the dominions of Val- 
entinian those of his brother Gratian (a. d. 388). 

About the same time, he gave to all future generations 
a most admirable example of clemency. A great revolt 
having occurred in Antioch, the people carried their 
insolence so far as to break to pieces the statues of the 
emperor and of his family. Theodosius, justly irritated 
against an ungrateful city on which he had bestowed 
many signal favors, sent two commissaries, with orders to 
punish the leaders of the seditious riot, to deprive Antioch 
of its privileges, and to degrade that proud capital of 
Syria to the low rank of a simple borough. 

The arrival of the two commissaries spread terror 
through the town. The most guilty of the inhabitants 
were arrested, and put in prison; however, the sor- 
rowful multitude, together with the clergy, obtained by 
their supplications and tears a postponement of the 
punishment. The venerable bishop Flavian had already 
set out for Constantinople, in order to allay, if possible, 
the indignation of Theodosius. "When he was introduced 
before him, he remained at some distance, with his 
eyes cast down, and observing a mournful silence. The 
emperor, whose heart was not less afflicted, approached 
the bishop, and with strong but tender reproaches, expa- 
tiated on the ingratitude of his countrymen. Flavian, be- 
ing then emboldened to speak, acknowledged both the 
enormity of the crime and the justice of any punishment 
that might be inflicted on its authors; but he afterwards 
so eloquently described and extolled the advantages of the 
forgH'eness of injuries, that the emperor, unable any 
longer 60 restrain his tears, cried out that he willingly 



THEQDOSIUS THE GEEAT. 129 

pardoned Antioch, after the example of Christ who had 
forgiven his very executioners. The pardon was full, 
unreserved; and did infinite honor to the clemency of 
Theodosius. 

Theodosius and Ambrose. — Three years after on a 
similar occasion, he appeared to forget his own principles. 
The populace of Thessalonica, in a tumultuous insurrec- 
tion, stoned their governor to death: Theodosius, who 
then resided at Milan, was so indignant at this outrage, 
that he issued a command for the soldiery to be let loose 
on the inhabitants of Thessalonica during three hours, and 
the commission was executed with such fury, that seven 
thousand persons were put to the sword. No sooner was 
the holy archbishop of Milan, St. Ambrose, informed of 
the awful deed, than he declared to the emperor that he 
could not admit him into the Church, nor to the partici- 
pation of the sacred mysteries, until he had atoned, by 
an exemplary penance, for the enormity of the crime 
lately committed. Theodosius humbly submitted to the 
decision of the holy prelate, and remained thus excluded 
from the Church for eight months, at the end of which 
time St. Ambrose, moved by his tears and lively repent- 
ance, again admitted him; on condition, however, that 
he would ever after, in order to avoid similar faults, post- 
pone for thirty days the execution even of just sentences 
of death. Theodosius willingly yielded to the pi-oposal, 
and, by this docility, left it uncertain which is more 
worthy of admiration, the firmness of the archbishop or 
the piety of the emperor. 

He had scarcely returned to Constantinople, when a 
fresh and disastrous revolution, caused by the murder 
of Valentinian II., obliged him to make a new expedi- 
tion into the West. That young emperor, trained up 
to virtue by the instructions and examples of Theodo- 
sius, knew already how to conduct himself with great 
wisdom, and gave every day greater hopes of a fortunate 
and glorious reign. Being told that some suspicions, 
though ill-founded, were entertained concerning his 
morals, he dismissed without delay the persons whose 
society might become dangerous to his virtue. He over- 
came his excessive fondness for the games and shows of 
the circus, by abolishing the games, and causing all the 
beasts destined for them or for the chase, to be killed on 
9 



130 MODERN HISTORY. 

the same day. Although he had found the treasury ex- 
hausted, no solicitation of his courtiers could ever induce 
him to augment the taxes. His conduct obtained respect 
even from the barbarians, and he was endeavoring by 
every means in his power to procure abundance and tran- 
quillity to his subjects, when a cruel plot prepared by 
Arbogastes, the general of his troops, deprived him of 
the empire and of life, at the age of twenty, after a reign 
of nine years since the death of Grratian (a.d. 392). 

The usurper Eugenius. — Intense was the affliction 
of Theodosius, when he learned the melancholy fate of 
this excellent prince, his brother-in-law, his partner in 
the empire, aud his sincere friend. Justice, humanity 
and conscience obliging him to avenge the death of Val- 
entinian and punish the murderers, he spent two years in 
making adequate preparations for this new expedition, 
which he Justly supposed would be difficult and bloody ; 
for Arbogastes had a great reputation for skill in war, 
and a strong party on his side. Still, being of barbarian 
extraction, he did not dare assume the imperial sceptre 
himself, but placed it in tne hands of a certain Eugenius, 
a proud, ambitious man, who had been a secretary of the 
late emperor, and had taken part in his assassination. 

The two armies advanced against each other, the one 
from Gaul, under the command of the two usurpers, who 
had the images of the false gods carried before them ; the 
other from Thrace, under the banner of the cross, and 
commanded by Theodosius in person. They met in the 
north-east of Italy, about thirty miles from Aquileia. 
Here a general engagement took place, which the impor- 
tance of the cause, the number and discipline of the 
troops, the heroic intrepidity of Theodosius and the des- 
perate courage of Arbogastes, rendered extremely fu- 
rious and obstinate. It lasted two days, on the first of 
which, without either side having any decisive loss or 
advantage, there was a tremendous slaughter of the 
bravest troops of Theodosius. The pious emperor spent 
the following night in prayer, placing his confidence in 
God whose cause he supported, more than in his own 
ability and valor. At the dawn of day, he again drew 
up his army, and, taking his shield and cutlass, marched 
out with ardor against the enemy. 

This was the moment which heaven had chosen, in 



THEODOSIUS THE GREAT. 131 

order to declare visibly in his favor. On a sudden, fright- 
ful whirlwinds arose, which directed all their violence 
against the rebels, broke their ranks, and forced their 
shields from their hands. Their arrows turned against 
themselves, while those of their opponents received addi- 
tional force from the wind.* Thus exposed, blinded by 
the dust, and overpowered by the storm, they either fell 
on the field of battle, or threw themselves, in their flight, 
into a neighboring river. Arbogastes, seeing that all was 
lost, stabbed himself, and died in rage and despair. 
Eugenius was brought in chains by his own soldiers before 
Theodosius, who presently condemned him to death; but 
the generous conqueror pardoned all the others of their 
party. The slaughter ceased, and the two armies mingled 
together, exulting with joy, one for its victory,- the other 
for its defeat, and both looking on their pious emperor as 
really invincible. 

Death of Theodosius. — This memorable battle, 
which was fought on the 6th of September (a.d. 394), 
subjected all the West to Theodosius. He lived but a 
short time after this glorious triumph over his enemies: 
continual labors and hardships, especially at the head of 
armies, had exhausted his constitution, and, after linger- 
ing for some weeks, he died in the middle of the follow- 
ing January (a.d. 395), at the age of fifty, after a reign 
of sixteen years. This was the last reign which saw all 
the parts of the Eoman empire united under the sway of 



*See Socrates, Ecdes. Hist. lib. V. c. 25; — Sozomen, lib. VII. c. 24;— 
Orosius, lib. VII. c. 3 ; — Theodoret, lib. v. c. 24 ; especially St. Augustine, 
who had learned the fact in question from the very soldiers of Eugenius 
who had been present at the battle, as he himself relates in these terms: 
" Milites nobis, qui aderant, retulerunt, extorta sibi esse de manibus quae ; 
cumque jaciebantur, cum a Theodosii partibus vehemens ventus iret, et 
non solum qusecumque in eos jaciebantur concitatissime raperet, veriim 
etiam ipsorum tela in eorum corpora retorqueret ; " De Civitate Dei, lib. 
V. c. 26. Moreover, the poet Claudian, though a heathen, describes the 
scene thus, in his poem on the third consulship of the young emperor 
Honorius ; 

Te propter, gelidis aquilo de monte procellis 
Obruit adversas acies, revolutaque tela 
Vertit in auctores, et turbine reppulit hastas. 
O nimium dilecte Deo, cui fundit ab antris 
^olus armatas hiemes ; cui militat aether, 
Et conjurati veniunt ad classica venti 1 



133 MODERN HISTORY. - 

the same sovereign. At the solemn service performed, 
according to custom, for his departed soul, St. Ambrose 
delivered the funeral oration in presence of the whole 
army : after which his body was transferred to Constan- 
tinople, and deposited in the Mausoleum of the great 
Constantine with whom he shares in the just praises and 
admiration of posterity. 

Theodosius' character. — In fact, every public achieve- 
ment of this emperor would suffice to make illustrious a 
long reign. He restored the majesty of the empire, made 
the people under him constantly happy, and conquered all 
his enemies, who were equally the enemies of the state. 
He subdued the Goths, drove back the Huns and Sarma- 
tians, kept the Persians in constant awe, overcame two pow- 
erful usurpers, checked the Arian and Macedonian here- 
sies, almost completed the destruction of idolatry without 
shedding a drop of blood, and published a great number 
of laws so wise and excellent, as to place him far above 
the wisest legislators of antiquity. Having nothing in 
view but the happiness of mankind, he commanded by a 
formal edict, that, on Easter-day, all persons detained in 
prison, whose pardon would not endanger the interests 
and good order of society, should be set at liberty, and it 
was on this occasion that he added the memorable words 
already mentioned : " that I could even raise the deaid 
to life I" 

In his appearance and deportment, Theodosius was 
dignified, but at the same time, cheerful, mild, courteous 
and affable. He always kept himself free, not only from 
gross vices, but even from those which most easily find 
admission to the heart, such as ambition and vain glory; 
he never undertook any war, except from necessity, and 
though eminently skilled and successful in the command 
of armies, always blamed the proud spirit of Marius, 
Sulla, and other such conquerors, whom he said it should 
be his constant endeavor to resemble as little as possible. 
His inclinations were naturally violent, but kept under 
restraint ; and, if he committed any fault, he soon re- 
paired it in a manner which did honor to his character. 
Hence the Holy Fathers, ecclesiastical authors and coun- 
cils, are unanimous in proposing Theodosius as a model 
for Christian princes. Pagan writers themselves, with 
the exception of the furious Zozimus, agree in praising 



( 



HONOKIUS AND ARCADIUS. 133 

his extraordinary merit and qualifications ; Aurelius 
Victor, in particular, does not hesitate to represent him as 
an accomplished hero, far superior to Trajan, whose emi- 
nent qualities he possessed without any of his vices. The 
same historian adds that the virtue of Theodosius con- 
tinually increased with his prosperity and victories ; 
praise which, to every reflecting mind, must appear most 
honorable. 



HONORIIJS AND ARCADIIJS.— A. D. 395-423. 

From the death of Theodosius must be dated the final 
decline of the empire. He had maintained it in its for- 
mer greatness; he left it in all its glory to his sons Hono- 
rius and Arcadius; but he could not transmit to these 
young princes his consummate prudence, valor and ability. 
Their want of talent, resolution and energy left them 
almost constantly exposed to the insults of barbarians, 
and to the ambitious intrigues of their own ministers. 

Arcadius in the East. — Arcadius, the elder of the 
two, was emperor of the East. His reign, which lasted 
thirteen years, offers nothing remarkable, except the 
ravages of the Huns in Thrace, and of the Isaurians in 
Lesser Asia; the power, ambition and miserable death of 
Rufinus, Eutropius and Gainas, who successively sup- 
planted each other at court; and the unjust persecution 
carried on by jealous enemies against the illustrious St. 
John Chrysostom, archbishop of Constantinople, who 
died in exile (a. d. 407), after having filled the whole 
world with the fame of his golden eloquence. Arcadius 
died one year after him, and was succeeded by his son 
Theodosius the younger. 

Honorius in the West. — The reign of Honorius in 
the western part of the empire, was longer and still more 
disastrous than that of his brother Arcadius. Its vari- 
ous calamities originated chiefly in the vacillating con- 
duct of his prime minister Stilico, who having raised him- 
self to that high station by important services under 
Theodosius afterwards listened only to the suggestions of 
his unbounded ambition ; defending or betraying the 
state, as best suited his own interest. At first, all 
things prospered under him; he destroyed two numer- 



3.3i MODERN HISTORY. 

ous armies of Goths and other barbarians who had 
invaded Italy, one conducted by Alaric, whom he obliged 
to retreat beyond the Alps (a. d. 402); the other com- 
manded by Eadagasius, who lost nearly all his troops and 
was himself slain near Florence (405). 

Soon after this defeat, other hordes of barbarians made 
a successful irruption into the empire, and crossing the 
Khine (406), began to conquer its richest provinces, 
encouraged, it is believed, by Stilico himself. The design 
of that ambitious man seems to have been to throw insu- 
perable difficulties in the way of Honorius, in order to 
undermine his power, if he would not consent to resign 
his crown. To convince Honorius of the plot contrived 
by his minister, was no easy task; at length, he opened 
his eyes, and was so readily seconded by the troops, that 
the traitor and all his partisans suffered capital punish- 
ment, most of them however without the orders of the 
emperor, who endeavored, but in vain, to check the fury 
of the soldiery. - : 

The detection of the intrigues of Stilico did not stop 
the progress of the barbarians. While the Alemanni on 
the one side, and the Burgundians on the other, occupied 
the territories along the Rhine, the Suevi, Alans and Van- 
dals proceeded farther, and during three successive years 
plundered the different provinces and cities of Gaul. 
After this, in 409, they passed over to Spain, where they 
settled, the Suevi in the north, the Alans in the west, and 
the Vandals in the south, the eastern part only being left 
to the Eomans. 

Rome sacked by Alaric. — But the most formidable 
of all the enemies of Rome was Alaric, the leader of the 
Goths. Driven away some years before, he re-entered 
Italy with an ardent desire of avenging his defeat. Hon- 
orius and his court, whose residence was then at Ravenna 
near the Adriatic sea, opposed to him only protracted 
negotiations and ineffectual promises, a mode of defence 
more calculated to inflame the indignation, than to check 
the progress of a warlike chieftain. Rome was besieged, 
and after enduring the horrors of a cruel famine, was 
taken by surprise and treason during the night. The 
conqueror gave it up to be plundered by his soldiers, who 
accordingly spreading themselves through every quarter 
of the city, soon produced a scene of general desolation; 



HONORIUS AND ARCADIUS. ^35 

many buildings were fired, and a furious tempest served 
at the same time, to increase the devastation spread by the 
barbarians (a. d. 410). 

Thus did Eome lose, in the space of a few hours, that 
power, splendor and magnificence which had made it, 
for so many ages, the first city in the world. Numbers of 
its inhabitants fled in all directions, even to the most dis- 
tant provinces, carrying everywhere the news of the great 
catastrophe of which they were the victims. This event 
was, even in countries the most remote, a subject of deep 
grief; and the sight of so many illustrious families now 
reduced to the utmost distress, excited universal com- 
miseration, as St. Augustine and St. Jerome relate.* 
Still Rome, not having been totally destroyed, continued 
to exist, and even repaired in a great measure its losses, 
but being once degraded by the Goths, it became a sort 
of by-word among other barbarians, and its majesty as 
capital of the Roman empire, had departed forever. 

Alaric did not think proper to retain his conquest, hul 
setting out after a few days, he pursued his march with- 
out obstacle towards the southern extremity of Italy. 
His intention was, to pass over the strait into Sicily, and 
thence to Africa, where he thought he could obtain a 
more desirable and permanent settlement; but a violent 
storm interfered with his plans, and death put an end 
to all his designs. He was carried off by a violent dis- 
ease, and left the conduct of the Goths to Ataulphus, 
his brother-in-law, and the faithful companion of his 
victorious campaigns. His followers regretted him as 
the hero of their nation, and the chief author of the 
great power and influence which they had acquired in 
western Europe. According to the custom of northern 
barbarians, of concealing the sepulchres of extraordinary 
men, they changed for a while the course of a small river 
near Cozenza, and having dug a deep grave in the bed of 
the channel, deposited there the body of Alaric with many 
valuable objects, and afterwards made the waters resume 
their former course. 

* St. August. De Cw. Dei. lib. I. c. 33 ; — St. Jerome, Epist. ad Principiam 
et lib. III. inEzech. — They themselves were visited by several of these 
noble fugitives ; and they' showed by their conduct on this occasion, tliat 
the charity which animated their hearts, was not less admirable than the 

fenius and learning which have raised them to the first rank among the 
oetora of the Churcli. 



136 MODERN HISTORY. 

The Goths now returned to the north of Italy, and 
advanced into Gaul, where they had to encounter many 
obstacles in their endeavors to effect a settlement: at 
length, they were permitted by the Romans, under cer- 
tain conditions, to occupy the provinces contiguous to 
the Pyrenees. For this advantageous treaty the Gothic 
nation was indebted chiefly to the abilities of king Val- 
lia, the third successor of Alaric. 

About this time also, the Romans began to lose their 
influence in Great Britain. Honorius having recalled 
from that distant province its legionary troops whose 
presence was necessary to repel dangers nearer home, the 
whole country remained exposed to the inroads of the 
Picts and Scots, two tribes inhabiting the north of the 
island. Some troops, it is true, were again sent to assist 
the Britons and drive back their foes; but as these suc- 
cors were granted only for a time, the restless Picts and 
Scots renewed their depredations with success and perse- 
verance for nearly forty years, so as to render the country 
as miserable, during that time as it had been prosperous 
under the Romans. 

Beginning of France. — To the close of the career of 
Honorius many writers trace back the beginning of the 
French monarchy. According to them, the Franks, a 
powerful German tribe, crossed the Rhine in the year 420 
with Pharamond their king, and wrested the north of 
Gaul from the Romans; but others believe that their 
first real settlement upon the Roman territories must be 
referred only to the year 438 or 440, during the reign of 
King Clodio. Be this as it may, it is certain that in gen- 
eral the affairs of the empire, during the latter part of 
the reign of Honorius, wore a more favorable appearance. 
Several provinces were delivered from the yoke of usur- 
pation and tyranny, and a successful check was given for 
a time to the progress of the barbarians. The principal 
author of these happy changes was Oonstantius, a man of 
uncommon ability and virtue, which he displayed during 
ten years by the prudence with which he directed political 
operations, and by the glory which he acquired in com- 
manding the armies. As a reward for so many services, 
Honorius, besides giving him his sister Placidia in mar- 
riage, conferred on him the title of Augustus, a title which 
he did not enjoy more than seven months; he received it in 






VALENTINIAN III. I37 

February, and died in the following September (a. d. 421). 
Not long after (in 423) Honorius himself died at the age 
of thirty-nine, after a reign of tAventy-eight years: a 
prince, not altogether unworthy of esteem, if we consider 
his beneficent intentions and private virtues; but certainly 
unfit from his want of resolution and capacity, to govern 
the state, especially in the calamitous and disorderly 
times in which he lived. 



VAL.EWTIWIAW III. IN THE WEST;— IX THE 
E A§T, THEODOSIUS II. OR THE YOUXOER.- 
A.D. 424-455. 

The late emperor having left no children, his crown 
was, with some difficulty, transferred to young Valentinian, 
his nephew, the son of Placidia and Constantius. This 
young prince received from his mother a religious educa- 
tion, but profited so little by it, that he is more known 
in history for his effeminate and dissolute life, than for any 
active share that he took in the important transactions of 
his reign. 

Pulcheria. — Theodosius the younger still reigned in 
the East, as he had done since the death of his father 
Arcadius. During his childhood, the state was governed 
first by the prefect Anthemius, a man truly deserving of 
his high office, which he held six years. This able min- 
ister repelled foreign invasions, fortified the frontiers, 
built new walls around Constantinople, and procured for 
the empire a profound peace. Afterwards, Theodosius 
being yet too young and inexperienced, the governing 
power was intrusted to his sister Pulcheria, who, though 
but sixteen years old, already evinced extraordinary pru- 
dence and a vigor of mind equal to her piety. At home, 
she preserved good order and tranquillity, and at the same 
time caused the Roman name to be respected abroad. A 
new war having become necessary against the Persians, all 
its operations and various campaigns were so successfully 
conducted, that King Varanes V. saw himself obliged, 
after many defeats, to consent to a treaty of peace on the 
conditions dictated by the court of Constantinople. 

Unfortunately, Theodosius did not always act conform- 
ably to the views and counsels of his sister, but suffered his 
mind to be prepossessed against her by the intrigues of 



138 MODERN HISTORY. 

crafty and ambitious persons, desirous of having a greater 
share in the government. From that time, the prosperity 
of the state rapidly declined Many provinces were laid 
waste by the barbarians ou different sides, and the honor of 
the empire was trampled under foot by Attila, the fierce king 
of the Huns, who forced Theodosius to pay him an annual 
tribute equally onerous and disgraceful. These evils origin- 
ated in the weakness and indolence of the emperor himself; 
for, though he possessed the qualifications of a good scholar, 
and most of the virtues to be desired in a private life, 
he knew neither how to govern and command, nor how 
to choose good ministers and generals. 

iEtius and Bonifacius. — The West from a variety of 
causes, continued still to be the theatre of more complicated 
and calamitous events. There existed, at this time, two 
men whose talents did equal honor to the state, viz., General 
^tius, and Count Boniface, governor of Africa. The for- 
mer was justly renowned as a commander and a politician, 
but so high-minded that he could not brook the idea of 
any one being his equal in talents and glory. The latter, 
as brave and skilful perhaps as ^Etius himself, surpassed 
him in moderation and disinterestedness; still h-e had not 
fortitude enough to submit patiently to great injustice. 

^tius, whose design was to ruin Boniface, secretly 
wrote to him under the mask of friendship, to tell him 
that he was in great danger; the empress Placidia 
hmng now so incensed against him, that, in case of his re- 
turn to court, his death would inevitably follow. On the 
other hand, the artful impostor persuaded the empress 
that Boniface sought to make himself independent in 
Africa, adding, with great protestations of zeal for her 
interest, that the only prudent course she could adopt 
was to recall him without delay, and, should he refuse to 
obey her order, to treat him as a rebel. 

The Vandals in Africa. — Placidia, not suspecting 
any treachery, followed this advice without further inquiry. 
Boniface received a summons to leave Africa; but as he 
himself entertained strong suspicions of the designs of the 
court, instead of obeying, he raised troops to oppose those 
sent against him and thus, by the very means which he se- 
lected to prove his innocence, became really guilty. Not 
long after, both he and Placidia discovered the imposture of 
^tius but its evil consequences were now irreparable. Bon- 



VALENTINIAN III. 139 

if ace had already called to his aid and introduced into Africa 
the Vandals of Spain, whom he could not afterwards expel,: 
when he returned to a sense of his duty. These barba- 
rians, having at their head Gaiseric, a warlike and san- 
guinary prince, overran the whole country with the rapid- 
ity of a torrent. Those rich and fertile provinces, whose 
habitants had provoked by their corruption and vices the 
wrath of God, were soon deluged with blood and covered 
with ashes. The Vandals established in the midst of these 
ruins, the seat of their own power which lasted one hun- 
dred and six years (from 428 to 534), when Africa was 
restored to the empire by the arms of Belisarius. 

Bonifacius' death. — In the mean while, the empress 
durst not punish the perfidy of ^tius, who was more 
powerful than herself. All she could do against him was 
to bestow new dignities and all possible marks of distinc- 
tion on Count Boniface, with whom she was now per- 
fectly reconciled. This was adding fuel to the flame; and 
as -^tius considered the increase of authority in his rival 
as derogatory to his own, the two generals took the 
field in support of their respective pretensions. In the 
battle that ensued, Boniface was victorious; but his suc- 
cess cost him his life: he received a dangerous wound, of 
which he died at the expiration of three months (a.d. 
432). 

No longer seeing a rival in his way, ^tius thought of 
repairing, by glorious services, the disasters which his 
jealousy had brought upon the state. He, from that 
time, showed himself an insuperable barrier against all 
the attacks of foreign enemies, defeated the Goths in the 
south of Gaul, the Franks in the north, and other barba- 
rians near the frontiers of Germany and Italy. Shortly 
after these achievements, a new and most furious storm 
arose from the East, which engaged all his attention and 
required all the exertions of his courage. 

The Huns under Attila. — Attila, king of the Huns, 
and leader of an immense multitude of barbariams gathered 
from the north of Asia and Europe, intended to ravage 
and plunder the western, as he had done the eastern prov- 
inces of the empire. He advanced towards Gaul with an 
army of five hundred, or, according to some authors, of 
seven hundred thousand men, leaving everywhere such 



140 MODERN HISTORY. 

dreadful marks of his passage, that he was justly called, 
and called himself the Scourge of God. His very counte- 
nance was terrific: he had an enormous head, small and 
bright eyes, a flat nose, a swarthy complexion, and he 
appeared, in all his deportment, haughty, fierce and 
threatening. 

In the year 451, this terrible conqueror crossed the 
Rhine, and penetrated into the heart of Gaul, sacking 
and burning all the towns in his way. At last he was 
stopped before the walls of Orleans by a vigorous and 
prolonged resistance. In the meanwhile, ^tius, who had 
induced the Visigoths and the Franks to unite with him 
against the common enemy, was hastening to the relief of 
the town; he arrived Just in time to save it from destruc- 
tion. The Huns, having broken the gates, were begin- 
ning to enter and plunder the city, when ^tius, coming 
from the opposite direction, suddenly appeared with his 
army, and immediately charged the barbarians. Their 
surprise and terror were equal to the suddenness and vio- 
lence of the attack. Those who had already lost them- 
selves in the streets, were slain or compelled to fly, while 
Attila, foaming with rage, endeavored to rally the fugi- 
tives without the city. He then began to retreat towards 
the Rhine; j:Etius closely followed him at the head of his 
troops and allies, and overtook him in the vast plains of 
Chalons in Champaigne. < 

Battle of Chalons. — Europe had never beheld two 
armies so numerous as these in presence of one another; 
the army of ^Etius, it is said, was almost equal to that of 
Attila. The whole plain, as far as the eye could reach, 
being filled with a countless multitude of battalions brist- 
ling with iron and brass, exhibited for some moments a 
most imposing spectacle, which T^as soon changed into a 
frightful scene by the fury of the combatants. The king 
of the Huns animated his troops by word and example; 
-^tius displayed that consummate skill and intrepidity, 
for which he has been surnamed the last of the Romans. 
Like him, his soldiers fought with wonderful courage; 
still, it appears that the Visigoths won, on that famous 
day, the prize of valor and had the principal share in the 
victory. After having broken and routed the enemy's 
left wing, they fell with such irresistible fury upon the 
centre of the Huns, that Attila himself was in great dan- 



YALENTINIAN III. 141 

ger. Frightened, for the first time in his life, he aban- 
doned to the Eomans and their allies the field of battle 
strewn with one hundred and eighty thousand, some say, 
nearly three hundred thousand dead bodies. Horrible 
indeed must the slaughter have been, since, according to 
the common report of historians, a little neighboring 
stream was swelled like a torrent, by the quantity of blood 
which flowed into its channel. 

The battle having ended only at dusk, the confeder- 
ates were not certain of their advantage till the day fol- 
lowing. The joy of the victory which they had gained 
was damped by the consideration of their own loss, and 
particularly by the death of king Theodoric, who had 
been killed while bravely fighting at the head of his 
Visigoths. His body was found among heaps of the 
slain, and buried with great honors on the field of battle. 
Then JEtius dismissed his allies, in the just hope that 
the Roman militia would now be sufficient to drive the 
enemy from Gaul; nor was he disappointed: Attila, 
though still proud and eager for revenge, removed his 
camp, and retired beyond the Rhine. 

Attila invades Italy. — No later than the next year 
(452), this undaunted conqueror reappeared, and revenged 
himself for the terrible blow he had received in Gaul, by 
plundering and laying waste the northern part of Italy. 
He first laid siege to the important and well fortified city 
of Aquileia. This celebrated town had, fifty-two years 
before, repelled the combined efforts of Radagasius and 
Alaric, and now resisted for three months all the attacks 
of Attila. The Huns were dispirited, and their leader 
himself began to think of abandoning the siege, when he 
perceived storks flying with their little ones from the 
town into the country. Struck at the circumstance, and 
skilfully turning it to his advantage, he told his soldiers 
that, without doubt, the precipitate retreat of those birds 
from Aquileia was an omen of the city's impending ruin. 
This was enough to revive the courage of the Huns; they 
renewed the attack with fresh ardor, battered the walls 
with all their machines, and having made a large breach, 
rushed into the place with a fury proportioned to the 
resistance which they had experienced. The garrison 
and inhabitants were either put to the sword or reduced 
to slavery, and the town was consigned to the flames. 



143 MODERN HISTORY. 

Foundation of Venice. — This conquest enabled the 
Huns to advance without obstacle, -^tius, whose forces 
were now quite inferior to theirs, did not dare oppose the 
march of the main body of their troops, but contented 
himself with cutting in pieces the scouts and exploring 
detachments. Pouring into the fertile plains of Italy, 
they destroyed all before them with fire and sword, sacked 
Milan, destroyed Padua with many other cities, and 
depopulated entire provinces. The whole country on the 
left side of the river Po, was one continued scene of car- 
nage and devastation. Such of the inhabitants as had 
time to avoid this destructive storm, retired into the 
small islands at the extremity of the Adriatic Gulf, but 
did not, as legend would have us believe, then found the 
republic of Venice. The weak emperor Valentinian was 
on the point of abandoning Italy, and the Eomans, in the 
utmost terror, expected soon to see the barbarians before 
their gates. 

Attila and Pope Leo.— In this general consternation. 
Pope St. Leo, at the request of the emperor and of the 
whole city of Rome, went to meet Attila, in hopes of mol- 
lifying his rage and preventing his further progress. 
Avienus, a man of consular dignity, and Trigetius, who 
had been prefect of Rome, were deputed to accompany 
him in this embassy. They found the haughty monarch 
at Ambuleium near Mantua. Contrary to the general 
expectation, he received the Pope with great honor, and 
gave him a favorable audience: St. Leo, on his part, 
addressed the barbarian with so much energy, eloquence 
and dignity, that he gained the admiration of all, and 
especially of Attila, who, at his request, concluded a 
treaty of peace with the empire, under the condition of an 
annual tribute. The king immediately commanded his 
army to cease hostilities, and soon after recrossed the 
Alps, to retire into his own dominions near the Danube; 
but, on his way home, he was seized with a violent vomit- 
ing of blood, of which he died in 453. The Huns buried 
him with the same honors and precautions, wherewith 
the Goths had buried their king Alaric forty-three years 
before. As to the vast empire which that extraordinary 
man had founded, it disappeared with him, in conse- 
quence of the civil wars that broke out among his chil' 
dren and vassals. 



VALENTINIAN III. I43 

Murder of iEtius and of Valentinian. — ^tius did 
not outlive him more than one year, being destroyed by 
an intrigue similar to that which he himself had before 
used agains't Count Boniface. A charge of conspiracy 
having been secretly brought against him at court, he 
was summoned to the palace; he obeyed, and on his 
arrival, the emperor slew him with a sword. By this 
crime, the blind and wretched Valentinian deprived his 
person and crown of the only defender whom he might 
successfully oppose to his numerous enemies. One of his 
attendants gave him to understand this fully, when, being 
asked what he thought of the death of ^tius, he answered 
that the emperor had cut off his own right hand with the 
left. A few months after (a.d. 455), Valentinian was 
murdered in the midst of Eome by some discontented 
officers, the chief of whom was a certain Maximus, who 
immediately seized upon the imperial throne. That 
unhappy prince had lived thirty-six, and reigned about 
thirty years, if he may be said to have reigned, who was 
almost constantly a slave to the interested will of others 
as well as to his own passions, which he never controlled. 

Notwithstanding his vices and the faults of his govern- 
ment, Valentinian was regretted by many persons: his 
widow, Eudoxia, carried her resentment against the mur- 
derers so far, as to call the Vandals from Africa to avenge 
his death. No proposal could be more pleasing to that 
nation always eager for pillage; they hastened to cross the 
sea with a numerous fleet, and going up the Tiber, entered 
Eome before the close of the same year 455. At this 
time, St. Leo was not able to avert the storm, but he 
succeeded at least in inducing Gaiseric, though an Ariau 
and a violent persecutor of the Catholics in his own 
kingdom, to spare the buildings of the city and the lives 
of the inhabitants. Accordingly, the Vandals contented 
themselves with taking a certain number of prisoners 
together with the riches of Eome, and returned to Carth- 
age loaded with booty. 



144 MODEKN HISTORY. 



MARCIAN.-I.EO, THE THRACIAW, IN THE 

EAST. 

IiAST PERIOD AND FAT<L OF THE WESTEBN EMPIBE. — 455-476. 

Theodosius II. died in the year 450, of a fall from his 
horse, at the age of fifty, after a reign of forty-two years. 
No one was better qualified to succeed him than his sister 
Pulcheria; still, as no woman had ever reigned alone in 
either empire, she married and proclaimed emperor, Mar- 
cian, a brave and virtuous officer, who by his merit had raised 
himself from the condition of a common soldier to a con- 
spicuous rank in both the army and the state. 

No sooner was he acknowledged emperor, than he began 
to rescue the empire from that state of ignominy and de- 
jection to which it had been reduced by the barbarians. 
When Attila, before setting out for his expedition into 
Gaul, sent to the court of Constantinople to receiie the 
payment of the annual tribute stipulated by Theodosius 
II., Marcian answered the deputies that, reserving gold 
for his friends, he had nothing but iron and steel for his 
enemies. Towards his subjects he behaved as a true 
father. Being surrounded by excellent counsellors of his 
own choice, he devoted with them all his care to restore 
security and abundance, procure the exact administration 
of justice, remove unworthy men from public employ- 
ments) diminish the taxes, avert public and private calam- 
ities, relieve the poor and distressed, in a word, to bestow 
benefits on all, as far as prudence and the state of the 
exchequer permitted. 

The Nestorian and Eutychian heresies. — The ob- 
ject that chiefly engaged Marcian's attention was the 
cause of the true faith, which demanded his assistance 
against various enemies in the East. Of late, a succession 
of violent storms had been raised against it by tAvo oppo- 
site heresies, the Nestorian, which denied the unity of 
person in Christ, and the Eutychian, which attacked the 
distinction of his two natures. The former of these 
errors, both equally hostile to the mystery of the Incarna- 
tion, had been already condemned by the general council 
of Ephesus, held in 431; against the latter, the council of 
Chalcedon, the fourth of the general councils, was, by the 
authority of Pope St. Leo, and through the care of Mar 



MARCIAN. 145 

cian, assembled in 451. Besides renewing the condemna- 
tion of the Nestorian, it solemnly proscribed the Euty- 
chian doctrines; and such of the abettors of either as re- 
fused to submit, were considered as no longer belonging 
to the Church of Christ: they henceforth formed separate 
societies, which are still extant in Asia, 

Marcian was not less distinguished for his domestic yir- 
tues, than for his public conduct. He possessed sincere 
piety and modesty, beneficence, disinterestedness, and 
admirable purity of life. His reign, deservedly called 
the golden age of the Eastern empire, was, if not the 
most conspicuous in every respect, at least the most 
prosperous and blameless. Unfortunately, it did not 
last more than six years and five months; this excellent 
emperor died in January, 457, at the age of sixty-five. 

Leo, the Thracian. — Leo, the Thracian, who suc- 
ceeded him, and reigned about seventeen years, also 
showed great zeal for religion. He was well fitted for the 
sovereign power, though not so talented or successful as 
his predecessor. A powerful fleet which he sent against 
Gaiseric was entirely defeated ; but he gained signal vic- 
tories over the barbarians of the north, and, in general, 
maintained his dominions in that state of respectability in 
which they had been left by Marcian. He died in the 
year 474, and Gaiseric, that terrible conqueror whom we 
have often mentioned, followed him to the grave three 
years later, after having during half a century inflicted 
on the Eomans, in every part of their dominions, all the 
injury in his power. 

The Western empire was now in the last stage of its ex- 
istence. After the death of Valentinian HI. , and of the 
usurper Maximus (a.d. 455), Avitus, a senator of great 
repute, was acknowledged emperor in their place: still, 
the greater portion of the authority soon fell into the 
hands of Eicimer, a general of Suevian extraction, who 
was equally capable of noble deeds and great crimes; pru- 
dent and eloquent, skilful and intrepid, but devoid of 
true honor, fidelity and gratitude, and guided only by his 
ambition. He might, at three different times, have as- 
sumed the purple; but he preferred to confer it on others, 
whom he raised and afterwards destroyed in the most 
c^X)Woion8 manner. 

)Vithin the short space of twenty-one years, no fewer 
10 



rl46 MODERN HISTORY. 

-than eight emperors successively appeared and dis- 
appeared, viz.: 

Avitus, whose reign commenced in . . . 455. 

Majorianus . 457. 

Libius-Severus 461. 

Anthemius 467. 

Olybrius 472. 

Glycerins 473. 

Julius-Nepos 474. 

Komulus-Augustulus. . ... . . . 475. 

Some of these emperors were men of great merit, and, in 
more favorable circumstances, might have reigned with 
glory. Majorian especially, and nearly the same might 
be said of Anthemius, was not less commendable for his 
moral and mental qualities than for his military acquire- 
ments; but these two emperors incurred the dispkasure 
of Ricimer, by not leaving the government in his hands, 
and were put to death by that ambitious and cruel min- 
ister. 

Notwithstanding so many revolutions and enormities, 
Ricimer vigorously repulsed the various foes who were 
striving to complete the dismemberment of the empire. 
Death alone put a stop to his career of crimes and vic- 
tories (a.d. 472). 

Odoacer. — The last emperor of the West, by a singu- 
lar coincidence, bore the names both of the founder of 
the city (Romulus), and of the founder of the empire of 
Rome (Augustus); being called Romulus- Augustus, or 
Augustulus (on account of his youth). At that time, the 
JRomans, blended with other nations which continually 
poured into their territory, had no longer any attachment 
either to the imperial government, or to emperors who 
could not defend them against their enemies. Odoacer, 
king of the Heruli, taking advantage of the apathy of the 
people, easily overthrew a tottering throne. He attacked 
Augustulus in Ravenna, and, having made himself master 
of the town, deprived him of the purple, though, through 
compassion for his age, he spared his life, and even 
granted him an honorable retreat near Naples, The con- 
queror found no greater difficulty in subduing Pavia, Rome, 
iand all Italy, of which he was proclaimed king (A. d. 476). 
End of the Western Roman Empire. — Thus was 
the Roman empire destroyed in the West, twelve hundred 



MAKCIAN. 147 

and twenty-nine years after the building of Eome, five 
hundred and seven after the battle of Actium. Its fall, 
long since prepared by the weakness of many emperors 
and the despotism of armies, by civil wars and foreign in- 
vasions, was scarcely noticed in the world ; it disappeared 
without any violent commotion, like a man full of years, 
who dies of decrepitude. The Eastern empire, being less 
exposed to foreign attacks, and better defended by its 
capital and frontiers, existed yet for many centuries, 
its history being connected with that of nations of 
more recent origin ; but it never attained the power, 
splendor and wealth, which had distinguished ancient 
Rome. 

Amidst so many disturbances and revolutions, religion 
alone fully maintained her influence and dignity. Far 
from yielding to the violence of the storms which shook 
the social world to its very centre, she exercised her di- 
vine power over the very conquerors of Rome, and, being 
founded upon an immovable rock by the hand of God 
himself, she triumphed over them, as she had formerly 
triumphed over her pagan persecutors. Even at this dis- 
astrous and turbulent period, she began to tame and civ- 
ilize those fierce barbarians who before acknowledged no 
law but that of the sword. Divine Providence seemed to 
have permitted their irruptions into the Roman provinces 
for no other view than to destroy, through their means, 
the last remains of idolatry, and effect their own happy 
conversion to the laws of the Gospel. On the other hand, 
the inhabitants of the invaded countries were led to un- 
derstand, in the midst of their sufferings, that all was 
not lost for them, but that they would find a sure refuge 
in the Church of Christ. 



PAET III. 

FKOM THE DOWNFALL OF THE WESTEEN EMPIRE (A. D. 476), TO ITS 
REVIVAL UNDER CHARLEMAGNE (A.D. 800). 

FOUNDATION OF THE PEINCIPAL AND THE 
MOST CELEBEATED STATES OP EUEOPE. 

From the overthrow of the Western empire we may 
date the foundation of the principal states now extant in 
'Europe. The northern tribes by whose multiplied efforts 
its entire ruin was effected or accelerated, vied with each 
other in taking speedy possession of its fairest provinces. 
The conquests of the Vandals and of the Heruli having' 
been already mentioned, we have to speak at present of. 
the still more successful and celebrated establishment of 
the Anglo-Saxons in Great Britain, of the Visigoths in 
Spain, of the Franks in Gaul, and of the Ostrogoths in 
Italy. 

§1.— ANGLO-SAXONS IN GEEAT BEITAIN. 
A.D. 449. 

Hengist and Horsa. — Ever since the time when 
the Eoman troops were totally withdrawn from Great 
Britain, the Picts and Scots seized every favorable op- 
portunity to renew their inroads. District after district 
became a scene of devastation, and the misery of the 
natives increased every day,"till finding themselves desti- 
tute of all resources at home, they at length resolved to 
call in as auxiliaries a body of Saxons (Jutes), who, having 
sailed from the north of Germany, were then cruising in 
the channel along the coast in quest of plunder. Adven- 
turers like these could not fail to comply with a request 
which they justly presumed would turn to their own ad- 
vantage. For six years (449-455) they fought the battles 
of the natives with great fidelity and success ; and having 
by this time invited great numbers of their countrymen, 

148 



! 



ANGLO-SAXONS IN GREAT BRITAIN. 149 

to whom the Angles, another German tribe, willingly 
joined themselves, they excited the jealousy and alarm 
of the Britons, who refused them an increased supply of 
provisions. 

This was the signal for a war which proved most fatal 
to the liberty of the natives. The Anglo-Saxons con- 
quered them in many battles, and began to bring under 
subjection the country which they had just defended 
against the Scottish invaders. Their first settlement 
upon the British territory was that of Kent, which the 
valiant chieftain Hengist gained and secured by a series 
of bloody victories, from the year 455 to 473, and which, 
at his death, in 488, he left in a prosperous condition to 
Horsa. The work of conquest was continued after him, 
and, though the Britons fought with great valor, and 
sometimes with success, for the independence of their 
country, their efforts ultimately proved fruitless, and the 
greater part of the island was subjugated by the Anglo- 
Saxons, who, changing its name, laws and constitution, 
established in it seven independent kingdoms, commonly 
called the Heptarchy, namely : Kent, Sussex, Wessex, 
Essex, Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia. 

By this conquest, the whole of the country was plunged 
again into the state of barbarism from which it had 
been rescued by the Eomans. It remained in that state 
until the close of the sixth century, when its conquerors 
received the light of the Gospel through the pious zeal 
of St. Augustine and forty other missionaries sent from 
Rome by Pope St. Gregory the Great. The natives, as 
soon as they found resistance useless, fled with their 
most valuable effects to the hills and forests, to escape 
the exterminating sword of the invaders. Multitudes 
found a secure asylum in the craggy and mountainous 
districts of the country of Wales, which they hence- 
forth occupied for many centuries. Others, crossing the 
ocean, landed on the western extremity of Armorica in 
Gaul, where they made permanent settlements, and gave 
to the new tract they inhabited the name of Brittany 
(Br6tagne), which it still retains. 



150 MODERN HISTORY. 

§11.— VISIGOTHS m SPAIN. 

EVARIC— A.D. 466-4§4. 

^ The conquests of the Visigoths, or Westei-n Croths, in 
Spain, were more rapid than those of the Anglo-Saxons 
in Britain. Their king Evaric, taking advantage of the 
weakness and continual change of the last Roman emper- 
ors, sent a powerful army from the south of Gaul to the 
nearest provinces beyond the Pyrenees. The success of 
this expedition was astonishing : the very strongest towns 
opened their gates, and the natives, defeated in a great 
battle, abandoned a considerable portion of their country 
to the enemy. Upon this, Evaric himself arrived at the 
head of fresh troops ; the war was prosecuted with re- 
doubled vigor ; nothing could resist his arms, nor impede 
his progress, and with the exception of a few northern 
provinces occupied by the Suevians, the whole peninsula 
submitted to his power (a.d. 473). 

This warlike prince subdued also the portion of Aqui- 
tania not yet in his possession, and many other provinces 
in Gaul. The name of Evaric was now respected abroad: 
his court, which he established at Bordeaux, beheld ambas- 
sadors from all the neighboring nations paying homage to 
him as to the mightiest monarch of western Europe; and 
this high reputation he enjoyed until his death. 

But besides being a powerful conqueror and the foun- 
der of the kingdom of the Visigoths in Spain, Evaric 
wished also to be the legislator of his people. Until 
then, the Gothic code was very limited, consisting ouly 
of some statutes of their kings, which had little author- 
ity among them, and were frequently disregarded in 
practice. Evaric published a collection of those ancient 
laws, and added to them new regulations peculiarly 
adapted to the time, place and other circumstances. 
Well aware that on their faithful observance depended 
his personal safety as well as the prosperity of the state, 
he carefully enforced their execution, and thus began to 
accustom the Visigoths to the duties and practices of 
social life. 

Evaric died at Aries in 484, after a glorious reign of 
eighteen year*. His uncommon talent for war and civil 



I'iRANKS IK GAUL. 151 

administration would have still more entitled him to the 
praises of posterity, had he not, through ambition, 
stained his hand with the blood of his brother Theodoric 
II., and, through sectarian intolerance, treated his Cath- 
olic subjects with great severity, he himself being an 
obstinate Arian. Great however were the civil benefits 
he bestowed on his own people; the conquest of the penin- 
sula, especially, was so much the more fortunate for the 
Visigoths, as they were on the point of being expelled 
from their possessions in Gaul by a still greater conqueror, 
and of being compelled to confine themselves to their 
newly acquired and more lasting kingdom of Spain. 

§ III.— FEANKS IN GAUL. 
CL,OVIS.—A.D. 481-511. 

This conqueror was Clovis, king of the Franks, who, 
for the magnitude and important consequences of his 
exploits, is Justly considered the real founder of tlie 
French monarchy. The Franks were not at first a single 
nation distinct from all others, but made up of several 
German tribes which had, long before, entered into a con- 
federacy for the support of their independence. During 
the greater part of the fifth century, under four suc- 
cessive kings, they made frequent irruptions into Gaul, 
-and took piOssession of its northern frontiers; Clovis, more 
enterprising, undertook, at the early age of twenty years, 
to bring it entirely under his power. 

Battle of Soissons. — His first opponent was Syagrius, 
a brave general, who had formed a small state for himself 
in the north of Gaul on the ruins of the Roman empire. 
Clovis attacked him near Soissons (a.d. 486), and gained 
so complete a victory, that Syagrius, being left almost 
alone fled for refuge to the court of Alaric II., king of 
the Visigoths. Kor could this asylum save him from the 
hands of his victorious enemy. Clovis compelled Alaric, 
by threats and terrors, to deliver up the unfortunate 
general, whom he put to death, and, by^ this act of cruel 
policy, remained in full possession of his territory. 

Conversion of Clovis to Christianity.— After the 
latjse. of some years, the French king was obliged, in con- 
jBCjuenGe of a sudden invasion of the Alemanni, to carry 



152 MODEKN HISTOKT. 

the war to the banks of the Rhine. An obstinate battle 
was fought at Tolbiac, near Cologne, in which the Franks, 
almost entirely routed in the beginning, remained in the 
end masters of the field. It was after this unexpected 
triumph, which Clovis himself attributed to the special 
protection of the true God whom he had invoked during 
the contest, that both he and his nation, abandoning the 
worship of idols, embraced the Christian faith (a.d. 496). 

War against and defeat of the Visigoths. — During 
the course of the ensuing years, Clovis, ahvays active 
and fond of conquests, continued to enlarge his empire. 
Either by force of arms, or by negotiations and treaties, 
he obliged the Arborici (inhabitants of Belgium) to 
acknowledge him for their king, subdued Bavaria, and 
rendered the Burgundians his tributaries. This rapid 
increase of power in the French monarch was a source of 
uneasiness and alarm for his neighbors, particularly for 
Alaric, king of the Visigoths: fearing for his own terri- 
tory, he raised troops for its defence. Nothing could be 
more consonant than this with the designs of Clovis, as it 
afforded him an occasion of declaring an open war, and 
striking at once a signal blow. He marched with his usu- 
al rapidity, crossed the river Loire, came up with the 
army of the Visigoths near Poitiers, and forced them to 
engage in a general battle (a. d. 507). After a sanguinary 
contest, victory declared in favor of Clovis. With his own 
hand he struck Alaric dead; the Visigoths then fled with 
all possible speed, their conquerors pursuing them in every 
direction. In less than two years, Clovis took nearly 
all their possessions between the Loire and the Pyrenees, 
and thus nearly extinguished their power in Gaul; 
he would even have carried his conquests farther, had 
not a considerable body of his troops been defeated near 
Aries, by those of Theodoric, king of Italy. 

Division of the kingdom of the Franks,— Still, 
this defeat did not deprive Clovis of the principal fruit of 
his labors. He preserved liis former conquests, and re- 
turning to the north of Gaul, or rather France, as we shall 
henceforth call it, fixed his residence in Paris. The ex- 
traordinary reputation he had gained, being now far 
spread, and causing a great sensation even at the court of 
Constantinople, the emperor Anastasius sent him the 
insignia of the consulship, as a mark of his esteem and 



OSTROGOTHS IN ITALY. 153 

alliance. Unfortunately, Clovis did not preserve his 
glory pure to the end, but sullied it by several acts 
of cruelty to the princes of his own kindred, whose 
estates he wished to invade. He died in 511, at the 
age of forty-five, after a reign of thirty years, leaving 
his kingdom to be divided among four sons, viz. : Theo- 
doric I., Chlodomer, Childebert and Chlotar, a mode of 
succession which was followed after him on different occa- 
sions, and became a source of numberless disasters and 
civil wars. 

Although the government of Clovis had been military 
and despotic, it evinced in many respects a wise and 
skilful policy. He did not, barbarian like, expel the 
natives from the provinces which he subdued, nor deprive 
them of their liberty and all their property ; he only 
required that the lands of the country should be divided 
between them and his followers; whence it followed that 
the two nations, living and dwelling together upon the 
same soil, were soon blended into one people. He also 
published a code of laws, one of which declared women 
unfit to inherit such estates as had been obtained by arms 
and conquest ; and this gave rise to the fiction invented 
in tlie early part of the fourteenth century, according to 
whicli the French crown never devolved to women.* 

8 IV.— OSTROGOTHS (EAST GOTHS) IN 
ITALY. 

THEODORIC THE GREAT.— (A.D. 493-526) 

Siege of Ravenna. — Clovis, notwithstanding his 
justly renewed deeds in war and his legislation, was neither 
the greatest warrior nor the ablest politician of his age, 
this praise being due rather to Theodoric, king of the east- 
ern Goths or Ostrogoths. This nation, after the dismem- 
berment of Attila's empire, settled first in Pannonia near 
the Danube, but, being little satisfied with its situation, 
set out in 489 on an expedition against Italy. Odoacer, 

* That cod& was called the Salic law, from the tribe of the Salian 
Franks, to which Clovis belonged. The article which settled the right of 
succession became subsequently, when understood of the succession to the 
throne, a proverb thus expressed : Le royaume de France ne tomhe point 
eii quenouille. 



154 MODERN HISTORY. 

who was yet reigning there, did not fail to defend with 
courage a kingdom which he had now governed, during 
fourteen years, with great wisdom and glory. Still, vic- 
tory everywhere followed the standard of Theodoric: 
three battles lost by Odoacer, and the vigor with which 
the Goths conducted the siege of the city of Ravenna 
where he had taken refuge, obliged him to come to an 
agreement with his conqueror. He was first treated with 
cordiality; but Theodoric, sacrificing justice and humanity 
. to the cruel policy of the times, perfidiously put to death 
a prince worthy of a better fate (a.d. 493). 

But, if the Gothic monarch had recourse to so odious a, 
means' for the acquisition of a new kingdom, he on the: 
other hand took the wisest and most efiicient measures to 
secure its possession. One of the most successful was, to 
enter into a permanent alliance with the neighboring 
princes. Some of them he compelled to live at peace 
with him; others he attached to his family and to himself 
by the ties of affinity; with others, he assumed the tona 
of parental authority, fully justified by his great wisdom 
and experience. " You are young," he wrote to them, 
**and stand in need of good advice. Your ambition 
and imprudent behavior afflict me, and I cannot see with 
indifference that you are ruled by your passions.'' He 
was guided by these wise counsels himself, taking care not 
to enlarge his dominions by rashly exposing the life of his 
people or violating the laws of equity. "Let others," 
said he, "wage war for the sake of destruction and plun- 
der; as for me, my intention is, with the help of God, to 
conquer my enemies in such a manner, that the van- 
quished may be sorry for not having been before of the 
number of my subjects." 

Theodoric's legislation. — No sooner did Theodoric 
see his power firmly established in Italy, than he under- 
took to civilize his people. He adopted for that purpose 
the Roman jurisprudence, which he reduced to one hun- 
dred and fifty statutes, well calculated, by the prudent 
rules and judicious maxims with which they abounded, 
to promote the public utility. He wished the Italians 
and the Goths, after a new division of the lands, to 
consider themselves not only as allies, but even as kins- 
men and brothers, governed upon the same principles and 



OSTROGOTHS IN ITALY. l^S 

by one who looked upon himself as their'co'mmon father. 
The only distinction established between them was, that 
the carrying of arms and the performance of military duty 
were reserved to the Goths, while civil employments and 
trades were left to the Romans. During the whole course 
of his reign, Theodoric proved the impartial benefactor 
of the two nations, and became equally endeared to both. 
Though an Arian by birth and education, instead of per- 
secuting the orthodox, like the Vandal kings of Africa, 
his contemporaries, he on the contrary favored and pro- 
tected them; and so firm was his conviction, acquired by 
experience, of the disinterestedness and charity ot the 
Catholic bishops, that he usually applied to them for the 
distribution of his alms to the poor and the exercise of 
his liberality towards the provinces. 

His wisdom in choosing men. — This gi-eat prince 
knew how to gather around him and select for his 
counsellors persons the most conspicuous for their merit 
and ability, such as Boethius, Cassiodorus, etc. Boethius 
was a man of consular dignity, of noble feelings and 
superior genius, which shine forth in all his writings, 
especially in his five books De Consolatione PMlosopMm. 
Cassiodorus, who was not less distinguished for his 
learning and virtue, is proposed chiefly as the model of 
a zealous, active and disinterested minister of state. 
After a most laborious life at court, he retired into a 
pleasant solitude in Calabria, where he devoted the 
remainder of his days to study, writing, and religious 
exercises, and died at the age of about one hundred years. 

Thus was literature, so long after the Augustan age, 
still cultivated with great success in Italy; and, while 
the Franks, the Burgundians, and the Visigoths, had 
scarcely begun to learn the principles of civilization, the 
court of Theodoric was the centre of learning and polite- 
ness. His palace was constantly open to talents and 
merit. To him Rome was indebted for the rebuilding of 
its walls and the preservation of its ancient monuments; 
Ravenna, Pavia and other cities, were also repaired or 
embellished. He favored every useful enterprise, re- 
vived agriculture and commerce, and procured so perfect 
a security for social intercourse, that neither citizens nor 
travellers had anything to fear, either in the towns or in 
the country. 



156 MODERN HISTORY. 



1 



Extent of his empire. — The empire which Theodoric 
had founded, and which, by improving every fair occa- 
sion, he almost continually enlarged, was very extensive. 
He reigned over Italy, Sicily, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Khetia, 
Noricum, and some of the finest provinces of France andi. 
Spain. But his glory, besides being already impaired byB 
the unjust death of King Odoacer, was, like that of Olovis, 
much diminished by several subsequent acts of cruelty. 
Old age and infirmity made him suspicious. He listened 
to the slanders and false accusations of jealous courtiers 
against the most respectable men of the state. Cassio- 
dorus resigned his offices, and left the court :Boethius, and 
Symmachus, his father-in-law, suffered capital punish- 
ment, without being convicted of any crime, and the holy 
Pope John I. was thrown into prison, where he died after 
a painful confinement of several months. 

Theodoric's death. — Eemorse for these acts soon 
assailed Theodoric. His bitter grief for his late cruel- 
ties, produced a. melancholy which accelerated his death. . 
Most historians relate that, being one day at table, when 
a large fish had been served up, he imagined he saw in 
the dish the head of Symmachus; he withdrew terrified 
from the table, went to his bed, and expired, a prey to 
anguish and remorse, at the age of seventy-four years 
(a.d. 526). He had however sufficient time to proclaim, 
with the unanimous consent of those around him, his 
grandson Athalaric for his successor, under the regency 
of Amalasontha mother of this young prince. 

The administration of Theodoric was, during thirty 
years (from 494 to 524), a model of excellent government 
in almost every respect. Having previously shown to the 
world what he could do on the field of battle, he appeared, 
all that time, a modest conqueror, a wise legislator, and a 
pacific monarch, who knew, by a happy mixture of sever- 
ity and mildness, how to keep his victorious soldiers 
within the bounds of strict discipline, and to gain the 
hearts of his new subjects. When Belisarius conquered 
the Goths, he overthrew the statues of that great prince, 
but spared his sepulchre. It is yet extant in Eavenna, 
and attracts, by its elevation, the admiration of trav- 
ellers. 



JUSTIN I. 157 



EMPERORS OF CONSTANTINOPLE (EAST-ROMAN 
EMPIRE). 

JUSTI^f I.— A.D. 518-527. 

We must now revert to the Eastern empire, which 
began about this time to make a greater figure in the 
political world than it had done under its last so\rereigns, 
Basiliscus, Zeno and Anastasius I. After them, Justin, 
an officer of obscure parentage, but renowned for his 
valor, was judged worthy of the throne, at the advanced 
age of sixty-eight (a.d. 518). It is remarkable that this 
emperor knew neither how to read nor write, and still 
rendered important services to the state, during the nine 
years of his reign. Having natural talent and a sound 
mind, which he improved by experience and by asking 
counsel of other prudent men, he easily perceived the 
course to be followed in difficult affairs, and always acted 
with wisdom and equity. 

He took particular care, on the one hand, to appoint able 
ministers and virtuous magistrates, and, on the other, to 
afford seasonable relief to his people in their calamities 
and disasters, which were then uncommonly frequent. 
But a short time before his elevation, a tremendous earth- 
quake had desolated several parts of Illyria. For some 
days, a chasm immensely deep, about twelve feet wide, 
and extending to the distance of thirty miles, threw out 
sparks and flames, and swallowed up trees, rocks and 
houses. Some years before a dreadful conflagration had 
consumed many buildings in Constantinople, among 
others, that which contained the public library consisting 
of one hundred and twenty thousand volumes. An in- 
valuable copy of the works of Homer, written in golden 
letters on the skin of a serpent one hundred and twenty 
feet long, was lost on this occasion. 

Earthquake at Antioch. — Again in the years 535 and 
526, similar accidents desolated or destroyed many cities, 
especially the great city of Antioch, the capital of Syria. 
About noon of the twenty-ninth of May (526), a sudden 
and violent shaking of the ground overthrew the houses 
in the western part of the town; and, as the earthquake 
quickly reached the other quarters, nearly all the build- 



taa MODERN HISTORY. 

ings fell at the same moment, with a frightful crash. To 
this first evil, fire added its ravages. A subterraneous 
furnace, the usual attendant of earthquakes, ignited the 
very soil; hot cinders were carried up by whirlwinds, and 
fell afterwards in the form of a fiery rain, which consumed 
the wood-work of the houses, while another fire, rising 
from the ground, augmented the conflagration. 

So unexpectedly did all those scourges come upon the 
inhabitants, that few of them could escape into the 
country; and this great city, the most populous of the 
East, became in a moment the common sepulchre of two 
hundred and fifty thousand persons. Most of them were 
crushed by the falling of the houses, or consumed by the 
flames; but others met a fate which almost exceeds belief. 
Bands of robbers began to commit depredations in the 
midst of these scenes of destruction and death. While 
numbers of unfortunate people, covered with bruises and 
wounds,- were running in dismay through the streets and 
public places in order to avoid impending ruin, they met 
murderers, who cruelly deprived them of life and took 
possession of their fortunes, and who, soon after, were 
themselves destroyed with their criminal booty. 
' The deplorable spectacle of a city which barbarous 
conquerors have just taken by storm, would present but 
a faint idea of the desolation of Antioch. Some of the 
inhabitants, however, had the good fortune to escape 
from the ruins of their houses, under which they were for 
a time buried. Twenty or thirty days after, persons 
yet alive were taken from these sepulchres, where they 
had lived upon the victuals usually kept in families; but 
a far greater number were found dead. This earthquake, 
the flfth that Antioch suffered since its foundation, was 
the most awful and disastrous. It lasted six days with 
uninterrupted violence, and during six months was felt 
at different times; nor was the ground entirely settled till 
eighteen months after. 

The news of these calamitous events pierced the heart 
of the emperor with grief. He presently despatched vir- 
tuous and trusty men, with considerable sums of money, 
to repair those cities which had suffered most, and rescue 
their surviving inhabitants from misery and despair; we 
are told that, in rebuilding Antioch alone, he spent fifty 
millions of livres (ten or twelve millions of dollars). It' 



J 






GLOEIOUS REIGN OF JUSTINIAN. 159 

was in the course of these occupations, so worthy of a sov- 
ereign, that Justin closed his useful career (527). A 
short time before his death, he associated his nephew 
Justinian in the imperial power, and, by hi« demise, left 
this prince in a condition to raise to its proper height the 
edifice of glory of which he had laid the first foundation. 

GL.ORIOVS R£IOW OF JVSTIWIAN.— A.D. 527-565. 

The reign of Justinian forms an interesting epoch in the 
history of the Greek empire. The enlarged viesws of this 
prince, the union of favorable circumstances, the highly 
cultivated state of the science of law, and the brilliant 
successes obtained in different wars, equally contributed 
to render it glorious. 

Inauguration of the compilation of laws.— Justin- 
ian, on his elevation to the throne, resolved to reconquer 
the western provinces which formerly belonged to the 
Romans, and to improve the civil legislation. This latter 
design he executed with the assistance of the ablest civil- 
ians of his age, particularly the famous and learned questor 
Tribonian. There already existed, it is true, different 
collections of laws, published under Adrian, Theodosius II. 
etc. ; but all of them were defective. To become well ac- 
quainted with the ancient jurisprudence, it was necessafy 
to peruse two thousand volumes containing, amidst several 
wise enactments, many inaccuracies and obscure passages, 
and even opposite and contradictory statutes. Justinian 
undertook to introduce order into that chaos, by compris- 
ing in a work of moderate extent, both the general princi- 
ples of jurisprudence, and the best laws or judiciary sen- 
tences that had been promulgated before his time, during 
the space of thirteen hundred years. 

The Codex Justinianus. — The Pandectae and Di- 
gesta. — He first ordered a select collection to be made of 
the imperial statutes, from the beginning of Adrian's reign. 
By the assiduity of Tribonian and his associates, the 
work was soon performed, and published under the name 
of the New or Justinian Code (a.d. 529). After three 
years more of immense labor, the Digest {Digestum), or 
Pandects {Pandectm), appeared in fifty books, containing 
the most equitable ordinances of ancient legislators with 
the best decisions of lawyers or civilians, under proper di- 



/ 



160 MODEKN HISTORY. 

visions and titles. To render the study of these books easier 
and more useful, some introduction was necessary; this 
was also made, and four other books^, called Institutes, 
were published, which not only are the key to the Eoman 
jurisprudence, but even contain the fundamental prin- 
ciples of all legislation. Of the different parts of the 
Justinian compilation, it is the best and most admirable. 
1/ In fine, the emperor revised his Code, published it again 
more correctly in 534, and to the ordinances contained in 
it added a great number of. new statutes, the collection of 
which, under the title novellm completed what we call the 
.Roma7i or the Civil Law. 

Such was the origin of that famous body of laws, which, 
notwithstanding some imperfections, is the most remark- 
able that human wisdom ever produced. It was gradually 
adopted in several countries; and it is moreover from that 
abundant source of social principles, that the present 
states of Europe derive the better portion or supply the 
deficiency of their respective Codes.* 

Foreign Policy. — While Justinian was engaged in 
this important work, he did not forget the other design 
he had formed; viz., of reconquering the western provinces 
of the empire now occupied by the barbarians. Not to be 
surrounded with enemies on all sides, he ended a long and 
undecisive war against the Persians hj a solemn treaty of 
peace, and then directed all his efforts to the conquest of 
Africa. The Vandals, who were still masters of that 
country, had very much degenerated in courage; and per- 
petual quarrels among the descendants of Gaiseric con- 



*The history and character of the Roman jurisprudence are described 
with great erudition and sagacity by Chancellor Kent, in the twenty-third 
lecture of his Commentaries. His concluding remarks are these: "The 
civil law shows the proofs of the highest cultivation and rafinement ; and 
no one who peruses it can well avoid the conviction, that it has been the 
fruitful source of those comprehensive views and solid principle^ which 
have been applied to elevate and adorn the jurisprudence of modern 

nations The whole body of the civil law will excite never failing 

curiosity, and receive the homage of scholars, as a singular monument of 
wisdom. It fills such a large space in the eye of human reason ; it regu- 
lates so many interests of man as a social and civilized being ; it embodies 
so much thought, reflection, experience and labor; it leads us so far into 
the recesses of antiquity, and it has stood so long against the waves and 
weathers of time, that it is impossible, while engaged in the contemplation 
of the system, not to be struck with some portion of the awe and veneration 
which are felt in the midst of the solitudes of a majestic ruin." CommeiUa- 
t:ies on law, 2d edit., vol. i, pp. 547, 548. 



GLOKIOUS EEIGN OF JUSTINIAN". 161 

fcributed to weaken more and more their political strength. 
One of these dissensions furnished Justinian with an 
opportunity to send a fleet and an army to Africa, under 
the command of Belisarius (a.d. 533). 

Belisarius. — This general had already, during the pre- 
ceding Persian war, begun to display that extraordinary 
skill in the art of commanding armies, which afterwards 
rendered him equal to the greatest generals of ancient 
Rome. He sailed from Constantinople with five hundred 
and ninety-two vessels of all sizes, and, after a long 
voyage, landed on the shores of Africa, at some distance 
from Carthage. His troops amounted to scarcely sixteen 
thousand men; but they were full of ardor, and the gen- 
eral was himself a host. The Vandals, on the contrary, had 
numerous troops; but their generals were unskilled in war, 
and showed more valor than prudence: two of them per- 
ished in a first battle; the others, with King Gelimer,were 
put to flight. This enabled Belisarius to advance through 
ihe country without further hindrance. Everywhere he was 
received as a deliverer by the ancient inhabitants, especially 
by those of Carthage: the rigor and barbarism of the 
Vandals had long since exasperated them; whereas the 
mildness of Justinian's general, and the excellent disci- 
nline which he maintained in his army, gained him uni- 
versal confidence and affection. From Carthage, Beli- 
sarius went forward in. pursuit of Gelimer. Having found 
him stationed at Tricameron, a place twenty miles distant 
from Carthage, with only ten thousand men against one 
hundred thousand Vandals, he obtained a glorious victory, 
which rendered him master of the whole surrounding 
country, of the royal treasures, and even, in a short time 
of the person of the king (534). 

Gelimer. — This prince had fled from the field of battle 
to the extremity of Numidia, and there had shut himself 
up in a town situated on the summit of a high mountain. 
Belisarius, whose presence was necessary at Carthage, sent 
one of his generals, named Pharas, with a part of the army, 
to invest that place, and if possible to take the king pris- 
oner. Accordingly, the town was closely besieged, and, be- 
fore the expiration of three months, was reduced to the last 
extremity; in the meanwhile Pharas wrote to Gelimer, and 
exhorted him to surrender, with a positive assurance that 
he would be honorably treated by Justinian. The unfort- 
11 



162 MODERN HISTORY. 

unate prince wept while reading the letter, and in his 
answer to it, after expressing his unwillingness to become 
a captive, requested Pharas to send him a loaf, a sponge 
and a lute: a loaf, because he had not seen any bread for 
a long time; a sponge, to wash his wounds; and a lute, to 
accompany his voice when singing his misfortunes. 

Pharas, moved with compassion, granted the request, 
but still continued, with diligent care, to obstruct all 
approach to the fortress. At length, Gelimer, afraid lest 
it should be taken by storm, consented to capitulate. He 
descended from the mountain, and, on the repeated as- 
surances of honorable treatment, went with Pharas to 
Carthage, where he delivered himself into the hands of 
Belisarius. 

Thus was Africa again subjected to the Roman power,* 
and the kingdom of the Vandals destroyed after a 
duration of one hundred and six years. Belisarius, hav- 
ing provided, as well as he was able, for the security of 
his conquest, returned to Constantinople, where he re- 
ceived honors proportionate to the greatness of his ex- 
ploits. He had taken the precaution to make Gelimer 
embark with him from Africa. When this unhappy 
monarch was solemnly presented to the emperor, in the 
middle of an immense concourse of people, no sigh, no 
tear escaped him; but appearing to be plunged in deep 
reflection on the present state of his fortune, he several 
times repeated these words of Scripture: Vanity of vani- 
ties, and all is vanity. \ Justinian gave him a rich estate 
in Gralatia, where he was permitted to live in quiet with 
his family. 

Belisarius in Italy. — Scarcely had the African prov- 
inces been united to the empire, when similar views began 
to be manifested with respect to Italy. The unjust death 
inflicted by ungrateful subjects on Queen Amalasontha 
who had been a faithful ally to the court of Constanti- 
nople was for the emperor a favorable pretext for attack- 
ing the Goths. In the year 535, the conqueror of Africa, 
Belisarius, unexpectedly appeared in Sicily, at the head 



* The empire of Constantinople retained for many centuries the name of 
Roman or Eastern, though it is also frequently designated by the appel- 
lation of Greek or Lower Empire. 

t Eccles. i. 2. 



GLOKIOUS KEIGX OF JUSTINIAN. 163 

of seven thousand five hundred men. With this handful 
of soldiers that great general knew how to achieve ex- 
ploits, which others would have found difficult to accom- 
plish with very numerous armies.* After subduing the 
island, he passed over to the continent, and either by 
storm or surprise, by force or capitulation, took Naples, 
Rome, Eavenna, and many other cities, defeated the 
Goths on several occasions, and finally compelled their 
king Vitiges to embark, as Gelimer had done, for Con- 
stantinople, where the Gothic monarch also received 
estates and honorable titles from Justinian, as a compen- 
sation for the loss of his kingdom (a.d. 540). 

Still the power of the Goths in Italy was not yet 
entirely overthrown. Notwithstanding the fatal blow it 
had just received, it recovered for a time its former 
strength, and even acquired, after the departure of Beli- 
sarius, an astonishing superiority, under the conduct of 
Totila, whom the Goths chose for their leader in 541. 

Totila. — Of all the successors of Theodoric the Great, 
Totila was the only one who perfectly resembled him in 
prudence, activity, valor, justice and generosity. He con- 
quered the Roman commanders in Italy, as often as he 
attacked them, and retook Rome in spite of all the exer- 
tions made by Belisarius after his return (a.d. 546). 
This great general, left by the emperor without the nec- 
essary supplies of ammunition and troops, saw his former 
prosperity decline ; after some years of fruitless efforts, he 
resigned the command of the army, and left to Narses 
the honor of terminating the war. 

Narses. — Narses was one of those extraordinary men 
whom Providence prepares, as it were, in secret, for the 
prosperity or the destruction of states. Though a 
stranger, of small size and mean appearance, he had risen 
from a slave, to be one of the first officers in the palace of 
Justinian. The deficiency of regular education was abun- 
dantly supplied in him by a natural and noble eloquence. 

* This appeared particularly in the year 537, when Belisarius, after tak- 
ing Rome, was himself besieged in that city by an army of one hundred and 
fifty thousand men. The siege lasted twelve months and nine days, dur- 
ing which the two parties engaged seventy times, with a great display of 
valor on each side : but Belisarius, with only the twentieth part of the 
enemy's forces, defeated all their efforts, and finally obliged them to re- 
tire.— Procopius, De Bello Goth. ; Lebeau, Hist, du Bas. Empire, vol. ix. 6. 
44. pp. 395^73. 



164 MODERN HISTORY. 

A quick and sound judgment, a profound and extensive 
genius, wisdom in contriving the best plans and activity 
in executing them, insured the success of his undertak- 
ings. He possessed in an eminent degree all the virtues 
not incompatible with a certain ambition, above all, gen- 
erosity and beneficence. As for his talents in war, they 
only wanted an occasion for their display, and without 
having been a soldier, he all at once appeared a consum 
mate general. 

Besides these natural advantages, Narses enjoyed the 
favor of Justinian, who readily granted him what had 
been refused to Belisarius, viz. : all the troops, money and 
ammunition requisite to carry on the war with vigor and 
success. Being thus well provided in every respect, he 
had but to appear in Italy, to check the prosperous fort- 
unes of the Goths, and the very first battle which he 
fought, in the plains of Lentagio, entirely turned the 
scale in favor of the Eomans. In vain did Totila make 
every effort to maintain the superiority which he had 
acquired ; his army was completely defeated, his bravest 
warriors were killed, and he himself, being forced to fly 
for the first time in his life, died of his wounds a few 
hours after the battle. Narses immediately sent to Con- 
stantinople the news of his victory, together with the 
cuirass and the crown of Totila ; and Justinian received, 
in the midst of the senate, these spoils taken from a 
prince far superior to him in personal merit (a.d. 552). 

Tejas.^ — The Goths, although vanquished, and deeply 
afflicted by the death of their excellent king, did not lose 
courage, but hastened to provide a worthy successor in 
the person of Teias, the bravest of his lieutenants. In 
his arduous post, Teias answered as well -as he possibly 
could the hopes of his nation, and, being unable to save 
it, strove at least to prevent its entire overthrow. He 
rallied the remains of the Gothic army, and leaving the 
open country to the victorious troops of Narses, went to 
occupy a strong position near Mount Vesuvius. The 
Eoman general, at the head of all his forces, pursued him 
so closely, that the Goths began to suffer considerably 
from famine. Then, considering the decaying state of 
their fortune, which was on the point of being utterly 
lost, these magnanimous last survivors of a nation for- 
merly so flourishing, looked at their swords, and resolved 



GLORIOUS REIGN OF JUSTINIAN. 165 

to fight once more, either to conquer by a last effort, or at 
least to die with glory. 

No sooner had they come to this determination, than, 
descending from the heights, they rushed with desperate 
fury against the enemy : but the resistance was not less 
vigorous than the attack was violent. The Eomans were 
encouraged by the remembrance of past success, and an 
implicit confidence in the superior talents of their general: 
the Goths were animated by despair and by the example 
of their king, who having taken his post in the first rank, 
displayed the most heroic courage, and, for the space of 
four hours, spread among the enemy terror and death. 
Assailed as he was by a multitude of javelins and arrows, 
Teias, immovable as a rock, with one hand warded off the 
weapons, and, with the other, slew as many Romans as 
came within his reach. At length, unable to bear up 
his shield, which was pierced with twelve javelins, he 
asked for another. . While he was taking it from the 
hands of his armor-bearer, and putting off the first, his 
breast for an instant remained uncovered ; at this very 
moment, he received a deadly blow ; he however 
continued to fight until he became exhausted, and then 
fell with his face towards the enemy. 

The Romans cut off the head of this valiant prince, and 
exposed it, on the top of a pike, to the gaze of both 
armies, especially of the Goths, in order to throw them 
into consternation and despair. But the courage of 
those intrepid warriors, instead of being abated by this 
melancholy event, was rather increased by the desire of 
avenging the death of Teias. They therefore continued 
fighting with great heroism, until the darkness of night 
separated them from the Romans. Both parties spent 
the night on the field of battle, and, as soon as the dawn 
appeared, the combat was renewed with the same fury and 
maintained with the same obstinacy as on the day before ; 
nor could Narses put to flight enemies w^ho were few in 
number, wounded and fatigued, but, at the same time, 
buoyed up by their excitement, and making their last 
desperate effort. Giving up the hope of conquering men 
to whom liberty was dearer than life, he permitted them 
to retire unmolested, on condition that they would never 
more unsheathe their swords against the empire ; after 
this, he easily achieved the conquest of Italy (a.d. 553). 



166 MODERN HISTORY. 

The kingdom of the Ostrogoths thus disappeared forever, 
after a short duration of sixty years, during which it had 
produced three undoubted heroes, Theodoric, Totila and 
Teias. The authority of Justinian being now acknowl- 
edged throughout Italy, Narses, by his appointment 
and in his name, governed the country which he had so 
gloriously subjugated. 

War against the Franks. — Warfare however was not 
yet entirely at an end, owing to the share that the French 
took for a long time in these wars. The successors 
of Clovis had inherited his warlike spirit, which they 
all exerted in subduing the little neighboring states: but 
none among them became as remarkable in this respect, 
as Theodebertus, king of Austrasia and of a considerable 
part of Germany. So great was his reputation for ability 
and valor, that both the Greeks and the Ostrogoths, 
from the very beginning of their contest, eagerly courted 
his alliance. He promised it to each nation, • but was 
faithful to neither, his design being to conquer for him- 
self. With this interested view, he crossed the Alps at 
the head of a powerful army, attacked both parties suc- 
cessively, defeated them, and would probably have re- 
mained sole master of the disputed regions, had not a 
contagious distemper, which broke out among his soldiers, 
obliged him to retire with considerable loss (a. d. 539). 

After his retreat, though none of those who followed 
him had perished by the sword of the Eomans, Justinian 
had the ridiculous vanity to assume the title of Francicus, 
or conqueror of the French. Theodebertus, filled with 
indignation, resolved to avenge the insult, and by follow- 
ing the course of the Danube, to invade Thrace, and then 
attack the very capital of the Greek empire. Already 
great preparations were being made for this purpose, and 
the emperor began to tremble in Constantinople, when 
Theodebertus died in the flower of his age (a.d. 548), and 
there was none after him skilful or bold enough to exe- 
cute his projects. 

It was only towards the end of the Gothic war, that 
two of his successor's generals, Leutharis and Bucelin, 
undertook in their own name the defence of the Goths, 
who were now deprived of every other resource. They 
passed across the Alps into Italy, with seventy-five thou- 
sand warriors, French and Germans. This army, like a 



GLORIOUS REIGN OF JUSTINIAN. 167 

furious torrent, overran the wliole peninsula, from the 
northern provinces to the southern extremity of Calabria, 
sweeping away or destroying everything in its impetuous 
course. Leutharis then desired to secure his booty by 
returning to the north, but was entirely foiled in his 
attempt. Being first defeated by the Romans during his 
march, he had scarcely reached and recrossed the river 
Po, when a dreadful pestilence carried him off, with 
nearly all his soldiers; a just punishment for the depre- 
dations and cruelties which they had committed. 

Subjugation of Italy. — In the meanwhile, the army 
of Bucelin was also in a very perplexed condition ; Narses, 
unable, in the opening of the campaign, to stop his prog- 
ress, succeeded at last in famishing his wearied troops; 
this induced the German chieftain to engage in a general 
battle, rather than let all his followers die of sickness and 
starvation. The two armies met near Capua, on the banks 
of the little river Casilino, from which the bloody fight 
took its name. Never was there witnessed greater im- 
petuosity on the one side, nor more valiant resistance on 
the other; nor was there ever a more striking proof of the 
superiority of true courage regulated by discipline over 
blind and unrestrained bravery. Although the Eomans 
and their auxiliaries found themselves at first in great 
danger from the violence of the enemy^s attack, the de- 
feat of the French and Germans was so complete, that, 
out of thirty thousand, only five men escaped, all the 
others being slain with their general; whereas the con- 
querors, whose number scarcely amounted to eighteen 
thousand, did not lose more than eighty men. All of 
them had performed prodigies of valor; but the honor of 
the day was by every one attributed to Narses, whose 
presence of mind and superior genius had changed into so 
glorious a triumph, a combat the beginning of which 
•seemed almost desperate for the Eomans (a.d. 554). 
Shortly after, he cut to pieces another party of French, 
who were occupying a large portion of the country be- 
tween the Po and the mountains; so many losses made 
them abandon the hope of obtaining a footing in Italy. 

War in Persia. — "While the bravest troops and the 
ablest generals of the empire were thus employed in the 
West, the Persians had recommenced the war in the East. 
During many years, their king Chosroes I., surnamed the 



168 MODERN HISTORY. 

Great, spread devastation through the rich provinces of 
Mesopotamia and Syria, burning or sacking the towns, 
plundering the country, and routing the armies sent for 
its defence. He several times returned, after his cam- 
paigns, to Persia with an immense booty, or after having 
forced Justinian to pay him a heavy tribute. Belisarius 
repaired in some degree the dishonor of the Eoman arms; 
but after his departure, when he went to Italy for the 
second time, it daily increased under other generals; par- 
ticularly when thirty thousand Eomans were defeated by 
four thousand Persians, and, on another occasion, fifty 
thousand by three thousand only.* At length, a signal 
victory, and other advantages gained by the troops of 
Justinian, permitted him to conclude a truce less disgrace- 
ful to the empire (a.d. 555). 

This truce was the more opportune as the state was 
visited at this period by many other calamities. Earth- 
quakes overthrew several buildings, and pestilence de- 
stroyed many of the inhabitants of Constantinople; on 
the other hand, the Huns made a furious irruption into 
Thrace, and advanced so far as- to threaten the capital. 
Belisarius was once more, on this occasion, the glorious 
defender and the strongest bulwark of the empire. 
Though scarcely able, on account of old age, to wield a 
sword, he marched out with a handful of warriors against 
the barbarians, and obliged them to retire (559). 

Belisarius' sad fate. — In return for so many ser- 
vices, the suspicious emperor, deceived by the slanders of 
the court, and believing Belisarius privy to a late con- 
spiracy, stripped this great man of all his honors, and 
condemned him to an ignominious confinement which 
lasted seven months. It is even said and believed by 
many that his eyes were put out, and that he was reduced 
to misery so great as to beg his bread in the streets of 
Constantinople. But this seems to be a mere tale, quite ' 
unknown to contemporary historians, and founded on no 
better authority than that of John Tzetzes, an injudicious 
Greek writer of the twelfth century. More ancient au- 
thors, as Cedrenus and Theophanes, instead of mention- 



* Lebeau, Hist, du Bas. Empire, vol. x., pp. 225-228 ; and vol. xi.. 18-22 
Agath. and Procop. De Bello Persico. 



GLORIOUS REIGN OF JUSTINIAN. 169 

ing any such fact, relate that Belisarius recovered his dig- 
nities and the friendship of the emperor. 

Both of them died shortly after, and in the same year 
(565). Justinian was in the eighty-fourth year of his life, 
and the thirty-ninth of a reign which had been more fa- 
mous abroad than prosperous at home, especially towards 
its close. The armies were now in a miserable condition 
for want of regular pay, and the provinces were groaning 
under the pressure of heavy taxes, which served only to 
enrich covetous courtiers, or were spent in purchasing 
peace from the barbarians. Moreover, the emperor^s mii- 
nificence often degenerated into prodigality; this and 
an inordinate passion for new buildings, one of the incor- 
rigible defects of Justinian, resulted in the expenditure of 
immense sums, that might have been much better em- 
ployed. 

It should also be remarked that, after having amended 
the Eoman legislation, he frequently altered his own laws, 
or suffered them to be changed by his courtiers and min- 
isters, in accordance with their interests and passions. 
The same inconstancy, and a weak condescension for his 
haughty and wicked wife Theodora, often betrayed him 
into wrong and unjust measures, so far as to disgrace his 
ardent zeal for religion by the violence of his measures, 
and by his continual attempts to rule and direct the affairs 
of the Church, while he neglected those of the empire. 
Owing to his imprudence, the factions of the circus ex- 
cited many disturbances, sometimes even bloody revolts 
in Constantinople, the emperor^s blind partiality for one 
of the parties having increased their mutual animosity, 
which continued under his successors, and proved one of 
the greatest calamities of that capital. In a word, al- 
though Justinian possessed great talents and many vir- 
tues, one might reasonably think, from the general tenor 
of his government, that he was rather an idle spectator of 
the splendid transactions which occurred during his reign, 
and that he really did less good than evil to both Church 
and State. 

However, it would be unjust to deny that this emperor 
had many noble ideas and formed truly glorious designs. 
The reform of jurisprudence, the conquest of Italy 
and Africa, his endeavors to increase the power and 
Bplendor of the empire, were certainly undertakings cal- 



170 MODERN HISTORY. 

culated to confer undying honor on any reign. If lie did 
not himself carry them into execution, Ms at least was 
the glory of having contrived the plans, furnished the 
means, and effected their accomplishment through the in- 
strumentality of talented individuals whose services Di- 
vine Providence placed at his disposal. 

JUSTIN II.— TIBERIUS II.— A. D. 565-582. 

At the death of Justinian, who left no issue, the im- 
perial sceptre passed into the hand's of his nephew, Justin 
II. This prince commenced his reign with universal 
applause, having, on the very first day, redressed many 
grievances, and paid innumerable debts contracted by 
Justinian in his old age. His subsequent conduct was 
not, it is true, always marked by the same love of law and 
justice; still, the emperor displayed it on many other oc- 
casions, particularly in the following occurrence, which is 
well deserving of notice. 

Justin II. 's high sense of justice. — In order to 
check fraud and extortion in the capital, Justin ap- 
pointed for its prefect a magistrate of renowned integrity, 
who was not less firm in the discharge of his duty, than 
upright and virtuous. He invested him with unlimited 
power to punish, without appeal and without hope of 
pardon, all criminals, of whatever rank or condition; a 
just, though severe decree, which frightened all iniqui- 
tous men and extortioners, one only excepted, a proud no- 
bleman, who thought himself above the reach of either 
divine or human law. A complaint was lodged against 
this man by a poor widow whom he had robbed of all her 
property. The prefect, through regard for the accused, 
who was a relation to the emperor, wrote to him, and 
intrusting the letter to no one but the injured widow, 
begged him to indemnify her for the wrong she had suf- 
fered. The only satisfaction she received, was insult and 
ill treatment. 

The prefect, hearing this, was inflamed with indignation, 
and summoned the offender before his tribunal; but his 
new orders were equally despised, and answered only by 
fresh insults and raillings against both the judge and the 
judgment. Instead of appearing, the haughty nobleman 
went to the palace, where he was invited to dine with a 



JUSTIN II.— TIBERIUS II. 171 

great number of courtiers. No sooner did the prefect 
know that he was at table with the emperor, than he him- 
self entered the dining-room, and said to Justin: "My 
lord, if you persist in the resolution which you have mani- 
fested of punishing oppression and violence, I also shal) 
continue to fulfil your orders. But if you renounce a 
design so worthy of you, if the worst of men are honored 
with your favor and admitted to your table, receive my 
resignation of an office which becomes useless to your 
subjects, and cannot but be displeasing to yourself." To 
this noble remonstrance Justin answered that he had not 
changed his mind. " Punish," said he to the prefect, 
" punish injustice everywhere; were it even seated with 
me upon the throne, I would rather descend, to deliver it 
up to puDishraent." The virtuous magistrate did not 
desire more: emboldened by this answer, -he presently 
ordered the culprit to be seized in the midst of the guests, 
and carried before his tribunal. The widow^s complaints 
were heard, and as that man, before so arrogant, and now 
speechless and trembling, could not urge anything in his 
defence, the prefect caused him to be stripped and beaten 
with rods, and then to ride upon an ass, with his face 
turned to the tail, through all the streets of the city; his 
effects were moreover forfeited for the benefit of the 
widow. This exemplary chastisement stopped for some 
time the course of usurpation and extortion. The em- 
peror rewarded the resolute conduct of the prefect by rais- 
ing him to the rank of a patrician, and confirming him in 
his charge for the remainder of his life.* 

The other qualities of Justin were not equal to his 
zeal for the enforcement of the laws and of good order. 
He was dissolute, indolent, pusillanimous, and, at the 
same time, haughty to excess towards the ambassadors 
of foreign nations. This unbecoming pride, which his 
wife Sophia too faithfully imitated, occasioned bloody wars, 
and caused great losses to the empire. That princess, 
having long since harbored a deep hatred against Narses, 
the conqueror, and at that time, the governor of Italy, 
sent him a spindle and a distaff, with a scornful letter, 

*This act of firmness and vigor is by some referred to the reign of Justin 
I. but more probably belongs to that "of Justin II. and to the year 574 or 
near that time. — See Lebeau, Histoire du Bas Empire, vol. xi. pp. 235-237. 
Petavius Rationarium tempormn, vol. i., p. 409. 



1';'2 MODERN HISTORY. 

telling him that those articles were more suitable for him 
than the command of armies and the government of prov- 
inces: for which reason she ordered him to depart from 
Italy and return to Constantinople, to be employed in the 
palace. 

The Lombards under Alboin. — Narses had virtue, 
firmness and courage, but not to such a degree as patiently 
to bear so cruel an affront. On the perusal of the letter, 
his eyes sparkled with wrath, and in a sarcastic tone: 
" Go," said he to the messenger, " and tell the empress, that 
I will cut out for her more work than she desires." He 
immediately wrote to the nation of the Lombards (so called 
from their long beards), inviting them to come and invade 
Italy, He soon repented of his treason, and died with the 
bitter regret of having by that one act, dishonored a life of 
ninety-five years, the last part of which had been enno- 
bled by so many glorious achievements.* But this repent- 
ance came too late to prevent the evil consequences of his 
rash step: the Lombards had already set out under the 
command of their King Alboin (568). They crossed the 
Alps from the north-east, and meeting with little opposition, 
subdued all that part of the peninsula which received from 
them the name of Lombardy. Pavia was the capital of 
this new kingdom. The invaders did not advance far 
enough, or in sufficient numbers, to take the other chief 
cities, Eome, Naples, Eavenna, etc. ; these therefore con- 
tinued, for nearly two centuries more, under the power 
of the emperors of Constantinople, Ravenna being 
chosen, on account of its advantageous situation, to be the 
residence of the governors whom they appointed under 
the title of exarchs. 

War against Chosroes in the East. — The impru- 
dence of Justin gave rise also to a new war against the 
Persians, in the beginning of which great injury was done 
to the Eomans. While the emperor, more ready to threaten 
than to act, remained shut up in his palace, Chosroes, 
ever active and intrepid, unexpectedly appeared on the 



* In this we follow the account commonly given by historians ; still it 
should be observed, in justification of Narses, that several learned critics 
deny his having yielded to his resentment and made any proposal, to the 
Lombards about the invasion of Italy ; which invasion , they say, was under- 
taken for a variety of other causes. — See Annales du moyen age, vol. m. p. 
1 88.— Lebeau, vol . xi. , p^j . 178, 179. 



JUSTIN II.— TIBERIUS II. 173 

frontiers at the head of one hundred and forty thousand 
men, attacked Mesopotamia iind Syria, and with little or 
no opposition, laid waste those rich provinces. The intel- 
ligence of these disasters threw Justin into such a melan- 
choly as degenerated into real madness, the paroxysms of 
which became more and more frequent. Having fortu- 
nately retained his senses sufficiently to feel that he was no 
longer able to govern without a colleague, he made choice 
of Tiberius, the commander of his guards, a man uni- 
versally respected for his prudence and virtue, and intrust- 
ed to him the reins of government (a.d. 574). 

Victory over Chosroes. — It would have been difficult 
to make a better choice; and Chosroes soon perceived, to 
his cost, that the imperial court was now directed by a 
more vigorous hand. He saw the course of his triumphs 
and prosperity checked at the battle of Melitene, a town 
of Lesser Armenia, where he found himself opposed by 
one hundred and fifty thousand men, Romans and auxil- 
iaries, whom Tiberius had mustered from the different 
parts of the empire as well as from the surrounding 
nations. Notwithstanding the exertions of Chosroes dur- 
ing the contest, most of the Persians were put to the 
sword, or driven into the Euphrates, where they perished. 
The dejected monarch fled with all haste to the confines 
of Persia, and died in grief and despair, after a memorable 
reign of forty-eight years. 

While Tiberius was thus restoring the honor of the 
Roman armies, he was not less careful to restore the in- 
terior tranquillity of the state. Crime and extortion 
were checked by severe laws. The vain magnificence and 
useless expenses of the imperial court were abolished, and 
by this wise measure Tiberius found means to support 
the standing army, diminish the taxes, relieve the wants 
of divers provinces, and gain the hearts of his subjects, by 
conferring on them benefits worthy of a great prince. 
He considered them all as his children, the state as his 
family, and the sovereign power as a blessing which he 
must render, as much as possible, common to all, by his 
equity, kindness and liberality. 

Tiberius and Sophia. — Amidst these laudable em- 
ployments, the death of Justin, in 578, left him sole 
master. As the empress Sophia, by her counsels and 
influence, had been instrumental in placing him on the 



174 MODEKN HISTORY. 

throne, she expected that, as she was now a widow, h« 
would marry her, and thus enable her to preserve the 
title of empress. But Tiberius was already married, a 
fact of which she was not aware. On the day of his coro- 
nation, he made his virtuous wife, Anastasia, suddenly 
appear in the sight of the people, and crowned her with 
his own hands, to the extreme joy of all the spectators 
except Sophia, whose disappointment can scarcely be 
imagined. This ambitious princess, in the violence of her 
resentment, did all in her power to dethrone a sovereign 
to whose elevation she had so much contributed. Tiberius 
contented himself with depriving her of the great riches 
which had been left at her disposal, and in spite of her 
intrigues, remained in quiet possession of the throne. 

He occupied it only four years, and during this short 
period, constantly displayed virtues equal to his rank. 
To procure the welfare of his people and maintain the 
honor of the empire, were now, as they had hitherto 
been, the constant objects of his solicitude. If, for want 
of sufficient forces, he could not deprive the Lombards of 
their conquests in Italy, nor prevent the Avari, a Scythian 
nation from obtaining a similar foothold in Pannonia, 
he at least continued, though desirous of peace, to gain 
great advantages against the Persians, whose new king 
Hormisdas was obstinately bent on prosecuting the war. 

For these successes the emperor was chiefly indebted to 
Mauritius, commander of his armies in the East. Mau- 
ritius was a man of great valor and experience, and, with 
the exception of a certain taint of avarice, still more com- 
mendable for the qualities of his heart. Tiberius, whose 
health was rapidly declining, thought he could do noth- 
ing better for the state than to appoint him his successor. 
This he did in a solemn assembly with universal 
applause, and died the next day (14th of August, 582), 
leaving Constantinople in deep affliction for the loss of so 
excellent an emperor, and yet in the cheering hope of 
equal prosperity under the new sovereign. 

MAURITIUS.— A.D. 5§2-602. 

The triumphs of Mauritius over the Persians had raised 
him to the throne : in order to maintain his position, 
and pursue the course of his victories, he sent numerous 



MAURITIUS. 175 

armies to the frontiers; but the misunderstanding of the 
troops and generals permitted the enemy to regain the 
superiority in the first campaigns. At length, good order 
was re-established, and the Persians were conquered in 
many battles. These defeats, joined to the intolerable pride 
and cruelty of Hormisdas, roused his subjects against him. 
He was thrown into a dungeon, and shortly after, put to 
death, with the consent of his son Chosroes II. who began 
to reign in his place. 

But Chosroes himself was not secure upon a throne lately 
stained with his father's blood. A considerable portion of 
the army persevered in its rebellion against the royal 
family, and defeated the troops of the king. In this dis- 
tress, Chosroes, trusting more to a generous enemy than 
to disloyal subjects, fled for refuge to the Eoman boun- 
daries, whence he wrote a moving letter to Mauritius, 
requesting his assistance and protection. Mauritius liber- 
ally complied with the request: by his orders, the fugitive 
monarch was treated in a manner worthy of a sovereign, 
and moreover supplied with a powerful army, whose ex- 
ertions enabled him to re-enter his own dominions in 
triumph, to crush the rebels, and regain the undisturbed 
possession of his kingdom (a.d. 593). 

Peace with Persia. — In return for these signal bene- 
fits, Chosroes yielded to the Eomans the territories and 
cities for which so much blood had been shed and so many 
battles fought within the last year. A permanent peace 
was concluded between Persia and the empire; and thus, 
instead of meanly fomenting the internal feuds of a power- 
ful and rival state, Mauritius had the honor of bringing 
them to a happy termination, of replacing an exiled sov- 
ereign upon his throne, and of ending, by. an act of gener- 
osity far more commendable than all his victories, a long 
and violent struggle which had proved so fatal to both 
nations. 

The emperor then directed his attention chiefly to the 
defence of the northern frontier against the attacks of the 
Avari. These barbarians were accustomed to a life of 
warfare and pillage: frequently victorious and successful 
in their attempts, sometimes conquered and repulsed, they 
incessantly renewed their inroads, and spread devastation 
through Mesia, Thrace and other provinces. At last a 
masterly expedition of Prisons, one of the Eoman generals. 



176 MODERjq- HISTORY. 

in 601, almost annihilated their forces, without however 
destroying their warlike and restless spirit. 

War against the Avari. — This hrave commander, 
having resolved to strike a signal hlow, crossed the Danube 
with the intention of attacking the Avari upon their own 
territories, and immediately sent away ■'.he boats, in order 
to reduce his own soldiers to the necessity of conqaering or 
perishing. This being done, he marched out of his camp, 
with all his troops drawn up in battle array; and, as it was 
the custom of the barbarians to fight in separate bodies 
and in a desultory manner, Prisons divided his army into 
three square battalions, the better to face the enemy on 
all sides. He ordered them, moreover, not to use their 
arrows, but to come to close fight with their pikes and 
javelins. The first combat ended only with the day, and 
the issue was favorable to the Eomans; for, while their 
loss did not amount to more than three hundred men, they 
had killed four thousand of the Avari. 

The enemy did not appear for two days. On the morn- 
ing of the third. Prisons drew up his army in the same 
order as before, but, during the contest, gradually ex- 
tended its wings, so as to enclose the barbarians, who lost 
nine thousand men on that day. The ten following days 
passed without any new engagement. Prisons, animated 
by his first success, and seeing the Avari at a stand, went 
forward to provoke them a third time to battle. He 
posted his troops on the declivity of a hill, at the bottom 
of which there was a lake. The Eomans rushed upon the 
barbarians with such fury, and drove them towards the 
lake with such irresistible force, that fifteen thousand of 
them were put to the sword, or perished in the water. 
Of this number were the four sons of the Khan (chief of 
the Avari) ; and the Khan himself was, for some moments, 
in great danger, which he escaped only by a precipitate 
flight. 

The Gepidae. — Prisons, having let his troops take some 
repose, went in search of the Avari, and fought them in a 
fourth and equally successful battle, which obliged the 
vanquished to retreat beyond the river Teissa. The con- 
queror sent four thousand men to observe them, and ex- 
amine their new position. This detachment found in a 
certain borough a great multitude of Gepidas, subjects of 
the Avarian nation, who had just come to celebrate one of 



MAURITIUS. 177 

their solemn feasts. These barbarians, not being in- 
formed of the issue of the last battle, were enjoying 
themselves at table during the night, particularly in 
drinking; the Eonians arrived just at that time, and easily 
slew thirty thousand of them; they then returned, loaded 
with booty, to their camp on the other side of the river. 

Twenty days more having elapsed, the Khan, at the 
head of a considerable force, recrossed the Teissa, and 
challenged the Eomans to a fifth battle. His obstinate 
resolution was still of no avail, and this victory of Prisons 
crowned the success of his glorious campaign, which had 
not lasted more than two months. The numerous army 
of the Avari was either cut to pieces or drowned in the 
river. There remained only about seventeen thousand 
men, many of whom were taJien prisoners, but, shortly 
after, the Khan had the good fortune to recover them by a 
stratagem, and with them repaired, in some measure, the 
great losses of his nation. 

It was just the reverse with the Greek emperor, whose 
political career, so successful in the beginning, ended in a 
bloody tragedy of which he and all his family were the 
victims. During one of the preceding campaigns, the 
Avari had taken twelve thousand Eoman prisoners, whom 
Mauritius refused to redeem, though but a trifling sum 
was asked for their ransom; and this refusal so enraged 
the barbarians, that they put them all to the sword. The 
emperor then began to be stung with remorse, gave large 
alms, and prayed that God would rather punish him in 
this life, than in the next. His prayer was heard, and he 
himself unknowingly prepared the way .for its accom^ 
plishment. 

Phocas. — The conduct of this prince with regard 
to the prisoners had already provoked loud complaints 
against him, when, in the year 603, he ordered the troops 
on the frontier to take up their quarters in the enemy's 
country, and to subsist there by plunder during winter. 
The soldiers exasperated at this command, chose one 
Phocas, a daring, ambitious man, for their leader, and 
marched to Constantinople, where he was crowned em- 
peror. Mauritius endeavored to make his escape, and 
passed indeed to the opposite shore; but he was overtaken 
with his family. His five sons were slain before his ejes 
at Chalcedon, while he repeated these words of the Eoyal 
12 



178 MODERN HISTORY. 

Prophet: TJiou art just, Lord, and thy judgment u 
right; * and when the nurse offered her own child instead 
of his youngest, he would not suffer it. Last of all, he 
himself was massacred, and, after having shown himself 
a great general and an emperor of some ability, he ap- 
peared in his last moments a true and magnanimous hero. 
He had held the sceptre twenty, and lived sixty-three 
years. 

Events during Mauritius' reign, — During his 
reign, an inundation took place in Italy, which was 
deemed the most surprising and destructive that had ever 
happened since the deluge. All the rivers overflowed, 
and spread devastation throughout the whole country. 
The plains were covered with such a quantity of water, 
as to present the spectacle of a vast sea, upon whose sur- 
face the wrecks of farms, the timber of houses, the dead 
bodies of men and animals, were floating on every side as 
in a general shipwreck. The Tiber was so high, that it 
filled the streets of Eome, destroyed many buildings, and 
left uncovered only the seven famous hills of the city, 
which then appeared as so many islands. The rapid 
stream carried along with it an incredible multitude of 
serpents, among which there was seen one of an enor- 
mous size. Being all hurried away into the sea, they 
perished, and were thrown up by the waves upon the 
beach. This deluge was accompanied by frightful storms, 
thunder and lightnings, and followed by a pestilence, 
which swept off vast numbers of inhabitants. 

St. Gregory the Great. — In the midst of these 
calamities, St, Gregory the Great was, notwithstanding 
his modest reluctance, raised to the chair of St. Peter, 
which he occupied fourteen years (590-604). During 
that period he constantly acted the part of a wise, en- 
lightened, virtuous and holy pontiff, as all contemporary 
monuments testify, f This great pope arrested the prog- 



* Ps. cxviii. 137. 

t This being an incontestable fact to which all sorts of documents bear 
ample testimony, plainly demonstrates how unjust and absurd are the 
charges of bigoted zeal, ambition, flattery towards princes, etc., brought 
forward by Hume and other infidels against St. Gregory. 

Equally unfounded and ridiculous is the accusation of his having de- 
stroyed the books and other monuments of ancient literature in Rome. 
This work of destruction is not only well accounted for by the multiplied 
ravages of the barbarians, but, even in the opinion of Bayle and Barbeyrac. 



I 



PHOCAS. 179 

ress of the plague by his prayers; instructed emperors, 
and at the same time inculcated the obligation of true 
obedience; consoled and strengthened Africa; confirmed 
in the true faith the Visigoths of Spain, lately con- 
verted from Arianism with their king Eecai'ed; sent to 
England the glad tidings of the gospel; reformed disci- 
pline in France; subdued the fierce temper of the Lom- 
bards; saved Rome and Italy, which the emperors were 
unable to assist; checked the growing pride of the patri- 
archs of Constantinople; enlightened the whole Church by 
his doctrine; governed the East and West with equal vigor 
and humility, and afforded to the world a perfect model 
of ecclesiastical government. 

PHOCAS.— A.D. 602-610. 

Mauritius and his guiltless offspring being inhumanly 
cut off, Phocas, the leader of the rebellion, the personi- 
fication of intemperance and cruelty, appeared in secure 
possession of the supreme power in Constantinople. But 
Chosroes, the politic king of Persia, with sentiments of 
seeming indignation at the murder of his kind benefactor 
and ally, loudly exclaimed against the assassin on the 
throne, and threatened revenge. A still stronger motive, 
his own interest, induced him to declare war against the 
tyrant Phocas. With numerous troops he passed the 
Roman boundary, and, meeting with no resistance, 
quickly overran Mesopotamia and Syria. Phocas, who 
had renounced the profession of a soldier, without assum- 
ing the character of a prince, remained inactive, and 
beheld with indifference his dominions ravaged. He 
suffered Chosroes to gratify his revenge and ambition 
without a check, and exclusively employed himself in 
shedding the blood of the worthiest men of the state, 
and gratifying his unruly passions. His own relatives 



two authors little suspected of partiality for the popes, not one single 
good proof can be adduced that St. Gregory ever attempted to do so ; 
except, perhaps, with regard to books of sorcery and astrology, which 
St. Paul himself judged worthy of entire destruction, as we read in the 
Acts of the Apostles, xix. 19. All this has been candidly acknowledged 
by Roscoe, in his History of Leo the Tenth, vol. i. ch. i. p. 53, where he 
praises "the beneficence, candor and pastoral attention of Gregory I. 
^unjustly charged," he adds, "with being the adversary of liberal 
studies." 



180 MODERN HISTORY. 

and the senate of Constantinople, seeing nothing done for 
the preservation of the empire, secretly requested Hera- 
clius, the governor of Africa, to come to their assistance, 
assuring him that the purple would be the reward of his 
services. 

Age had extinguished the last spark of ambition in the 
breast of Heraclius; but he took all proper means to se- 
cure the crown for his son. The young Heraclius boldly 
embarked in the hazardous enterprise, put a select body of 
troops on board the vessels that were ready for sea, set 
sail, and nearly reached Constantinople, before Phocas 
had the least suspicion of his rival's approach. After a 
sharp contest at sea, Heraclius forced the entrance of the 
harbor. In the meantime, the tyrant destitute of friends, 
was seized by a private enemy, and conveyed on board the 
galley of the conqueror, who first reproached him for his 
atrocious crimes, then ordered his head to be struck off 
and his body to be burned. Heraclius was immediately 
proclaimed emperor (a.d. 610). 

HERACLIUS.— A.D. 610-62S. 

War in the East and West. — By this time the] 
empire was in a most deplorable condition. On one hand, 
the public treasury was drained; there were hardly any 
troops to defend the frontiers, and not one good general 
at their head, the ablest officers having either fallen in 
battle or perished by the sword of the tyrant. On the 
other hand, the Avari were recommencing their inroads 
in the West, and the Persians, continuing the work of 
depredation throughout the whole East. Tiie latter, in 
four successful campaigns (611-615), subdued Mesopo- 
tamia, Cappadocia, Syria and Palestine; plundered the 
cities of Edessa, Csesarea, Antioch, Damascus, Jerusalem, 
etc., and carrying off innumerable captives, together with 
an immense booty, left those unfortunate regions covered 
with blood, ruins and ashes. 

Chosroes' demands. — In pursuit of new conquests, 
the Persians then marched into Egypt, took the wealthy 
<;ity of Alexandria, and laid waste the whole country 
around; while another army advanced through Pontus 
and Asia Minor as far as the Straits of Constantinople. 
TJnprepared, and unable to resist so powerful a force, 






HERACLIUS. 181 

Heraclius begged peace of Chosroes with suppliant en- 
treaties, and even on the humiliating terms of purchasing 
it by an annual tribute. The haughty monarch rejected 
the proposal with scorn. Putting the ambassadors in 
chains, he swore that he would spare neither the emperor 
nor his subjects, unless they would abjure their crucified 
God, and, like the Persians, adopt the worship of the 
sun. 

In this desperate state of affairs, Heraclius thought of 
abandoning Constantinople and transferring to Carthage 
the seat of the empire. Eising however from that de- 
spondency and lethargy in which he seemed to be 
plunged, he at length generously determined to put 
himself at the head of his shattered troops, and to run 
with them all the hazards of so perilous a war. Being 
once roused to action, nothing appeared in him but 
heroism. He spent one year in preparing his soldiers, 
and inspiring them with his own ardor and intrepidity ; 
his design being, from the very first step, to remove 
the seat of war into Persia, and thereby oblige the 
infidels to return home for the defence of their country. 
!N^ot to leave any enemies behind, he concluded a truce 
with the Avari, who had lately attacked him on the side of 
Thrace; and in the year 622, the twelfth of his reign, be- 
gan his march towards Persia, immediately after Easter. 

Heraclius' victorious campaign. — Before the expira- 
tion of the same year, Heraclius began to reap the fruits 
of his efforts, by defeating the Persians in Armenia. This 
first success turned forever the scale of fortune: the 
Romans, so much dispirited before, but now under the 
conduct of a magnanimous prince, and animated by the 
example of his heroic valor, fearlessly entered the hostile 
territory, overthrowing, as they advanced, whatever dared 
oppose their progress. Chosroes beheld, with impotent 
rage, all his armies conquered, his dominions laid waste, 
his cities and castles taken by storm, and himself com- 
pelled to fly for safety to more distant quarters. In the 
summer of 623, Heraclius took the important city of 
Gansac or Tauris, and consigned a great part of it to the 
flames, especially a famous temple dedicated to heathen 
worship, and the palace of Chosroes, in which there was a 
rich statue of this proud monarch, under a dome which 
represented the heavens with the sun, moon and stars. 



182 MODEEN HISTORY. 

and round about it angels holding sceptres in their hands 
in honor of Chosroes, with machinery intended to produce 
effects resembling storms and thunder. Leading back 
his army to go into winter quarters in Albania, near the 
Caspian sea, the emperor was moved with compassion to- 
wards fifty thousand Persian captives whom he had 
brought- with him, and released them all, after having 
supplied them with the necessaries of life. This act of 
humanity so touched their hearts, as to make them pray 
with tears for his further success, and express their ardent 
desire that he might deliver Persia from a tyrant who, by 
his exactions and cruelty, was the destroyer of mankind. 

The campaigns of Heraclius in 624 and 625, were 
equally successful. He fought the numerous troops of the 
Persians in five or six battles, and was as many times vic- 
torious. In 626, Sarbar, one of the Persian generals, 
arrived with a powerful army before Chalcedon on the 
Asiatic bank of the Bosphorus, and was seconded by the 
perfidious Avari, who, having broken the truce, attacked 
Constantinople on the European side; but they were re- 
pulsed both by land and sea, and Sarbar was likewise 
foiled in his attempts against Chalcedon. 

Battle of Ninive.— On the 12th of December, 627, 
Heraclius, almost without any loss on his side, entirely 
overthrew the Persians near the ruins of the ancient 
city of Ninive. Razates, their general, was found among 
the slain, with his sliield and cuirass of solid gold; andii 
with him fell nearly all the officers and the greater part of I 
the Persian army. The haughty Chosroes was now driven 
from town to town and yet continued obstinately deaf to 
all proposals of peace. This obstinacy so exasperated his 
subjects against him, that even his nobles and generals , 
revolted, with Siroes, his eldest son; and, as the old kingf | 
had Just declared Medarses, another of his sons, his sue- ' 
cesser, Siroes seized on his father, bound him in chains, 
and threw him into a dungeon. There he was loaded 
with insults, allowed only a small quantity of bread and 
water for his sustenance, frequently shot at, and wounded 
with arrows, until he expired, on the fifth day of his con- 
finement (a.d. 628). 

Chosroes' death. — Thus, through a just judgment 
of God, Chosroes II. perished by the hands of an unnat- 
ural son, after having himself obtained the throne by 



EISE OF MOHAMMEDANISM. 183 

spilling the blood of his father Hormisdas, and filled not 
only his own kingdom, but all the East, with carnage and 
desolation, during a reign of thirty-five years. Siroes im- 
mediately entered upon a treaty of peace with Heraclius, 
restored the provinces which the empire had lost, and re- 
leased all the Roman prisoners. Another effect of this 
treaty was the restitution of the Holy Cross, which had 
been carried away by the Persians fourteen years before, 
and which, being now recovered from their hands, was 
conveyed back with great solemnity to Jerusalem. 

The emperor then returned in triumph to Constanti- 
nople, and made his entry into that capital in a chariot 
drawn by four elephants, amidst the shouts of multitudes. 
He afterwards applied himself to repair in the several 
provinces, the evils caused by so disastrous a war; Persia, 
in the meantime, remaining a prey to an almost uninter- 
rupted succession of bloody revolutions, which followed 
the hasty death of Siroes. Upon the whole, both nations 
were exceedingly weakened, and shortly after found 
themselves unable to resist with success a common and 
most formidable enemy, who, issuing forth from the 
deserts of Arabia, was preparing at this very time to im- 
pose upon the whole East his yoke, his laws, and his 
religion. 



RISE OF mOHAmMEDANISm.— A.D. 622-632. 

The author of this amazing revolution was Mohammed, 
or Mahomet, a descendant through Ismael of the great 
Patriarch Abraham. This famous impostor is believed to 
have been born in the year 570, at Mecca, a town in Ara- 
bia. The first part of his life he spent in obscure em- 
ployments, already cherishing however that unbounded 
ambition which was to produce such great results. At 
the age of forty, he assumed the role of a prophet; 
and supposing, contrary to the divine promises, that the 
true worship of God existed no longer upon earth, boldly 
maintained that he was commissioned by Heaven to restore 
the religion of Abraham, Moses, and Jesus Christ, to its 
primitive purity, dreadfully disfigured, he said, by Chris- 
tians, Jews and idolaters. 



184 MODERN HISTORY. 

Mohammedanism. — Upon this foundation, Moham- 
nied built his religious system, which is a monstrous com- 
pound of Judaism, Christianity, old heresies, and his own 
fancies ; on one side, discarding all the mysteries of re- 
ligion, on the other, continually inculcating that " God 
is God and Mohammed is His prophet." Being subject 
to fits of epilepsy, he attributed them to the visits of the 
archangel Gabriel, by whom he pretended he was tanght, 
but whose presence he could not bear without trances and 
convulsions. As he knew neither how to read nor write, 
it was only with the assistance of a Jewish Rabbi and of a 
Nestorian monk that he compiled his Koran, or book of 
books, as he called it, and. which, in reality, is nothing 
else than a most strange medley of some beautiful sen- 
tences and maxims taken from Holy Writ and of non- 
sense, absurdities and ideas the most extravagant, with- 
out design or connection, though expressed in a lofty 
and an animated style. 

The hegira. — It was a circumstance very favorable for 
the design of Mohammed, that he preached his doctrine 
first among Arabs and Saracens, the most ignorant people 
perhaps tlien in the world. Still, instead of making muck 
progress in the beginning, it rather met with powerful 
opposition at Mecca ; so strong indeed, that the pretended 
prophet, seeing that his life was in danger, was obliged 
to depart from that town. This event happened in the 
year 022, and is famous among the Mohammedans, who 
trace back to it the beginning of their era, under the 
name of hegira ov flight. 

Mohammed retired to Medina or Yatreb, another Ara- 
bian city, where he was received with great honors. There 
he made numerous proselytes, to whom he declared that 
he intended to establish his religion, not by the power 
of miracles, as the ancient prophets had done, but by 
force.* To this first means of enforcing conviction, he 
added another equally successful with the generality of 
men, the enticement of sensual pleasures; he himself 
setting the example of debauchery, as well as of ambition, 
enthusiasm and desperate courage. Having assembled a 
little army, chiefly consisting of thieves and fugitive 
slaves, he at first attacked the caravans that went through 

* See Note E. 



RISE OF MOHAMMEDANISM. 185 

Arabia for the purpose of trade, and meeting with great 
success, he enriched his soldiers and enlarged his pro- 
jects. He took the city of Mecca from which he had 
been compelled to flee and thence carried the sword of 
destruction from one tribe to another, forcing all to em- 
brace his religion, or pay him an annual tribute. Before 
his death (632), nearly the whole of Arabia was already 
subjugated. 

Reasons of Mohammed's success. — Such were the 
first results of the exertions of Mohammed ; and, since he 
personally set the example to an enthusiastic people, it 
is chiefly to him that we should refer the long course 
of victories gained, and of conquests made by his succes- 
sors. It was he who changed some miserable tribes, until 
then confined to the deserts of Arabia, into armies of 
undaunted warriors, for whom the invasion of the whole 
world seemed to be too little. Of what efforts were not 
those men capable, whose minds he had impressed with 
the dogma of absolute predestination, whose souls he had 
inflamed with all the ardor of religious fanaticism, and 
whom, in fine, he had taught to look upon themselves as 
strictly bound and most happy either to conquer or to 
die on the field of battle for the propagation of their 
religion. 

The inexorable severity of Moliammed towards the van- 
quished was another cause of the rapidity of his success, 
the terror which he spread abroad frequently disarming 
those whom he threatened with war. His practice was 
to propose the choice of one of three conditions, viz., the 
adoption of his religious system, or the payment of a 
tribute, or an appeal to the sword. They who agreed to 
the first not only preserved their lives and property, but 
were even made partakers of all the privileges of Mussul- 
mans. Those who consented to pay a tribute were 
allowed to profess their own religion, provided it was not 
gross idolatry. If they had the courage to fight, no 
quarter was granted to them ; only the women, old people 
and children were spared, to be reduced to slavery. This 
terrible mode of proceeding continued for many years, and 
was abandoned only when the Mohammedan power, being 
firmly established, had nothing to fear from its enemies. 

Derivation of the various names. — The followers of 
Mohammed are called Mohammedans from his own 



186 MODERJf HISTORY. 

name; — Mussulmans or Moslems, from the word Islam, 
whicli meiuis siibiiiissiou Lo God and to His prophet, and 
by which they designate tiieir religion ; — sometimes 
Arabs, from their parent country ; — and more frequently 
Saracens, from one of the principal tribes that first em- 
braced Mohammedanism. As to the chiefs of this new 
religion and empire, they took the name of Caliphs, or 
vicars of the prophet, and sometimes also the title of 
Emir al monmenin or MiramoUn, which signifies prince, 
or commander of the faithful. 

PROGRESS OF MOHAMMEDANISM. 

CONQUESTS OF THE SAKACENS IN SYRIA, PALESTINE AND MESO- 
POTAMIA. A.D. t>32-6o9. 

Mohammed having left no male issue, it was natural to 
expect that the titles and power he had enjoyed should 
be transferred to Ali, his cousin, son-in-law, and des- 
ignated heir. Still the suffrages of the nation were for 
Abu-Bekr, Mohammed's fatlier-in-law, a man of great re- 
pute among the Arabs, and to whom, more than any one 
else, Islamism was indebted for the popularity it had ac- 
quired. Moreover, he was powei'fully supported by the 
most influential chieftains of the Mussulmans, Omar and 
Othman, who preferred to see the dignity of caliph, to 
which tliey themselves probably aspired, intrusted to a 
man sixty years old, the age of Abu-Bekr, rather than to 
Ali, a young man, who, having, according to the ordi- 
nary course of nature, the prospect of a long life, would 
likely prevent them from ever becoming caliphs. 

Abu-Bekr. — Abu-Bekr therefore was elected, and 
immediately took the census of his subjects. Having 
found one hundred and twenty-four thousand Mussul- 
mans, he did not doubt but that he might, with these 
forces, undertake and execute great projects. After 
quelling some seditions among tlie Arabs, and driving 
the Persians from ancient Clialdea, he raised three 
armies for the invasion of Syria, under the command of 
tliree valiant chieftains, Kaled, Abu-Obey da and Omar. 
Their first attack was directed against the frontier towns, 
Bostra, Palmyra, and some others which were easily con- 
quered. Kaled, who was the commander-in-chief, then 




MOSQUE OF MOHAMMED ALL 



PROGRESS OF MOHAMMEDANISM. 187 

irent, at the head of fifty thousand men, to lay siege to 
the important city of Damascus. Neither the courage of 
the citizens and garrison, nor the exertions of the troops 
sent to their assistance, could save the town from the 
hands of the infidels. It was taken by them at the end 
of six months, and most of its brave inhabitants were in- 
hum^anly slaughtered, by the order of Kaled. This hap- 
pened on the 30th of August (634), and was the la^t event 
of the reign of Abu-Bekr, who died on that very day, at 
the age of nearly sixty-three years, after having appointed 
Omar his successor. 

Omar. — The death of one caliph and the accession of 
another made no alteration in the plans and put no 
stop to the progress of the Saracens. The only change 
that was made was that Abu-Obeyda received the cliief 
command of their troops, in the place of Kaled whose 
temper was too violent and sanguinary. This terrible 
but truly magnanimous warrior descended without a 
murmur to an inferior rank, and declared that this cir- 
cumstance would by no means prevent him from making 
the utmost exertions for the public welfare. Such was 
the heroic spirit of the Arabs of that period; religious 
enthusiasm raised their minds above the ordinary feelings 
of nature, and kept them ever ready to sacrifice their pri- 
vate interests and personal views on the altar of patriot- 
ism. However, as Kaled possessed surprising activity 
and great talents for war, he continued, under Abu- 
Obeyda, to direct the operations of the army, and this 
good understanding between the two generals greatly 
facilitated their success. 

In the mean time, the Greeks and the Syrians, roused by 
their extreme danger, offered in different parts of the 
invaded country a formidable resistance which cost the 
lives of many Saracens, particularly in the neighborhood 
of fortified places whose garrisons frequently made vigor- 
ous and successful sallies. Heraclius also was exerting 
himself and taking measures to preserve Syria. Having 
raised a numerous army, he placed it under the command 
of a general named Manuel, who immediately went in 
search of the Saracens. It did not take him long to find 
them; at the news of his approach. Obey da and Kaled 
had assembled their forces, and stationed them on the 
banks of a river near the city of Zermat : there the 



188 MODERN HISTORY. 

furious and bloody engagement took place, that al- 
most annihilated the Roman power in those provinces. 
During the battle, which lasted several days, women 
seemed to vie with men for the prize of courage. On the 
first day, the Greeks animated equally by despair and by 
the superiority of their numbers, three times put the 
Saracens to flight, and three times the fugitives returned 
to the field, spurred on by the taunts of their wives, 
who were placed at the rear with the great standard of 
Mohammed. Not less sharp and obstinate was the fight 
of tlie following day. At last the Christians being not 
only attacked, but also betrayed, were entirely defeated, 
and lost more than a hundred thousand men, many of 
whom fell by the exterminating sword of the Arabs ; some 
perished in the river, and others were taken prisoners. 

Jerusalem taken by the Saracens. — The con- 
querors seized the occasion of improving their victory, by 
the pursuit of tiie vanquished, and by the capture of 
those places in Syria and Palestine that were yet sub- 
jected to tlie empire. Jerusalem, in particular, was the 
grand object of their aims. Mohammed had always pro- 
fessed a peculiar veneration for that holy city, and 
had transmitted that veneration to his followers, who 
ardently desired to have the town in their possession. 
Accordingly, only one month after the battle of Zermat, 
Omar sent to his generals an order to march into Pales- 
tine and attack Jerusalem. The city, though destitute 
of all hope of assistance from Heraclius, resisted during 
several mouths all the efforts of the enemy, but was in 
the end compelled to surrender. The caliph went him- 
self from Arabia to treat of the capitulation, granted 
mild conditions to the inhabitants, and solemnly took 
possession of the town in May (a.d. 637). Aleppo, An- 
tioch. Tyre, Ctesarea, etc., fell also about the same time 
under the power of the victorious Arabs, and the con- 
quest of Syria and Palestine was completed by them in 
the space of six years. 

The conquest of Mesopotamia cost them still less time 
and fatigue. One year was sufficient to subdue that coun- 
try, for which the Romans and Persians had fought dur- 
ing many centuries. Edessa, Nisibis, and other towns, so 
famous in antiquity for the glory of their arms, as well as 
for the flourishing state of Christianity within their walls. 



CONQUESTS OF THE SAEACENS IN EGYPT. 189 

scarcely dared make any resistance, and submitted to the 
Moluunmedan yoke. 

All this happened daring the reign of Heraclius, who 
was now disgiacing by indolence the glory which he had 
formerly acquired, and who seemed to have lived merely 
to behold the loss of his finest provinces. He died in the 
year 641, the thirty-first of his reign, and sixty-seventh of 
his age, leaving the Greek empire in a condition nearly as 
deplorable as that from which he had rescued it some 
years before. After him, Constantino Heraclius and 
Heracleonas, his sons, occupied the throne ten months 
only, and Constant II., his grandson, who occupied it 
twenty-seven years, did little else than persecute the 
Church and tyrannize over his subjects. 

CONqUESTS OF THE 8ARACE9fS IW EGYPT.— 
A.D. 639-644. 

Sovereigns of this description were certainly inca- 
pable of checking the progress of the Saraceiis, whose 
armies had already penetrated into Egypt. The leader of 
their forces in that coveted country, was Amroo, a brave 
general, who has been already mentioned. Uniting wis- 
dom and prudence with intrepidity, he first took different 
towns either by capitulation or surprise, and at length ap- 
peared in sight of the populous city of Alexandria. 

Conquest of Egypt. — Like other great generals, 
Amroo trusted to no one but himself for the precautions 
and measures to be taken in war. In order then to be- 
come well acqnainted with the position and strength of 
the town, he himself went to examine its outworks, ac- 
companied only by a slave called Yerdan and Mulisma, 
one of his chief officers. Having approached too near the 
wall, they were apprehended and brought before the gov- 
ernor of the place, who asked them upon what grounds 
the Moliammedans had come to attack Alexandria. Amroo 
replied that their view was, either to make the Greeks 
embrace the religion of Mohammed, or compel them, 
sword in hand, to pay an annual tribute to the caliph. 

So bold an answer led the governor to believe that 
the man who gave it was certainly the general of the 
Saracen troops : " This is Amroo himself, " said he to his 
officers ; " let him be beheaded." Verdan, who under- 



190 MODERN HISTORY. 

stood Greek, seeing the imminent danger of his master, 
turned to him, and giving him a violent blow, said in an 
angry tone: " Why do you, who are the least of the 
Mussulmans, take upon yourself to answer? Let your 
superiors speak." Tiien Mulisma, raising his voice, said 
that the general of the Mohammedans, desirous to treat 
with the governor, had sent them to demand an interview; 
and, if the Greeks were disposed to offer or accept reason- 
able conditions, peace would be soon concluded. 

This stratagem had the desired effect. The governor, 
believing now that he had been mistaken about these men, 
dismissed them unmolested; but, instead of the proposed 
interview, Amroo, on the following day, showed himself 
with his whole army near the walls of Alexandria, and 
immediately commenced the seige (a.d. 640). 

Alexandria taken. — It lasted fourteen months, dur- 
ing which the Saracens lost twenty-three thousand men, 
who were slain either in different assaults, or in the fre- m 
quent sallies made by the garrison. At last, they took the I 
city by storm, and putting to the sword many of its brave 
defenders, drove the others into the country, whither they 
were pursued by Amroo. Still, many of them had time 
to embark in the vessels which they found in the harbor; 
they soon returned, re-entered the city, and slew all the 
Saracens whom Amroo had left there. At this melan 
choly news he hastened back with his troops, and finding 
the Greeks already in possession of the fortress, attacked 
them without delay, and, notwithstanding their vigorous 
resistance, drove them from this their last retreat. Those 
who escaped the destructive sword of the conquerors, re- 
embarked with precipitancy, and abandoned to the Sara- 
cens this powerful city, which had been so long the great 
storehouse, as it were, of Rome and Constantinople, the 
honor of the empire, and the centre of commerce in the 
East. It lost then these noble prerogatives^ and the 
whole province passed with it under the Mussulman sway. 

The library at Alexandria destroyed. — At this time 
also, literature suffered an irreparable loss by the conflji- 
gration of the Alexandrian library, which contained up- 
wards of five hundred thousand volumes. Amroo sent 
deputies to consult the Caliph, and to ask him what was to 
be done with so many books; Omar answered that, being 
useless if they agreed with the Koran, and dangerous if 



CONQUESTS OF THE SARACENS. 191 

they differed from it, in either case they were to be de- 
stroyed. The Mussulman general, who was not less mod- 
erate after victory than intrepid in battle, reluctantly, 
but punctually, obeyed the order: the books were dis- 
tributed throughout the various quarters of the city, and 
served, it is said, to warm the public baths during six 
months.^ 

Omar's death. — No sooner was Egypt entirely sub- 
dued, than Amroo, proceeding farther west, carried his 
victorious arms into Lybia, and would have made still 
greater progress, had not the death of Omar occasioned his 
return. This caliph was murdered at Medina, in 644, by a 
Persian slave, to whose complaints against his master he 
had refused to listen. Othman, another celebrated per- 
sonage among the Arabs, was immediately chosen to suc- 
ceed him; still, the death of Omar created deep affliction 
in the heart of every true Mussulman. Of all the caliphs^ 
he is, to this day, the most revered among the Mohamme- 
dans, at least those called Sunnites (see p. 195), as having 
contributed most to the increase of their civil and religious 
power. In fact, according to an ancient historian, he con- 
quered, within the space of ten and a half years, thirty-six 
thousand towns or fortresses. Syria, Mesopotamia, nearly 
all Persia, Egypt and Lybia, were subdued by his generals'; 
and, what is still more surprising, these conquests were not 
less secure and permanent than they had been rapid and 
extensive, owing to the wisdom and firmness with which 
the caliph governed — his staff, to use the expression of the 
Arabs, being more respected than the sword of his succes- 
sors. 

This wonderful success of Omar's administration pro- 
duced no change in his morals, no alteration in his man- 
ner of life, which was quite plain and even austere. Care- 
less about his own ease, he every Friday distributed the 
money of the treasury to the poor, according to the wants 
of every individual. Historians highly praise also his love 
of justice, though they admit that he sometimes carried 
it to an excess bordering on cruelty, and that he was not 
always faithful to his promises. 

'Some authorities assert that the Arabs were not responsible for the 
burning of that famous library. 
13 



192 MODERN HISTORY. 



CONQUESTS OF THE SARACEIVS VS PERSIA, 
RIIOUCS AIVD OTHER COUNTRIES. — A.D. 

Othman. — Othman completed the subjugation of 
Persia, which had been commenced under Abu - Bekr 
and vigorously prosecuted under Omar. This kingdom 
was, in consequence of its frequent revolutions and the 
victories of Heraclius, nearly shorn of its strength; and 
Isdegerdes III., who, in 632, ascended to the throne at the 
age of fifteen years, was too young to defend it with suc- 
cess against the attacks of the Mussulmans. At the same 
time they invaded Syria, thirty thousand of their warriors 
carried the sword of destruction to the banks of the Eu- 
phrates and Tigris. They were commanded, in this first 
period of their progress, by Saad, one of the heroes of the 
Saracens, who achieved in Persia exploits equal to those 
of Kaled in Syria, and of Amroo in Egypt. The Persians, 
on their side, like the Syrians and the Greeks, roused 
themselves to a new exertion of that courage which they 
had so frequently displayed in former and better times. 
They made incredible efforts to avert the storm and secure 
their independence; nor could the Saracens truly look 
upon themselves as the conquerors and masters of Persia, 
as long as there were inhabitants to defend it against in- 
vasion. . j 

Defeat of the Persians. — No later than the year636,7f 
a great battle was fought near the town of Cadesia be- 
tween the Mussulman troops commanded by Saad, and an 
army of Persians amounting to one hundred and twenty r 
thousand men, under the command of Eostan, the brav- • 
est of their generals. This battle, which is as famous 
among oriental nations as that of Arbela between Alex- 
ander and Darius (B.C. 331), was continued three days, 
with the utmost fury on both sides. The Saracens lost ; 
nearly eight thousand, and the Persians upwards of sixty 
thousand men; Isdegerdes was obliged to fly to the 
remotest parts of his kingdom, where he hoped he 
would be better able to muster new forces. 

The Mussulmans, before pursuing him, marched to 
Ctesiphon, or Mod in, the capital city of Persia, and took 
it at the first onset. They found in it immense treasures 



CONQUESTS OF THE SARACENS. 193 

and effects of inestimable value, the pillage of which 
enriched them, and, by a necessary consequence, made 
them lose the noble simplicity of their ancestors. 
Still, their warlike and enthusiastic spirit was ever 
the same, as clearly appeared when Saad, a few 
months after the capture of Modin received from the 
caliph an order to go forward in pursuit of Isdegerdes. 
This intrepid general, with an ardor not to be surpassed, 
led his troops through the deserts and mountains of 
Persia, from one extremity to the other of this vast 
empire. Having overtaken the king at Gialola, in the 
province of Khorasan, he gained over him a second victory 
as bloody and decisive as that of Cadesia. The unfort- 
unate monarch was driven entirely from his dominions, 
and forced to apply for' refuge and assistance to the petty 
neighboring tribes. 

Battle of Nahavend. — A third battle gave the death 
blow to the Persian monarchy. Eostan, summoning all 
who could bear arms, raised another very numerous army, 
with which he determined to make a last and desperate 
effort for the support of this tottering empire. Noonian, 
at that time commander of the Saracens, in the place of 
Saad who was engaged in subduing important provinces, 
did not avoid the battle. It took place near Nahavend, 
and was for a long time disputed with incredible ani- 
mosity and valor. Nooman perished in the conflict, 
and the Saracens were about to abandon the field, when 
Hodaifa, a brave officer, revived their courage, and rushing 
at their head against the enemy, so broke his ranks, and 
made such a slaughter, as to gain at last a decided and 
most signal advantage, which the Arabs call the victory 
of victories. 

End of the second Persian empire. — From this 
time forward, the Persians did not venture to appear any 
more in the open field ; cities everywhere opened their 
gates to the conquerors, a very few only having dared to 
make some show of resistance. It was in vain that Isder- 
gerdes once more endeavored to retrieve his losses ; his 
last troops were easily overthrown, and he himself, being 
again obliged to fly, was put to death by discontented 
auxiliaries. Thus ended the second Persian empire (a.d. 
651), after having lasted four hundred and twenty-five 
years from its restoration in 226. The Arabian power was 
13 



194 MODERN HISTORY. 

now fully established in that kingdom, and the surviving 
population adopted the religion of Mohammed. 

Saracen conquests. — About the same time, the 
Saracens made other conquests in various countries, but 
neither so secure nor so important. The reduction of the 
island of Cyprus was but temporary, it being shortly after 
reconquered by the Cliristians. K early the same hap- 
pened in Armenia ; but Nubia," in the south of Egypt, 
was rendered tributary, and the conquest of the island of 
Rhodes proved more lasting. Moaviah, a brave and skil- 
ful general, entirely subdued it in G53. The famous 
Colossus, or brazen statue of the sun, which the Rhodians 
had erected (b.c. about 300), after their deliverance from 
a powerful enemy (Demetrius Poliorcetes), was still lying 
on the ground. It was at least one hundred and five feet 
high, its other dimensions being in proportion ; each finger 
was larger than a man of ordinary size ; and being placed 
at the entrance of the harbor upon two opposite rocks 
which served as pedestals, ships could pass without diffi- 
culty between th6 feet of the statue. It was thrown 
down by an earthquake, after having stood fifty-six years; 
and it remained upon the shore for about nine centuries, 
when the Saracens, now masters of the island, sold the 
broken parts of the Colossus to a Jewish merchant, who 
loaded with them nine hundred camels : this supposes the 
whole weight to have been seven hundred and twenty 
thousand pounds. 

DISSENSIONS AMONG THE SARACENS.— 
A.D. 656-668. 

AH. — The progress of the Saracens in Asia was now 
checked for a time by various obstacles, the greatest of 
which arose from among themselves. It was occasioned 
by the death of Caliph Othman, who, having provoked 
general discontent by the singularity of his deportment 
and his partiality for Ins relatives, upon whom he blindly 
lavished the dignities and treasures of tlie state, fell by 
the swords of assassins at tlie age of eighty-two years 
(a. d. 656). The right of succeeding him was claimed 
simultaneously by Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed, and | 
by Moaviah, the conqueror of Rhodes. A civil war 
ensued, which, though bloody, left the question unde- 



DISSENSIONS AMONG THE SARACENS. 195 

cided ; till Ali, being murdered in 661 by a certain 
fanatic of his own party, and his son Assan dying after 
the lapse of some years, Moaviah remained sole and undis- 
puted master. He chose Damascus for his residence, and 
was the head of the Ommiade dynasty, which reigned 
over the Saracens ninety-two years. 

But, although Moaviah succeeded in uniting under his 
sway all the parts of their empire, the hatred of the two 
parties did not abate: founded, not only on the difference 
of political pretensions, but also on the disagreement of 
religious doctrines, it has even continued almost to 
this day the cause of frequent and bloody wars between 
the Persians, who adhere to the sect of Ali, and the 
Turks, who are followers of Omar and Moaviah. The 
preference given to Abu-Bekr over Ali (see p. 186) is 
commonly assigned as the origin of this lasting animos- 
ity. According to the Persians, Ali was the lawful 
successor of Mohammed, and the first three caliphs were 
mere usurpers, as well as the Ommiades, who reigned 
after them to the detriment of the Fatimites, or off- 
spring of Ali by his wife Fatima, Mohammed's daughter. 
The Turks, on the contrary, call themselves Sunnites, or 
orthodox, attached to the traditions of their Mohammedan 
ancestors, and give to the Persians the name of Shyites, 
that is to say, schismatics and sectarians. 

PROSPERITY OF THE OREEK EUPIRE UN- 
DER CONSTAWTINE-POGOXATUS.— A. D. 668- 
6S5. 

Anothee great obstacle with which the Mussulmans of 
this period met in their career of invasion, was the supe- 
rior ability of the Greek emperor, Constantine IV., or 
Pogonatus. No sooner had his father. Constant II., been 
slain by his own servants (a.d. 668), than he seized, with 
a resolute hand, the helm of the state. He commenced 
his reign by punishing the murderers of his father, and 
bringing to a speedy termination some dangerous re- 
volts. Having succeeded in this, he found a still better 
opportunity of displaying his energy, in the defence of his 
capital city against the attacks of the Saracens. 

Moaviah. — During seven years in succession (673-679), 
the numerous armies of Caliph Moaviah presented them- 



196 MODERN HISTORY. 

selves before the walls of Constantinople, and battered 
them with all kinds of military engines; but they were 
constantly repelled, and finally obliged to retreat. Their 
failure was owing to their lack of prudence and ex- 
perience in the attack of fortified places, inasmuch as 
they retired every winter, and were afterwards obliged to 
recommence the siege as if nothing had hitherto been 
done; and also to the unwearied courage and activity which 
the emperor and his troops displayed all that time. 
Among the various means which they took to baflfle the 
efforts of the enemy, none was of greater service to them 
than the Grecian fire, which had lately been invented by 
a Syrian named Calliuicus. This man, having come from 
Heliopolis to Constantinople, carried thither the secret of 
that famous composition, which for many centuries ren- 
dered innumerable services to the Greeks in their differ- 
ent wars. It was used for the first time during this siege, - 
and caused dreadful ravages among the Saracens. Burn- 
ing even in water, and directing its blaze downwards, 
that terrible fire consumed both men and ships, and even 
iron and stones, before it could be extinguished ; for 
which purpose they were obliged to make use of sand or 
vinegar. 

The Mussulmans, unable to bear up against this mode 
of warfare, abandoned their undertaking, after it had 
already cost them a considerable part of their fleet and 
army. The remainder was not less unfortunate, when 
they attempted to retreat. All the vessels were, in conse- 
quence of a furious tempest, driven on shore, and wrecked 
against the rocks or swallowed up by the waves; while the 
land soldiers, worn out with fatigue and afflicted by a 
contagious disease, were quickly overtaken by the Greeks, 
and cut to pieces, to the number, it is said, of thirty 
thousand men. Other bodies of Mussulman troops were 
likewise entii-ely defeated by the brave Syrian inhabitants 
of Mount Libanus. These multiplied losses induced 
Moaviah to sue for peace; it was granted on condition of 
an annual tribute; and Pogonatus had thus the honor of 
compelling the most powerful prince of that time, to 
become a tributary of the empire. 

The Bulgarians settle on the Danube. — The state 
was beginning to recover its ancient splendor, when the 
Bulgarians, a barbarous nation, until then very little 



1 

\ 



CONQUESTS OF THE SARACENS IN AFRICA. 197 

known, made settlements near Thrace on the banks of 
the Danube. Notwithstanding the wisdom of the meas- 
ures adopted by the emperor to drive them back, his army 
was vanquished, and he found himself obliged to conclude 
a treaty, not very honorable indeed, but necessary for the 
well-being of his subjects. He then labored, with great 
zeal and success, to restore the peace of the Church, which 
had been considerably disturbed in the East by new here- 
sies. This good, just and pious prince died in the eigh- 
teenth year of a reign generally prosperous and glorious 
(a.d. 685). 

Internal trouble. — After his death, the court of 
Constantinople experienced, during thirty years, an almost 
uninterrupted series of treasons and revolutions, which it 
would be equally tedious and useless to relate. Civil wars 
were also carried on among the Saracens for the possession 
of the supreme power, until Abdel Malek, the fourth suc- 
cessor of Moaviah, by repeated victories, destroyed his 
competitors, overcame their partisans, and was acknowl- 
edged sole caliph in 691. 

CONQUESTS OF THE SAKACENS IN AFKICA.— 
A.D. 644-710. 

This event enabled the Arabs to resume their former 
course of proselytism and conquest; not so much however 
in the eastern part of the Greek empire, where they now 
suffered frequent defeats, as in other countries. While 
some of their armies penetrated into India, others, taking 
the opposite direction, reached the western extremity of 
the African shores. Yet this did not happen till after a 
long struggle and repeated efforts, the subjugation of Africa 
having been, of all their conquests in the civilized world, 
the most arduous and painful. Amroo had commenced 
it in the year 644; a second expedition was undertaken in 
647 under Abdalla, his successor in the government of 
Egypt. With an army of forty thousand brave warriors, 
he advanced as far as Tripoli, a town advantageously sit- 
uated on the coast of the Mediterranean sea opposite to 
Sicily. For want of ships and engines of war, he could 
take neither that city nor another which he likewise 
attacked; but in the following year, he distinguished him- 
self by a more brilliant expedition. 



198 MODERN HISTORY. 

First conquest. — At the approach of the Mussulman 
troops, the Patrician Gregory, who commanded in those 
parts, had assembled one hundred and twenty thousand 
men, either Greeks or natives, and inspired them with his 
own ardor for the defence of the country. He attacked 
the Saracens near Yakonbe, and these enthusiastic advent- 
urers, though far inferior in numbers, willingly accepted 
the offer of battle. Nothing indeed ever surpassed the 
animosity of the combatants on each side, nor was any 
battle ever conducted in a more singular manner. Eve'ry 
day, at the rising of the sun, the two armies went forth 
from their camps, and fought valiantly until noon; then 
equally exhausted by excess of heat and fatigue, they 
retired, as it were, by common agreement, and rested 
themselves to recommence the next morning. 

This was done for several days in succession, without 
any decided advantage for either party; till at last a strata- 
gem of the Saracens rendered them completely victorious. 
By the advice of Zobeir, one of their most distinguished 
officers, part of their troops remained in the camp, ready 
to march at the first signal, while the others, early in the 
morning, went forward against the enemy. The engage- 
ment, as usual, was terrible and obstinately disputed, 
Zobeir purposely prolonging the fight, in order to waste 
the strength of the Africans. At length the Saracens 
withdrew from the field, and laid aside their armor, as if 
to take some repose; the Africans also, worn out with 
fatigue and the heat of the sun, began to retreat towards 
their camp. 

At this moment the Saracen troops in reserve mounted 
their horses, and, with the indefatigable Zobeir at their 
head, bore down upon a wearied enemy. This unexpected 
attack everywhere spread terror and confusion among the 
Africans, who fled in every direction. Gregory, having 
rallied some brave soldiers, endeavored, but in vain, to 
withstand the fury of the assailants: pierced by a pike, 
he died on the spot which had been the theatre of 
his valor. After this, the fugitives were pursued with 
great slaughter, and the Saracens easily subdued all the 
country around, and obtained an immense booty. Still, 
as they had themselves suffered a great loss of men and 
horses, they did not, at this time, proceed farther, but, 
after having taken the precaution to leave garrisons in the 



CONQUESTS OF THE SAEACENS IN AFKICA. 199 

places which they had conquered, their army returned to 
Egypt (a.d. 648). 

Second conquest. — No other troops were directed 
against Africa, for the space of seventeen years, namely 
until 665, when a brave general, called Moaviah, like the 
celebrated caliph by whom he was sent, gained another 
victory near Tripoli; but it had no great effect upon the 
fate of those regions. 

In 670, a more spirited and effectual effort was made by 
Oucba, another general full of ardor and enthusiasm, who 
had Just received orders from the caliph to complete the 
subjugation of the whole coast along the Mediterranean sea. 
This intrepid and fanatic warrior quickly overran all that 
part of Africa included in his commission. Torrents of 
Christian blood were spilt in the places which he subdued: 
although, according to the rule laid down by Abu-Beker, he 
spared old people, women and children, and sent eighty 
thousand prisoners to Egypt. Not satisfied with depopu- 
lating the Roman provinces, he attacked and put to the 
sword the barbarians of Mount Atlas, and, having at 
length reached the shores of the Atlantic, he spurred on 
his horse into the sea, and loudly expressed his regret 
that this barrier should oppose his farther progress. 

On his return, Oucba was guilty of great imprudence. 
In the mistaken belief that the country was entirely 
subdued, he dismissed or scattered his forces, and 
kept only five thousand men with him. This rashness 
caused his ruin. There were still many towns occupied 
by the Eoman troops, the rapidity of Oucba's course not 
having permitted him to attack them, and drive them all 
from Africa. They assembled together with the natives, 
chose for their leader Kuscile, a Moorish prince greatly 
renowned for his courage and prudence, and marched 
against Oucba before he had time to collect his own 
troops. 

The field of Oucba. — This undaunted man did not 
hesitate one instant to go and fight them with a handful 
of soldiers ; determined as he was to die rather than lose 
his former glory, he met the confederates half way. 
When, at the head of his five thousand warriors, he was 
in sight of that army of a hundred thousand men, he 
broke in pieces the scabbard of his sword ; all his follow- 
ers did the same, and then, with desperate fury, fell upon 



200 MODERN HISTORY. 

the enemy, wishing only to sell their lives as dearly as 
possible. In fact, not one of them died until he had slain 
at least his first antagonist, whether Koman or Moor, and 
the combat lasted as long as there remained one Saracen 
alive. Oucba was found dead upon a heap of enemies 
whom his sword had despatched ; and the held of battle, 
which is to this day called the field of Oucba, still bears 
testimony to his intrepid valor. 

This loss of the Saracens prevented, for many years 
more, the entire reduction of Africa. A new attempt was 
made in 688 by Zuheir, another hero of Islamism not in- 
ferior to those already mentioned ; but this undertaking, 
like the expedition of Oucba, although at first brilliantly 
successful, terminated, like the former, in the slaughter 
of Zuheir and all his troops. 

Thus did northern Africa repeatedly baffle the measures 
of its invaders. But its final overthrow was now at 
hand. No sooner had Abdel Malek defeated his com- 
petitors and their partisans, than he directed his atten- 
tion towards the achievement of this important con- 
quest, and raised for that purpose numerous armies, the 
command of which he intrusted to Hassan, then gov- 
ernor of Egypt. This general, equal in courage, and supe- 
rior in skill and prudence, to his predecessors, instead of 
overrunning without any fixed object, the country which 
he desired to conquer, marched directly to Carthage its 
capital, and took it by storm (a.d. 697). He left a garri- 
son there, with every means of defence ; which, however, 
did not prevent the Romans from reconquering the city 
before the end of the same year. In the ensuing year 
(698), Hassan, after defeating them in a naval battle, 
took Carthage a second time, and utterly destroyed that 
celebrated town, without any regard for its past glory or 
its prospects for the future. 

Thus was the death-blow given to Christianity and 
civilization in Africa. There was yet, it is true, some 
show of resistance on the part of the remaining Romans 
united with the Moors ; but the persevering efforts of the 
Saracens overcame all obstacles, and the whole region, 
from Egypt to the straits of Gadez or Gibraltar, was 
finally subdued in the year 710, the sixty-sixth after the 
first attempt made by Amroo. Most of the natives 
gnidually embraced tlie Mohammedan religion ; and north- 



CONQUESTS OF THE SARACENS IN SPAIN. 201 

ern Africa soon became the chief quarter from which the 
Saracens issued forth to pillage the coasts of Italy and 
Sicily, and to invade the rich provinces of Spain. 

COMqiJESTS OF THE SARACENS IN SPAII¥.— 
A.D. 711-71§. 

The Visigoths had possessed Spain during the space of 
two hundred and fifty years, when the misconduct of a 
prince and the treason of a subject overthrew their flour- 
ishing monarchy almost in a moment. King Eoderic, 
shortly after his accession to the throne dishonored by 
his immorality the family of Count Julian, one of the 
most distinguished of the nation. The exasperated noble- 
man, in order to avenge the insult, resolved to call in the 
Saracens of Africa. He conducted this fatal design with 
all the ardor, secrecy and animosity of which the spirit of 
revenge is capable ; and the greatest enemies of his relig- 
ion and country were solicited by him to cross the straits, 
with assurances of powerful assistance (a.d. 711). 

Battle of Xeres de la Frontera. — This proposal 
was readily accepted, and Musa, the Saracen governor of 
Africa, sent an army composed of Arabs and Moors, under 
the command of Tarik, one of his ablest generals. Eod- 
eric had scarcely heard of the approach of the invaders, 
when he beheld them at the gates of his kingdom. He 
summoned the strength of the nation to attend him 
in the field, and raised an array of a hundred thousand 
men, many of whom unfortunately were rather effeminate 
citizens than true soldiers. The Saracens had scarcely 
one-third of that number, but nearly all of them were old 
warriors, accustomed to fight, hardened against fatigues, 
proud of the conquest of Africa, and eager in propagating 
the empire of the Koran by the effusion of Christian 
blood. 

The two armies met near Xeres in Andalusia, and being 
animated, one by the necessity of defending the national 
liberty and religion, the other by the love of glory and 
conquest, soon came to a furious engagement. The ani- 
mosity and obstinacy of the combatants made victory 
for a long time doubtful ; for, although the Gothic 
army was partly composed of a new and undisciplined 
militia, there was in it a sufficient number of brave sol- 



202 MODERN HISTORY. 

diers to withstand all the efforts of the Saracens, and the 
king himself gave such proofs of personal bravery, as 
could hardly have been expected in a man of his dis- 
solute habits. All this raised among the Goths cheer- 
ful hopes, when a sudden treason caused victory to 
declare for their enemies. 

During the hottest part of the battle, two sons of King 
\'itiza whom Roderic had dethroned, joined the Arabs at 
the head of their followers, and attacking their country- 
men in the flank, threw them into irremediable confusion. 
The Goths frightened by so strange an event, lost courage 
and fled ; the king, after using his utmost exertions to 
rally the fugitives, was himself carried away by their 
force of numbers, and disappeared; nor was his fate ever 
perfectly ascertained. His horse having been found, with 
the royal crown and mantle, at a short distance from a 
neighboring river, it was generally supposed that the un- 
happy monarch had been drowned. 

End of Visigoths. — This day, so fatal to his cause, 
was decisive in favor of the invaders, on account of the 
immense booty, and the great number of standards and 
prisoners that fell into their hands. From the slain 
among the conquerors, who lost sixteen thousand, may be 
judged the terrible slaughter of the vanquished. But the 
most certain as well as most important result of the battle 
of Xeres, was the downfall of the Gothic monarchy. The 
Saracens easily dispersed the remainder of its supporters, 
and directed their victorious course to those portions of 
Spain which they had not yet invaded. Musa, the African 
governor, arrived with new forces, and dividing them into 
three separate bodies, overran in a short time the whole 
peninsula from Gadez to the Pyrenees. The inhabitants 
were either put to the sword or made tributaries; the 
cities were destroyed, or compelled to submit to the 
Arabian yoke. 

Asturias remains a Christian kingdom. — In the 
northern part of Spain however, a small number of Chris- 
tians preserved their independence. Under the guidance 
of Pelagio and Alfonso, two generous princes of royal 
descent, they retired from the invaded provinces to the 
remote and mountainous district of Asturias, where the 
conquerors at first perhaps disdained, and soon after were 
unable to attack them with success (a.d. 718). This was 



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SARACENS DEFEATED IN THE EAST. 203 

the beginning of the more recent kingdom of Spain, 
which gradually increased, but had to struggle for about 
eight hundred years, before it attained its former size, 
by the entire overthrow of the Arabs and Moors in the 
Spanish peninsula. 



SAEACENS DEFEATED IN THE EAST.— LEO THE 
ISAUEIAN.— A.D. 717-730. 



The Saracens had now, in the space of ninety years, 
achieved as many conquests as had the ancient Eomans 
in seven or eight centuries; but the empire of the 
former was not settled upon so lasting and solid a foun- 
dation as that of the latter. Even at the time which im- 
mediately followed the subjection of Spain, the Mussul- 
mans experienced signal defeats, whereby their power and 
glory were greatly impaired. Having a second time at- 
tacked Constantinople, both by land and sea, they were 
again repulsed, with the loss of more than one hundred 
and twenty thousand men who perished by famine, cold, 
pestilence, or th^ sword of the enemy. Their fleet also, 
consisting of about eighteen hundred ships, was utterly 
destroyed, either by storms, or the Grecian fire. Only 
five ships escaped to convey to Syria the news of that 
frightful disaster (a.d. 718). 

Leo the Isaurian. — The emperor of Constantinople 
at this period, was Leo the Isaurian, a prince justly re- 
nowned for his military skill, which he admirably displayed 
during the siege of his capital. When he had delivered 
the empire from its enemies, he undertook a war of a very 
different nature, and much more worthy of a tyrant than 
of a wise sovereign. Unwilling to recognize that the 
veneration of images is only an inferior honor referred to 
the person whom they represent, he published a severe 
edict against the use of them in churches, as if it were an 
idolatrous practice; and thus gave rise to the sect of Icono- 
clasts, or Image-breakers. 

In obedience to the emperor's orders, the pictures and 
images of Christ and of his Saints were destroyed in many 
places, to the great scandal of the faithful, and not with- 



204 MODERN niSTORY. 

out mncli blood-shed and innumerable deeds of barbarous 
cruelty.* One of the most sliocking, was the burning of 
the twelve learned and virtuous librarians (whom Leo 
liad not been able to gain over to his party), together 
with the public library of Constantinople (a.d. 730). 
This persecution was carried on with even greater vio- 
lence by his successor, Constantine Copronymus, and 
continued to disturb both Church and State till the year 
787, when, in the seventh general councilf the second 
of Nice, the relative honor paid to images was solemnly 
declared to be according to apostolic tradition, and to 
the practice of the primitive Church; was confirmed by 
examples from Scriptures, and vindicated from the charge 
of idolatry and superstition. 



SARACENS DEFEATED IN FRANCE.— CHARLES 
MARTEL, Etc.— A.D. 731-753. 

In the west of Europe, the Arabs and Moors, after the 
conquest of Spain, looked upon France with a jealous eye, 
and wished to bring it also under their power. The first at- 
tempts in this direction had but little success, being 
repeatedly defeated by the brave resistance of Eudes, 
Duke of Aquitania. But, in 731, a new invasion 
took place that threatened not only France, but likewise 
all Christendom. Four hundred thousand Saracens, hav- 
ing ut their head Abderahman, a renowned general, crossed 
the Pyrenees, and driving everything before them, filled 
wliole provinces with terror and desolation. Their march 
everywhere exhibited one continued scene of conflagration, 
plunder, and bloodshed. Those who had the good fortune 
to escape the exterminating sword of the enemy, were 
seen flying in all directions. Eudes, who attempted to 
check the career of the Saracens, was defeated, and forced 
to abandon his dukedom to the victorious barbarians. 



* See Theophanes' Chronor/raphy p. 339; — Anastasius, in Pap. Gregor. 
n. ;— Fleury, Hist. Eccles. b. 42, n. 5, — Lebeau, Hist, du Bas. Emp. b. 63, 
71. 50, etc. vol. 13, p. :i5~-:Whi. 

t The fifth general council had been held under Justinian in 553, and 
the sixth, under Constantine Pogonatus in 680 (both at Constantinople); 
(or the purpose of condemning pernicious writings and doctrines con- 
nected with the Nestorian and Eutychian heresies. 



SAKACENS DEFEATED IN FRANCE. 305 

The Saracens advance to the Loire. — They then 
advanced without obstacle as far as the river Loire, into 
the very heart of France, constantly marking their passage 
with the most frightful ravages. The French monarchy 
seemed to be on the brink of ruin ; every day added to its 
dangers ; but fortunately, it possessed at that time, in the 
person of Duke Charles Martel the greatest general of Chris- 
tendom. This hero, who had been hitherto engaged in 
subduing the restless tribes of Germany, was no sooner 
informed of the progress of the Saracens, than he marched 
from the north with a choice body of thirty thousand war- 
riors, and meeting the enemy between the cities of Poi- 
tiers and Tours, soon stopped them in their triumphant 
and destructive course. 

Battle of Tours and Poitiers. — Seven days were 
spent on each side in preparing for a general engagement. 
On the eighth day, the French, animated by the presence 
of their invincible leader, briskly charged the barbarians, 
and began to pierce the thickest battalions by the tre- 
mendous blows of their sabres and battle-axes. The Sara- 
cens sustained the attack with equal courage, and, though 
numbers of them fell dead, still vigorously resisted, by 
constantly opposing fresh troops to the impetuosity of the 
assailants. The battle was fought in this manner for sev- 
eral hours, during which the Mussulman army was mowed 
down with uninterrupted and frightful slaughter. Tow- 
ards the close of the day, Abderahman fell among the 
dead. Night separated the combatauts, who retired to 
their respective camps, but with very different feelings — 
the French with the consciousness of their advantage, the 
Arabs in deep consternation. These fierce invaders a 
short time before so proud of past success, but now 
reduced to a small number, and sensible of their immense 
loss, availed themselves of the darkness to effect their 
retreat, and precipitately retraced their steps towards 
the Pyrenees. 

So great was the number of the Saracens who fell in the 
battle, that, according to many historians, it exceeded 
three hundred thousand, whereas the loss of the French 
scarcely amounted to fifteen hundred men. Hence the 
defeat of the former is considered by all as one of the 
most signal that ever happened, and the victory of the lat- 
ter as one of the most complete, important and decisive 



206 MODERN HISTORY. 

ever gained, as it was thought to have saved, not only 
France, but all Europe from the yoke of barbarism and 
infidelity. It is also commonly believed that this was the 
day on which Charles acquired the surname of Martel 
(hammer), because, like a hammer, he had broken to 
pieces the weapons and crushed the power of the Saracens 
(A.D. 732). 

This great man continued to conquer all his enemies, 
and to govern France, as he had done before, with sov- 
ereign authority under the title of duke. There still 
existed kings and princes of the family of Clovis; but 
they were generally weak and indolent, abandoning the 
cares of government to their prime-ministers. 

Pepin the Short. — Pepin iJie Short, who, in 741, 
inherited the power and great qualities of his father 
Charles, thought of taking the last step towards the throne. 
Many existing circumstances seemed to favor the execu- 
tion of his project; on one hand the mode of succession 
of the last kings, which had bordered on the elective, 
and the inability of the present sovereign, Childeric III., 
contrasted with his own transcendent merit; and on the 
other the wishes of the French people, and the favora- 
ble though very prudent answer of Pope Zachary, who 
was consulted on the subject, emboldened him to prose- 
cute his design.* 

The Carolingians ascend the throne of France. 
— Pepin therefore resolved upon this step, and was pro- 
claimed king in a general assembly of the nation (a.d, 75"^); 
Childeric having been in the mean time removed to a mon- 
astery, where he died three years after. In this prince 
ended the dynasty of the Merovingian sovereigns, after 
having occupied the French throne about three hundred 
years, during which it produced but few good and great 
monarchs. Dissensions and civil wars first weakened its 
power; long-continued indolence and incapacity com- 
pleted its downfall. 

PEPIN, KING OF FRANCE.— A.D. 752-768. 

Pepin showed himself every way worthy of the high 
station to which he was now raised. He not only main- 

* See note F. 



i 



PEPIN, KING OF FRANCE. 207 

tained profound tranquillity in his kingdom, but extended 
its limits, and, from the very beginning of his reign, dis- 
tinguished himself by a brilliant expedition equally im- 
portant in itself and in its consequences. 

Pepin called by the Pope against the Lombards. 
— By this time, the Lombards, already masters of a great 
part of Italy, aimed at subduing the whole, and indeed 
conquered the province of Eavenna, which, under the 
name of Exarchate, had until then belonged to the em- 
perors of Constantinople. Eome itself being on the point 
of falling into their power. Pope Stephen sent to implore 
help from Constantine Copronymus, in whose name 
the government of Eome was still administered. But 
that emperor was too deeply engaged in warring against 
the images of the saints, to think of sending troops 
against the Lombards. In this extremity the Eomans 
embraced the last resource which was left them, that of 
calling the valiant monarch of the French to their assist- 
ance. 

The pope went in person to France, where he was 
received with all possible honor and respect, and found 
the king and his lords ready to undertake the defence of 
Rome against its obstinate enemies. But before any act 
of hostility, and in order to prevent the effusion of Chris- 
tian blood, deputies were sent, at the pope's request, to 
Astolphus, king of the Lombards, strongly to exhort him 
to do justice, and renounce his ambitious views. The 
fierce Lombard answered the proposal Avith threats and 
insults. Pepin then marched with his troops into Italy, 
and forcing the passage of the Alps, defeated the Lom- 
bards, and obliged Astolphus to shut himself up in Pavia, 
his capital, where, after a short siege, the vanquished 
prince consented to accept the terms of peace offered by 
the conqueror. With the most solemn promises he 
agreed to restore the towns which he had taken, and to 
put everything in the same state as before the war. 
Pepin, relying on his word, contrary to the advice of the 
pope who knew the character of Astolphus better, re- 
turned to France. 

Scarcely had he departed, when the perfidious Lombard 
recommenced hostilities, and laid siege to Eome, around 
which he renewed all the ravages of the late war; Stephen 
had recourse again to his royal protector, and Pepin again 



208 MODERX niSTOKY. 

hastened across the Alps into Lombardy. His march was 
rapid and successful. Astolphus dared not face him 
in the field, postponed no longer the execution of the 
stipulated treaty., and was moreover condemned to bear 
the expenses of the war. 

At this juncture, two ambassadors arrived from Con- 
stantinople, to claim for the emperor the restitution of 
the cities and provinces which had been usurped by the 
Lombards. Pepin answered, with a firm tone, that these 
countries being now his conquest as justly as any one 
obtained in a lawful war, it was quite surprising that the 
Greeks should claim for themselves the fruit of his labors 
and the possession of lands and places which they had 
been neither willing to defend nor able to preserve: ac- 
cordingly, as it was not for their master that he and his 
troops had undergone so many fatigues, it was not to him 
that he would resign what he had so justly acquired. 

Foundation of the temporal power of the Popes. 
— The French king intended to make a donation of his 
conquests in Italy to Pope Stephen and his successors in 
the pontifical chair. After the Greek deputies had 
retired, he carried out his resolution by a solemn grant to 
the see of Rome of that part of Italy which is, on this 
account, called the Ecclesiastical Slate, and until recently 
composed tlie temporal dominions of tlie popes. Before 
that time they had been subject in civil mutters to the 
Roman or Greek emperors : but, when the Roman 
empire no longer comprised the whole of Christendom ; 
when, after its downfall in the "West, there sprang up 
from its ruins innumerable states and kingdoms, whose 
pretensions, views and interests were different, nay, com- 
monly opposite it was the kind design and will of Divine 
providence that the popes should become totally inde- 
pendent of the power and influence of any secular prince. 
Tliis independence they obtained through the instrument- 
ality of Pepin and his successor Charlemagne, who con- 
ferred on the popes such an extent of temporal power as 
might enable them freely to exercise their spiritual 
authority.* 

The middle of the eighth century seemed destined to 
witness great changes in every part of the world. For, 

* See Note Q. 



PEPIN, KING OF FKANCE. 209 

at that period, the Ommiades who had held the Mussul- 
man sceptre for about a hundred years, were, after a 
bloody struggle, deprived of their ascendancy by the 
Abassides, another powerful family among the Arabs. 
Abul- Abbas was the first caliph of this new dynasty. 
His successor, Almanzor, built on the left bank of the 
Tigris the splendid city of Bagdad, which he made his 
residence; and this- city became, under the Abassides, 
what Damascus had been under the Ommiades, and 
Medina under the first snccessors of Mohammed. 

The Caliphat of Cordova founded. — At the same 
time Abderahman, one of tlie Ommiades, having escaped 
the ruin of his family, fled from Asia to Spain, where he 
found the power of the Saracens much weakened by their 
late defeats in France, by the progress of the Christians 
in Asturias, and by their own dissensions and feuds. 
Putting himself at the head of one of the contending 
partie&j he overcame the others, and founded a kingdom 
free from all allegiance to the caliphs of Bagdad. Cor- 
dova was the capital of this new empire. 

Pepin's death. — The defeats just mentioned, of 
the Saracens in France, had been achieved by King 
Pepin. This warlike monarch drove them entirely 
beyond the Pyrenees, added Aquitania to his dominions, 
and moreover by his activity and constant vigilance, 
made his arms equally formidable to the various nations 
of Germany. Broken down by the hardships of so many 
campaigns, rather than by old age, he died in the fifty- 
fourth year of his life, the seventeenth year of his reign, 
and the twenty-seventh of his political and public career 
(a.d. 768). 

Pepin's character. — ^Valor, prudence, all the endow- 
ments of a noble mind and a generous soul, though some- 
what tinged with ambition, contributed to make Pepin 
a most accomplished monarch. He possessed a sur- 
prising talent for winning esteem, respect and affec- 
tion. Although his birth did not call him to the throne, 
he ascended it with general applause, and, from the begin- 
ning so well established his authority, that no mention is 
made of the least rebellion during his reign. Prudence 
was his predominant quality, and the greatest praise 
that could, in after ages, be bestowed on a prince, was to 
say of him: '^ He is as prudent as Pepin.'^ ' In a word. 



210 MODERN HISTORY. 

being the son of one hero and the father of another, 
he appeared worthy of both, and historians observe that 
everything was remarkable in him, except his size, from 
which lie derived the surname of Short. 

But even that, although for many persons an object of 
raillery, became for Pepin an occasion of glory. On a 
certain day, as he was witnessing the combat of a bull 
and a lion exhibited for the amusement of the court, he 
turned to his attendants, and asked which of them felt 
bold enough to separate those furious beasts. Not one 
dared make the attempt. " Mine then shall be the 
task," replied Pepin; and leaping into the circus, he 
went to the lion which he killed by a single blow of his 
scimitar, and with another stroke cut off the head of the 
bull. All extolled his bravery, and acknowledged the 
impropriety of their railleries. 



CI1ARLE9IAOIVE, KI^O OF FRANCE AND 
EOMBARDl.— A.D. 768-§00. 

It would have been jio small honor for the successor of 
Pepin to follow in the footsteps of this great prince. 
Charles, his eldest son, did more than this ; he surpassed 
him, and by the invincible firmness of his mind, the supe- 
riority of his genius, and the incredible number of his 
exploits, raised the French monarchy to the highest 
degree of splendor that it ever attained. 

In brief, a continual series of victories gained over the 
Saxons, the Lombards, the Sai'acens, the Greeks, the 
Avari, and other nations; the conquest of Saxony, Bava- 
ria, Noricum, Austria, Pannonia, Bohemia, and of a con- 
siderable part of Italy and Spain ; the diligent and wise 
administration of his extensive dominions, during a great 
number of years; the civilization of Germany; the revival 
of sciences and literature; the re-establishment of the 
western empire, with all its prerogatives, in favor of the 
French monarch and of his successors: such are the 
splendid characteristics with which the reign of Charle- 
magne presents itself to the admiration of posterity. 

Destruction of the Lombard Kingdom. — He began 
by chastising the Aquitanians now armed against him, 
and the Saxons who, at the other extremity of his king- 



CHARLEMAGNE. 211 

dom, had made inroads upon his territory. After this 
double campaign, he was called into Italy for a still more 
glorious and useful expedition against Desiderius, king of 
the Lombards, who obstinately refused to abide by the 
treaty concluded by his predecessor Astolphus with 
Pepin. That restless and ambitious prince was even 
threatening the city of Kome, nor could the favorable 
conditions which were offered him, prevail upon him to 
give satisfaction. 

Charles therefore resolved, at the entreaties of the 
Eomans, to afford them speedy relief, and rescue them 
from their foe by measures more vigorous and efficacious 
than mere exhortations. After the example of his father, 
in like circumstances, he crossed the Alps at the head of 
a gallant army, put the Lombards to flight, and in a few 
weeks rendered himself master of almost all the country 
which they possessed between the Po and the mountains. 
Still, Pavia, their capital, where Desiderius had finally 
taken refuge, resisted for six months; during that time 
Charles, while the siege was continued by his troops, 
went to Eome, and visited Pope Adrian I., a pontiff 
equally conspicuous for his ability and virtue. 

The pope received his royal guest with great joy and 
extraordinary honors, and Charles in return manifested 
his respectful attachment to the Apostolic See, by ratify- 
ing and augmenting the donation which Pepin had made 
in its favor. Upon his return to the camp before Pavia, 
King Desiderius surrendered at discretion. Charles 
spared his life, but sent him to a distant monastery, and, 
by being crowned and acknowledged in his place, annihi- 
lated the separate kingdom of Lombardy, which had 
lasted two hundred and six years (a.d. 774). 

Scarcely was this important conquest achieved, when 
he was earnestly begged to pass over to Spain, for the 
purpose of rescuing some Moorish princes, his allies or 
tributaries, from their oppressors of the same nation. 
Complying with the request, he subdued the north of the 
Spanish peninsula with as much facility as he had sub- 
dued the north of Italy, and with a very trifling loss. 
But, as he was leading back his victorious troops to 
France, being himself at the head of the vanguard, the 
rear was defeated by the Gascons in the defiles of the 



212 MODERN HISTORY. 

Pyrenees (.v.D. 778). Tliis however neither impaired his 
personal reputation, nor made liim lose the fruit of his 
campaign. 

War with the Saxons. — Immediately after his re- 
turn, Charles luul to renew the war against the Saxons. 
This warlike and savage people, though conquered many 
times before, did not cease, by their yearly revolts, to 
trouble the French monarch. On the return of almost 
every spring, they signalized their ferocious courage by 
laying waste the countries situated between the Khine 
and the Weser. As often indeed as they took up arms, 
Charlemagne forced them to submit, and to implore 
his mercy ; but he had, among their chiefs, an implac- 
able enemy, whom nothing could subdue. Always at the 
head of the rebels, this tierce warrior, when defeated, 
disappeared for a time, and, like another Arminius, re- 
turned to renew the attack as soon as he perceived in the 
attempt a gleam of success. 

Witikind was the name of this undaunted Saxon. He 
spent the time during the absence of Charles, in urging 
his countrymen to take up arms again; and they, readily 
complying with the summons, overthrew all the monu- 
ments of religion and foreign power which existed in that 
part of Germany. Some French troops having endeav- 
ored to suppress the rebellion were themselves, through 
the misunderstanding of their generals, defeated and cut 
to pieces. 

Charlemagne, little accustomed to receive such news, 
was much afflicted at this event, and lost no time in re- 
pairing, or at least in checking the evil. He marched in 
person at the head of a new army, and suddenly appear- 
ing among the Saxons, again forced them to submission. 
They came to him in great fear, and humbly sued for 
pardon, ascribing the guilt of the late revolt to Witikind 
who had now taken refuge among the Danes. But 
Charles, as dissatisfied with this excuse as he was ex- 
asperated at their continual acts of rebellion, and not 
believing it possible to tame their ferocious spirit other- 
wise than by exercising severe justice, required the other 
chief rebels to be immediately delivered into his hands, 
and sentenced them to be beheaded on the same day, to 
the number, it is said, of four thousand five hundred. 

He had intended, by this rigorous chastisement, to 



CHARLEMAGNE. 213 

inspire the whole nation with a salutary and lasting- fear; 
but the deep mourning which it first occasioned, was 
quickly turned into fresh and ungovernable animosity. 
Witikind once more re-appeared, and going through the 
different parts of the country, infused into every breast 
his own fury and desire of revenge. Fury, however, was 
of little avail against the warlike genius and activity of 
the French monarch. He attacked them before they 
could muster all their forces, defeated them in three 
bloody battles, and did not cease during three years to 
visit with a terrible retribution every quarter of that 
unhappy region. 

Still, Charles ardently desired the end of a war which 
proved so destructive and fatal to his subjects, as well as 
to his enemies. Resuming therefore his former course of 
moderate measures, more conformable to his character 
than harsh methods, he undertook to gain by mildness 
the very men whom the utmost severity and the most 
terrible disasters could scarcely subdue. Through his 
deputies, he represented to the Saxon leaders how many 
calamities they had brought upon their countrymen and 
upon themselves, and promised them not only entire 
safety, but even great honors, if they would lay down 
their arms. 

Witikind converted to Christianity. — At first, 
Witikind and Abbon, another renowned chieftain, could 
hardly believe that the king was sincere in offering them 
such favorable conditions; but being at last induced to 
rely on his word, they went boldly to meet him. Charles 
received them with so much kindness, and treated them 
with such generosity, that they did not hesitate any 
longer to swear inviolable fidelity to so great a prince, 
and asked to be instructed in the Christian religion, 
which they sincerely embraced (a.d. 785). This step was 
followed by the entire reduction of Saxony. Partial 
revolts, it is true, continued to exercise for some years the 
activity of Charlemagne; but these were much more 
easily checked than the former; and, in order to prevent 
their revival in future, thirty thousand Saxon families 
were transported from the north of Germany to other 
parts of the French empire. At length, after an obsti- 
nate struggle of thirty years, this extensive country was 
entirely subdued, and being now reckoned among the 



214 MODERN HISTORY. 

dominions of the French king, consented to receive the 
two-fold benefit of civilization and Christianity. 

Charlemagne's conquests. — But new wars were 
threatening in other quarters. The conquests made by 
the French having awakened the fears and jealousy of the 
neighboring nations, their sovereigns formed for their 
mutual support a powerful league, which, however, only 
afforded Charlemagne an occasion to gain new laurels and 
to enlarge his empire. All his enemies fell into the very 
snare they had prepared for him. He subdued the Bava- 
rians, conquered the Greeks, carried his victorious arms 
into Pannonia, and defeated the Avari so often and with 
so great a loss on their part that this nation disappeared 
from the earth and left in his power both their settle- 
ments along the Danube and the prodigious wealth which 
they had acquired within the last two centuries by the 
pillage of the Greek provinces (a.d. 796). 

Charlemagne's wise policy. — When Charlemagne 
had obtained, by so much labor, a state of comparative 
tranquillity, he applied himself more than ever to make re- 
ligion justice, agriculture and commerce flourish through- 
out his vast empire. These great and useful objects he 
always kept in view, even when engaged in his many wars; 
but more particularly when his sons and generals became 
capable of filling his place at the head of armies. The 
internal government of the state was then his chief em- 
ployment. His wisdom in enacting the most suitable laws 
and his firmness in enforcing them, enabled him to restore 
order wherever it had been disturbed, and to repress 
grievous abuses which had arisen before the reign of his 
father Pepin. 

One of the principal means that he employed for the 
attainment of these important objects, was to commission 
regularly every year, persons of integrity, wisdom and ex- 
perience, vested with ample powers, to visit tlie several 
parts of his extensive monarchy, to inquire into the conduct 
of public officers, remove iniquitous judges, redress griev- 
ances, and repress disorder and crime. It was the duty 
of these royal commissioners, to free the provinces which 
they visited from robbers and other malefactors, to protect 
the weak and innocent, in a word, to provide for all the 
subjects of the empire the benefits of a wise, firm and mod- 
erate government. Affairs involving difficulties and re- 



CHAKLEMAGNE. 216 

quiring a protracted examination, were referred to the su- 
perior authority of the king. It was principally in the 
general assemblies which, by his orders, annually met in 
his presence, that Charlemagne instituted a strict inquiry 
into the wants, and applied the best remedies to the evils of 
the state. Here, surrounded by his counsellors and the 
representatives of the nation, he discussed with them the 
most important affairs, adopted the measures for the pre- 
servation of public tranquillity, and enacted those cele- 
brated statutes known under the name of Capittdars, 
which constitute the most valuable part of the ancient 
legislation of the Franks. 

Alcuin. — Charlemagne undertook likewise to raise lit- 
erature and science from the low state to which the inva- 
sion of northern barbarians had reduced them during the 
last centuries. Accordingly, he invited men of great erudi- 
tion from foreign states to his court, and with their help 
established, in the principal towns of France and Germany, 
public schools for the purpose of promoting the study of 
every branch of true and useful knowledge. The most 
celebrated among them was Alcuin, a learned and virtuous 
Englishman, whom the French monarch loaded with hon- 
ors and blessings. This prince appointed him to open a 
great school in his own palace, and to deliver lectures, at 
which he himself was usually present with his sons and 
other personages of his court. By these noble exertions, he 
made the desire of instruction almost universal among his 
subjects. Various establishments arose, especially in 
great cities, for the revival of science, and historians note 
particularly a sort of academy, or society of learned men, 
who had frequent debates or kept up an animated corre- 
spondence on scientific and literary subjects, the king 
himself being one of its most distinguished members. 

Extent of Charlemagne's Empire. — Charlemagne 
was now at the height of his glory, and the celebrity of 
his name had reached the most distant parts of the civil- 
ized world. The kings of the English Heptarchy solicited 
his friendship; the Saracens of Spain dreaded his arms; 
Irene, the empress of Constantinople, entered into a treaty 
of alliance with him; and the celebrated Caliph Haroun- 
Al-Rashid, the "greatest monarch of the East, and, like 
Charles himself, a zealous protector of learning and learned 
men, sent ambassadors to him from Bagdad, with splendid 



216 



MODERN HISTORY. 



gifts, among which were the keys of the city of Jerusalem 
a repeating clock, and an elephant (the first that had been 
seen in France) : in a word, the whole earth admired his 
wisdom and respected his power. By the vigor and suc- 
cess of his military exertions, he had become master of a 
greater extent of couiitry than any prince had possessed 
in Europe since the fall of the western empire: all the ter- 
ritory that composes modern France; Spain, from the 
Pyrenees to the Ebro; the greater part of Italy; Tyrol; 
Pannonia; Noricum or Austria; Helvetia or Switzerland; 
Bavaria; Saxony, as far as the Elbe; Frisia and Holland 
were subject to that mighty monarch. Nothing was want- 
ing to his earthly grandeur but the imperial diadem; and 
even that was bestowed upon him about this time, in the 
most flattering manner. 

Charlemagne crowned by the Pope as Empe- 
ror. — Just at the end of the eighth century, he had 
repaired to Eome for the purpose of defending Pope Leo 
III. against wicked and unjust persecutors. In return for 
this and other benefits, the Eomans agreed to proclaim 
Charlemagne emperor of the West. Accordingly, as he 
was assisting at the divine office in St. Peter's church on 
Christmas day, the pope approached, and, in presence of 
a great number of bishops and lords and an immense crowd 
of people, placed on his head the imperial crown which 
had been purposely prepared, all present crying out to- 
gether, three times, in transports of joy; ''Life and vic- 
tory to Charles, most pious, the great and pacific emperor 
of the Romans ; " (a.d. 800). 

Thus was the Roman empire, three hundred and 
twenty-four years after its extinction in the West, 
revived in favor of a monarch truly deserving, by his 
piety, valor and heroic actions, to be the successor of 
Theodosius and Constantine. The singular modesty 
which he evinced on that occasion, made him appear still 
more worthy of the extraordinary honors he then received. 
We learn from Eginhard, his secretary, that he was totally 
unacquainted with the design of the pope and of the 
Romans. In returning from the divine service, he 
declared that, had he known what was to take place, he 
would have abstained from going to chur(5h on that day, 
notwithstanding the solemnity of the festival. 

From this time forward, Charlemagne joined the title 



REMARKS 0?f CIVILIZATION. 217 

of Eoman emperor with that of king of France and Lom- 
bardy. During the stay which he made in Kome after 
the ceremony of his coronation, his extraordinary mu- 
nificence and generosity gained him more and more the 
hearts of the people. Even the court of Constantinople 
acquiesced at last in acknowledging him as emperor of 
the West, though with great repugnance, but the consent 
was necessary, and the refusal would have been useless, 
and perhaps dangerous. 

EEMAEKS ON THE STATE OF CIVILIZATION, 
LEAENING AND PAETICULAELY EELIGION, 

DURIKG THE THIRD PART OF MODERN HISTORY. 

No one well acquainted with the history of remote ages, 
can forbear noticing that contagious distempers, famine, 
and other similar visitations were then much more com- 
mon than they are at present. This difference may be 
ascribed in some measure, to the want of experience in 
those times, or to a great deficiency in the use of neces- 
sary precautions with regard to the cleanliness of cities 
and towns, streets, houses, dress and so forth. Still, it 
would be neither just nor accurate to acknowledge no other 
causes than these, of the calamities which befell men dur- 
ing the period in question, and thence conclude a total" 
absence of foresight or of industry; for, very frequently 
also, they originated in earthquakes, inundations, exces- 
sive heat or extreme cold, and other natural effects which 
could not be either foreseen or prevented. Merely to add 
one instance more to the facts already mentioned (see 
reign of Justin I. , of Mauritius, etc. ) : we learn from the 
Byzantine historians, that in the year 763, the Euxine or 
Black Sea (which now shows almost no ice even in the 
dead of winter), was frozen, throughout a considerable 
part of its extent and during the space of four months, to 
the depth of forty-five feet, with thirty feet of snow on 
the surface; in the following summer, a multitude of 
springs and rivers were dried up by the excess and dura- 
tion of the heat.* 

* See Cedrenus, Zonaras, Nicephorus and especially Theophanes, a 
contemporary author; apud 'Lehea.n, vol. xni, pp. 47S-475. — See also A. 
M. SS. C. G. Histoire du Bas-Empire, vol., i p. 273 ;— Lenglet-Dufres- 
noy, Tablettes Chronologiques, ad ann. 763 ; etc. 



218 MODERN HISTORY. 

A more general and more lasting calamity was that oc- 
casioned by the settlement of the barbarian tribes in the 
civilized world. Their successive invasions and incessant 
warfare necessarily produced great confusion in the laws, 
customs and manners of the countries which they oc- 
cupied. It was only by repeated exertions, and after a 
lapse of many years, that these new states were enabled 
distinctly to establish their respective constitutions and 
national character. Languages too, by the continual in- 
tercourse of the conquerors and the vanquished, became 
singular medleys of Latin and Celtic or Gothic words, 
which happening to undergo, during the course of ages, 
various alterations or improvements peculiar to each clime 
and country, gave rise to the principal tongues of Eu- 
rope, as they now exist. 

Discoveries in art and science. — One of the most 
pernicious effects of the invasion of the barbarians, was 
the rapid decline of literature, arts and sciences, wherever 
those wild conquerors passed or settled. Owing to their 
almost exclusive relish for war and plunder, literary and 
scientific monuments disappeared from innumerable places, 
and in the very regions where formerly belles-lettres liad 
been most flourishing, ignorance began to prevail, not 
however to such an extent as is commonly imagined. 
Even at the epoch which preceded the revival of learning 
under Charlemagne, there always remained much of use- 
ful knowledge. The vast store of erudition possessed by 
a Venerable Bede, an Alcuin, a Deacon Paul, etc. ; the 
numerous and eminent scholars that went forth from 
Ireland, England, Italy, etc., are sufficient vouchers of this 
truth. Nay, discoveries were made in those times of con- 
fusion, which would have done honor to conspicuous and 
enlightened ages; among others, the invention and appli- 
cation of water-mills, in the year 555; of glass windows 
for churches, about the same time; silk manufactures, in 
551; bells in churches, towards 605; organs, in 660; the 
Grecian fire, in 6T3; computation of years from the birth of 
Christ, first proposed by Dionysius Exiguus^ a learned monk 
of the sixth century and adopted in 742. 

Religion. — Religion was the chief, or rather the only 
means which stemmed this torrent of barbarism, and not 
only saved letters and learning from universal shipwreck, 
but also caused the wild tribes, whose destructive invasion 



REMARKS ON CIVILIZATION. 219 

had been so detrimental to them, gradually to imbibe and 
adopt the principles of civil and social life. It was not to 
be expected that the Goths, Franks, Lombards, Saxons, 
and Germans would ever receive those principles from 
studies which they heartily despised: Christianity alone 
could, and really did rescue them from their ignorance 
and barbarity. As it was already established in the prov- 
inces that fell under their power, these savage tribes, 
whose habits of plunder and revenge could not be checked 
by force of arms, sooner or later yielded to the mild pre- 
cepts of the gospel. Their minds and hearts became at- 
tached to a religion which did not teach them only by specu- 
lative maxims and didactic precepts, but also by examples, 
festivals and rites equally moving and instructive. 

JSTo sooner had they received and embraced the faith of 
Christ, than they began to lay aside the rudeness of their 
manners, and to establish among themselves a more ad- 
equate distribution of justice. By the enforcement of the 
divine law concerning the indissolubility of marriage, there 
resulted an immense benefit for the community at large, 
as well as for individuals and families. Outrageous acts, 
which idolatrous nations had considered mere trifles, were 
now gradually suppressed. A stronger barrier was op- 
posed to human passions, morals became more pure, nobler 
feelings animated mankind, milder customs were intro- 
duced; and these salutary effects were invariably in pro- 
portion to the degree of influence which religion acquired 
over the minds of her new followers. 

''The influence of Christianity," says the learned Chan- 
cellor Kent, "was very efl&cient towards the introduction 
of a better and more enlightened sense of right and justice 
among the governments of Europe. It taught the duty 
of benevolence to strangers, of humanity to the van- 
quished, of the obligation of good faith, and the enormity of 
the sin of murder, revenge and rapacity. The history of 
Europe during the early periods of modern history, 
abounds with interesting and strong cases, to show the au- 
thority of the Church over turbulent princes and fierce war- 
riors, and the effects of that authority in meliorating man- 
ners, checking violence, and introducing a system of 
morals which inculcated peace, moderation and justice. "* 

* Commentaries on law, vol. i, p. 10. 



220 MODERN HISTORY. 

The Power of the Church of Rome. — Bishops, 
priests and monks, afterwards so much cahimniated by an 
ungrateful posterity, were the active instruments em- 
ployed by Divine Providence to forward these various 
improvements in their respective countries. It was from 
episcopal liouses and monasteries that crowds of holy 
missionaries went forth to instruct, convert and civilize 
the fierce barbarians of the north. Moreover, the superiors 
of clerical and monastic bodies were frequently invested 
by Christian kings and emperors with civil jurisdiction, 
and as it was exercised by them in a more equitable 
manner than by secular magistrates, men quickly learned 
to prefer their decisions to the hasty judgments of war- 
like and ignorant nobles. This accounts for the great 
portion of temporal authority which bishops and abbots 
possessed in tliose remote ages, and which they used in 
checking the arbitrary exactions of the nobles, and render- 
ing as much as possible the various classes of the people 
partakers of the general advantages of society. 

The zeal of the clergy and monks, preserved also not 
only the sacred science of religion, but likewise all the 
different branches of useful learning. They were care- 
ful and active in discovering and collecting the remains of 
ancient literature, and many persons among them daily 
allotted a considerable portion of their time to the humble 
but useful occupation of transcribing old manuscripts. 
Others, more fit for manual labor, actively employed them- 
selves in clearing forests, draining marshes and fertilizing 
barren lands. Every obstacle presented by nature or 
the soil, was overcome by their unwearied exertions, and 
plentiful crops arose where before naught was seen but 
reeds or briers. Thus, while the lay proprietors reigned 
in solitary grandeur over their wide and unfruitful domains, 
the lands originally bestowed on the monks and clergy by 
the gratitude, confidence and piety of their contempora- 
ries, were cultivated and improved; their houses wert- 
I'asylums constantly opened to the poor, the infirm and the 
traveller; their villages were crowded with inhabitants, 
and the foundations were laid of several among the prin- 
cipal cities in England, Germany, etc.* 

•See Lingard, Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church, ch. 3, 4 and 10; 
— Beisier, JJictionnaire de theologie, art. Moines, Monastires, etc. 



REMARKS ON CIYILIZATION. 221 

Still greater and more important than these, were the 
benefits conferred by the Sovereign Pontiffs upon Europe 
at large, and all Christendom. This will be the subject 
of a separate dissertation on the popes of the middle ages. 



PART IV. 

FROM THE REVIVAL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE (A.D. 800), TO TH« 
BEGINNING OF THE CRUSADES (A.D. 1095). 

CHARLEiriACflVE, EMPEROR.— A.D. §00-§14. 

Charlemagne signalized the beginning of his reign 
as emperor, by redoubling his zeal for the hapjDiness of 
his people. Still more than ever did he watch over the 
different parts of his vast monarchy, to procure in all a 
speedy redress of grievances and an exact administration 
of justice. As to the command of armies, he now left it 
to his lieutenants and his sons, whom he had so well 
trained in military science, that victory followed their 
standards on almost every occasion, whether in Italy, 
Germany or Spain. The Moors or Saracens experienced 
by new defeats the superiority of French discipline and 
courage ; Bohemia and the coasts of Venetia were added 
to the empire ; the north-eastern frontier was extended to 
the shores of the Baltic, and the Danes were taught to 
confine themselves to their isles and their peninsula of 
Jutland. 

Charlemagne's death. — These new and brilliant con-' 
quests were owing chiefly to the abilities of Charles and 
Pepin, the two eldest sons of Charlemagne. With delight 
he looked upon these young heroes as the supporters of 
his empire and his future successors: but he had the mis- 
fortune to see both of them die iu the flower of their age 
and in the midst of tlieir triumphs. Not permitting how- 
ever the sensibility of the man and the grief of the father 
to prevail over the duty and firmness of the monarch, he 
did not abandon or neglect the cares of government, and 
seemed rather to be more active in improving all the good 
he had already done, the nearer he approached the 
end of his long and glorious career. Finally, after having 
filled the world with the renown of his genius, conquests 
and legislation; after having rendered invaluable services 

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CHARLEMAGNE, EMPEEOE. 233 

to religion as well as to social order, and given innumerable 
examples of Christian piety, he died at Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle, on the 28th of January of the year 814, the seventy- 
second of his life, the forty-seventh of his reign as king, 
and the fourteenth of his reign as emperor. 

His character. — Never was there a monarch greater 
than Gliarleinagne, perhaps his equal never existed, the 
epithet great being in the judgment and language of 
posterity, so strictly due to him, that it constitutes a 
part of his name.* He had a mind which wonderfully 
fitted him to rule over the most extensive monarchy. 
Vast in his designs and quick in their execution, going 
incessantly from one province to another wherever his 
presence might be required, from Italy to France, and 
from the Pyrenees to the shores of the German Ocean, he 
possessed in an extraordinary degree the uncommon talent 
of performing the greatest things with promptness and tlie 
most difficult with facility. His laws and statutes com- 
monly known under the name of capittdaines, everywhere 
display a wonderful sagacity, anticipating everything 
in point of duty and morality, and by a secret persuasive 
influence leading successfully to the preservation of good 
order. All the parts of the empire were closely united by 
his mighty genius- He established such an equilibrium 
among the orders of the state, that they counterbalanced 
one another, and were constantly kept under his control; 
his own children, two of whom were decorated with the 
title of king, being his first subjects, the instruments of 
his authority, and perfect models of obedience. In fine, 
he always showed himself deeply convinced of the obliga- 
tion which is incumbent on every sovereign to render 
equal and prompt justice to his subjects. Besides the 
ordinary judicial tribunals established in every part of his 
kingdom, he maintained one constantly, even in his own 
palace; he wished his attendants to wake him at any 
hour of the night, to hear the complaints of injured 
persons, and receive the petitions of such as appealed to 
him from inferior courts of justice. Even his time of 
dressing was not lost; he spent it in listening to the 
different argilments the parties could adduce in their 

* The word Charlemaqne is composed of Charles and magne, in Latin 
tnagniis which signifies gr-Htt. 



224 MODERN IIISTOHY. 

favor. Of the numbers that iij)plic'd to liim, none could 
ever complain of having been unreasonably denied an 
audience or put off to another day — none could remark 
any alteration in his counteuance, or perceive any un- 
easiness in his gestures, which might indicate impatience 
and weariness; so that Charlemagne, in this respect, as» 
in others, can be justly held up as an excellent model not 
only to sovereigns, but likewise to judges, governors and 
magistrates, in a word, to all tiiose who have any share in 
the exercise of the sovereign authority. 

Not less just than powerful, Charlemagne never pro- 
voked the barbarian tribes that bordered on his frontiers; 
but none of them ever attacked him with impunity. 
Never defeated, when commanding in person he conquered 
or checked all his enemies, and by the celerity and pre- 
cision of his movements, frequently baffled their wisest 
measures and their plans of confederacy, before they could 
Buspect that he was marching against them at the head of 
his armies. 

His learning. — This wonderful sovereign and mighty 
conqueror was also one of the most learned men of his 
age. Arithmetic, astronomy, rhetoric, logic, even bib- 
lical criticism and theology, were sciences familiar to him. 
Besides Tudesque, liis native tongue, he knew Greek and 
Latin well; and being naturally possessed of great elo- 
quence, he could speak, though unprepared, with much 
grace and facility on almost every subject.* 

Nor were his moral and Christian qualities inferior to 
his military, political and literary acquirements. Except 
perhaps in the earlier part of his life, in which his private 
conduct does not seem to have been altogether blameless, 



* What we here say of the eloquence and learning of Charlemagne, is 
founded on the unanimous testimony of his biographers and historians, 
and is consequently of unquestionable autliority. Some modem writers, 
however, would fain make us believe, from a certain passage of Eginhard, 
his chief secretary, that he did not know how to write.— But Eginhard does 
not say this exactly, he merely states that Charlemagne made little prog- 
ress in the art of writing, for want of early study and practice: moreover, 
we learn from other sources, that this prince revised several manuscripts 
and corrected them with his own hand. (See Annales dv moyen age, vol. 
VIII, p. 471;— Hist, dc I'Ef/lise Gallicane, I'ol. iv., p. 449:— Feller, art. 
Churlemaf/ne, etc.) All that can be inferred, then, from the words of bis 
secretary, is that be did not know how to write with that haste which the 
urgency of affairs frequently demands, nor with that perfection of cal- 
ligraphy which was then required in manuscripts. 



CHARLEMAGNE, EMPEROR. 225 

he gave constant marks of the most sincere pioty, pro- 
found respect for the Church, exact justice towards 
every one, unwearied beneficence, and unbounded charity 
towards the poor, the widow and the orphan. These and 
other distressed persons he assisted not only in his own 
dominions, but also in other countries, sending for that 
purpose large sums of money to Africa, Egypt and Syria. 
Hence there is no exaggeration in the remark of an 
ancient author,* that his death produced universal grief 
and mourning, particularly among his subjects, and that 
the pagans themselves bewailed his loss as that of the 
father of mankind. 

What must increase our admiration for Charlemagne 
is the amiable simplicity which appeared in all his ordi- 
nary actions, and which was still more remarkable in 
him than in other great men. It is particularly inter- 
esting to see how he regulated his family. His queen 
attended to the furniture of the palace, paid the wages of 
the officers and servants, settled the daily expenses of the 
table, and procured the necessary provisions. He watched 
over the education of his children with such great assiduity 
and tenderness, that he would never sit down at table 
without them, nor be separated from them even during 
his journeys. He managed the revenues of his estates 
with as much prudence as he did those of the empire 
itself, took care that all the lands should be diligently 
cultivated, and, while he spent in works of beneficence 
the immense treasures of the Lombards and the Avari, he 
commanded his farmers to sell their superfluous fruits, 
vegetables, and other such things, rather than commit 
the least waste. In his ordinary dress, he wore only 
coats and tunics made by the persons of his own house- 
hold. 

His creations and projects. — Charlemagne however 
knew how to appear with majestic dignity, and could dis- 
play great magnificence, whenever he was obliged to act 
as sovereign; for instance, in the reception of foreign 
ambassadors. Many splendid buildings owed to him their 
existence ; among others, his palace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 
where he usually resided, exhibited all that architect- 
ure and art could effect at that time. He created a 

*Monach. Engolism. ; see Annales du moyen a^e, vol. \ni.,p. 353. 



J86 MODERN HISTORY. 

navy, in order to oppose the first descents of the Nor- 
mans, those famous pirates of the north. And, too, 
it was his design to unite the Atlantic with the Euxine 
sea by a canal that would have reached from the Rhine to 
the Danube: a project truly worthy of the genius of 
Charlemagne, but the execution of which was beyond 
the powers of his contemporaries, and failed for want of 
necessary instruments and experience.* 

LOUIS THE DEBOXXAIRE AND HIS SONS.— A.D. 

814-877. 

FEUDAL SYSTEM. 

Louis the Pious. — Charlemagne was succeeded by 
his son Louis, surnamed the Pious or the Dihonnaire, 
who had shown nntil then much wisdom in the govern- 
ment of Aquitania, and great courage in his expeditions 
against the Saracens of Spain. His virtues indeed he car- 
ried with him to the throne; but his talents were inad- 
equate to this new and much more exalted station. 
Nearly the whole of his reign was spent in adopting false 
and impolitic measures which drew contempt upon his 
authority, and the most humiliating disasters upon his 



* A distinguished French historian has beautifully described the charac- 
ter of Charlemagne in these words, " Charlemagne reunit dans son carac- 
tere les traits les plus magnifiques de grandeur, de sagesse et de bravoure, 
avec ce que la piete chretienne a de plus solide et de plus eclatant. Aussi 
grand hunime que grand prince, aussi bon pere de famille que bon roi, 
aussi sage legislateur dans le cabinet que general vigilant et intr^pide a la 
tete des armees; il fut encore un Chretien liumble et fervent, qui n'eut pas 
moins de zele pour faire servir Dieu, qu'il n'avait d'autorite pour se faire 
servir lui-meme. Toujours heureux a la guerre, il aima-cependant tou- 
jours la paix. Maitre absolu de ses peuples il mit sa gloire a en etre le 
pere ; et il eut le plaisir de voir qu'il en etait aime, autant qu'il en etait 
craint. Restaurateur des beaux-arts et des lettres en France, il fut encore 
le bienfaitenr le plus liberal aussi bien que I'enfant le plus soumis de 
I'eglise ; ses victoires furent pour elle des conquetes, et le fruit le plus 
doux qu'il recueillit de taut de combats, ce fut d'etendre le royaume de 
Jesus-Christ, it proportion qu'il ctendait le sien. — I.'accusation d'inconti- 
nence est la seule tache qui pourrait obscurcir ses vertus; mais il n'est pas 
difficile de le jiistitier d« ce reproche. . . . Que s'il a commis quelque faute 
en ce genre, il en aura fait penitence avant sa mort, comme nous devons 
le presumer de la piete d'uu prince si religieux, et qui par mortification 
portait un cilice sous ses habits. — En un mot, Charlemagne fut le heros de 
son siecle, le protecteur le plus zcHe de la religion, le plus puissant des rois 
qui aient gouverne la France, et I'un des plus grands princes qui aient 
jamais occupe aucun des divers trones de I'uuivers." — F. J. Longueval, 
Ilistoire de VEylise yallic, ad ann. 814. 



LOUIS THE DEBONNAIKE. 227 

person. Twice he was outrageously reviled and deposed 
by his own sons and ministers^ and twice also was he re- 
stored by the exertions of his affectionate subjects. 
These revolutions greatly weakened the French mon- 
archy, and permitted the Saracens on one side, and the 
Normans on the other, to ravage with impunity the 
coasts of Italy and France. 

Battle of Fontanet. — Louis died in 840, leaving 
tbree sous who divided tlie empire among themselves. 
France was allotted to Charles the Bald; Germany to 
another Louis; and Italy to Lothaire, with the title of 
emperor. This last, who had been the chief promoter of 
the late disturbances and rebellions against his father, 
undertook also to deprive his brothers of their rights. 
Charles and Louis, not being able to produce a change in 
his sentiments, united their forces against him, and com- 
pletely defeated him in the fierce battle of Fontanet near 
Auxerre, which cost the lives of a hundred thousand men. 
Lothaire fled to Aix-la-Chapelle, and shortly after was 
compelled to retire into his Italian dominions: but the 
conquerors not knowing how to ensure the permanency of 
their victory, the civil war still continued for a time, 
without any important result, except a waste of their 
forces and the misery of their subjectSc These circum- 
stances, added to the continual piracies of the barbarians 
on all sides, more and more debased the family of Charle- 
magne, and prepared its downfall. 

Feudal power. — The lack of prudence and firmness 
in Charles the Bald occasioned another evil which proved 
the ruin of public tranquillity, particularly in France. 
Until that time, the presidency and government of prov- 
inces, dukedoms and counties, had been temporary and 
reversible charges; but towards the middle of the ninth 
century, they were permitted to become hereditary dig- 
nities, transferable from father to son. This considerably 
increased the power of their possessors to the detriment 
of the royal authority, and completed the organization of 
the feudal system or compact between lords and vassals, 
which was for several centuries the basis of the political 
constitution of Western Europe where it occasioned in- 
numerable disturbances and civil wars. 



228 MODERN HISTORY. 



ARABIAN AND GREEK EMPIRES DURING THE 
NINTH CENTURY.— A. D. 800-886. 

Haroun-Al-Raschid. — Not dissimilar to the empire 
founded by Cliarlemagne, was that of the Arabs in Asia 
and Africa. It reached the summit of its glory under 
Haroun-Al-Raschid, and declined under his successors, 
none of whom displayed abilities equal to those of this 
celebrated caliph. He waged war against the Greeks with 
uninterrupted success, and obliged the famous empress 
Irene, and after her, the emperor Nicephorus, to pay him 
a heavy tribute. No Mussulman prince, except perhaps 
Caliph Omar, was ever more absolute, or knew better how 
to enforce submission. It was enough for him, when he 
had the least suspicion or discontent against his generals 
and governors of provinces, to send them word to resign 
their offices ; the order obtained immediate obedience. 

Haroun sometimes carried his severity to excess, and 
while, on one hand, he exercised uncommon liberality and 
beneficence, he is said to have, on the other, occasionally set 
aside equity and gratitude in order to indulge his ill- 
grounded suspicions and capricious feelings. He is 
however styled the Just, probably for some remarkable 
acts of justice that he performed, or for the just protec- 
tion which he granted to literature, arts and sciences. 
However, he contributed more than any other caliph, to 
raise the Eastern Mussulmans from the state of ignorance 
and darkness in which they had been so long buried. He 
assembled in his court of Bagdad learned men of every 
class and country, to have them translate into Arabic or 
Syriac books on philosophy and astronomy, which he had 
bought from the Christians; in return, the Arabs commu- 
nicated to Europe their cyphers, the sciences of Algebra 
and Chemistry, etc. 

His death. — Haroun-Al-Raschid died in the year 809, 
after a prosperous reign of twenty-three years. The 
Arabian monarchy, no longer supported by his vigorous 
hand, gradually lost the strength which he' had imparted 
to it; while the Greek empire, on the contrary, began 
to recover from the heavy losses which it had suffered 
under Nicephorus. 



i 



ARABIAN AND GREEK EMPIRES. 229 

Nicephorus. — This wicked emperor, during the nine 
years (802-811) of his reign, seemed to vie with for- 
eign enemies in harrassing and plundering his people. 
The end of his reign was particularly disastrous. 
Having, though absolutely destitute of talents, the high- 
est idea of his princely abilities, he undertook against the 
Bulgarians an expedition which he thought would be 
decisive and sufficient to avenge all previous defeats. 
Through his own imprudence and temerity, just the re- 
verse happened. The Bulgarians shut him up with his 
numerous troops among the mountains, and made such 
a slaughter of them, that nearly all perished, with 
the officers, the generals, and the emperor himself. His 
head was cut off, by command of King Crumnius, and the 
dried skull afterwards served as a cup in the solemn re- 
pasts of that fierce barbarian. After this, the conquerors 
poured into Thrace, a part of which they easily conquered 
under the short reigns of Stauracius and Michael Curopa- 
lates, and even advanced so far as to threaten the capital. 

Leo the Armenian. — Such was the alarming state of 
the empire until the year 813, when Leo the Armenian, a 
man of great military skill, ascended the throne. He had 
no sooner assembled an army, than he marched out against 
the Bulgarians, and meeting their victorious bands near 
Constantinople, came to a bloody engagement with them, 
in which he was on the point of being defeated. His 
troops, terrified by the multitude and fury of those bar- 
barians, began to fly ingreat disorder when the emperor, 
perceiving that there was as much confusion on the side 
of the conquerors as among the fugitives, suddenly rushed 
against the former with a body of reserves, and stopped 
them by the violence of the attack. This revived the 
courage of his own soldiers, who then returned to the 
field of battle, and enabled Leo to obtain a comj)lete 
victory. The next campaign (a.d. 815) was still more suc- 
cessful. The emperor first deceived the Bulgarians by 
feigning to retire at their approach, and when he knew 
from his spies that they did not suspect any danger, he 
entered their camp during the night, and surprising them 
in their sleep, put them all to the sword. After this, he 
advanced into their territory, and laid it waste, the more 
easily, as he experienced but a slight resistance from the 
inhabitants, who had no regular troops to oppose him. 



230 MODERN HISTORY. 

So great was their loss on tliis occasion, that for the space 
of seventy years they were uiuible to do, or afraid to at- 
tempt anything against the empire. 

Leo spent the remainder of liis reign in persecuting with 
great violence the defenders of images and conducting 
the affairs of the state with a rigor wnich often bordered 
on cruelty. He was murdered in the year 820 by the 
partisans of Michael surnamed the Stammerer, commander 
of the guard, who was then confined for rebellion, and 
whom this revolution raised from the prison to the throne. 
This was exchanging bad for worse; for Michael, besides 
being a cruel persecutor like Leo, was moreover an unskil- 
ful and profligate prince from whom nothing good could 
be expected. His reign of nine years, instead of doing 
any service to the empire, beheld the loss of the rich 
islands Crete and Sicily, which were conquered by the 
Mussulmans. 

Theophilus. — Under Theophilus, the son and successor 
of Michael, war broke out again with fresh fury between 
the Greeks and the eastern Saracens. After many un- 
important battles, most of which however were fatal to the 
Greeks, Theophilus undertook, in 840, to repair his losses 
by an extraordinary effort. He set out at the head of one 
hundred thousand men, and after overrunning all Syria, 
laid siege to Sozopetra, the birth-place of Caliph Mutasem. 
The Saracen prince, not having had time to assemble his 
forces, wrote to the emperor, and earnestly begged him 
to spare the town for his sake; but, instead of complying 
with the request, Theophilus took and utterly destroyed 
Sozopetra, put many of the inhabitants to the sword, and 
led the others into captivity. 

This conduct filled the caliph with rage and an insa- 
tiable desire of revenge. He raised an army superior in 
numbers to any that had, for a longtime, been seen among 
the Saracens, and caused the name of Amorium to be 
engraved on the shields of all his soldiers, to signify that 
his object was the destruction of this city, the native place 
of Theophilus. In vain did the emperor supply it with a 
numerous garrison composed of the bravest troops and 
officers of his army; in vain did they oppose so heroic a 
resistance, that Mutasem lost seventy thousand men in 
the short space of thirteen days: the besiegers, having been 
informed by a traitor of the weakest part of the town, 



ARABIAN AND GREEK. EMPIRES. 231 

carried it by storm during the night, and reduced it to 
ashes, after having made a dreadful slaughter of the gar- 
rison and inhabitants. Still, thirty thousand soldiers or 
citizens, were preserved alive, to be led as prisoners into 
Persia: but many of them perished before reaching that 
country, and forty-two officers having generously resisted 
all the efforts of the court of Bagdad to make them ex- 
change the Christian faith for the religion of Mohammed, 
were put to death after seven, years of confinement and 
sufferings. 

Michael III., — The emperor Theophilus had died some 
time before (a.d. 842), of a disease the progress of which 
was accelerated by his grief for the loss of Amorium. He 
was succeeded by his son, Michael III., a worthless and 
wretched prince, who, after enjoying some years of pros- 
perity under the regency of his virtuous mother Theodora, 
threw himself into an abyss of crimes and evils, and au- 
thorized the first separation of the Greek from the Latin 
Church. The chief author of that fatal schism was Plio- 
tius, a man of great genius and learning, and of still 
greater ambition and wickedness. By his intrigues, which 
were supported by a vicious court, he succeeded in invad- 
ing the patriarchal see of Constantinople, after he had 
procured the unjust expulsion of the lawful patriarch St. 
Ignatius (a.d. 857). His unparalleled talent for dissim- 
ulation and imposture enabled him, likewise, to gain over 
to his party many of the principal personages in the Greek 
Church and state; but all his cunning failed with regard 
to Pope Nicholas I., in whom he found an insuperable 
barrier to all his wicked schemes. 

Pope Nicholas I. and Photius., — This great pontiff 
not only refused to approve of the irregular proceedings 
of Photius, but even pronounced against him a solemn 
sentence of excommunication. Photius, who had until 
that time acknowledged without question the primacy of 
the Apostolic see, resolved in his anger to separate the 
Church of Constantinople from that of Eome. He took 
the bold step in the year 866, and endeavored to support 
it by every means in his power, especially by impostures 
and calumnies of the most outrageous nature. This 
course of violence lasted, it is true, but a short time, be- 
cause, in consequence of a new revolution which happened 
at court, Photius was expelled from the patriarchal see, and 



232 MODERN HISTORY. 

solemnly condemned by the eighth general council held in 
869 at Constantinople for the reunion of the two Churches ; 
still, there always lurked in the breasts of the oriental 
bishops a leaven of jealousy and discord, which again burst 
forth in the eleventh century, and completed the schism. 

Basil the Macedonian. — The new revolution just 
mentioned took place in 867, when Michael III., while 
meditating the death of Basil the Macedonian, his asso- 
ciate in the empire, was himself killed in a state of intox- 
ication, after a despicable reign of twenty-five years. 
Basil was, by unanimous consent, acknowledged sole em- 
peror, and showed himself, notwithstanding his humble 
birth, more worthy of this high preferment than all his 
predecessors within the last two centuries. Not less atten- 
tive to save the citizens from oppression than to defend 
the state from foreign foes, while he gained considerable 
advantages in war against the Saracens, he at the same 
time repressed the injustice of magistrates and governors 
wherever he could detect it, as well in the nearest as in 
the most distant provinces; himself taking the greatest 
care to appoint to offices of trust only upright and virtu- 
ous persons, men neither to be bribed by presents nor 
frightened by threats, and wholly bent on the faithful 
discharge of their duties. In order to banish cupidity 
from all tribunals, he strictly forbade judges, as he 
allowed them a sufficient stipend from the state treasury, 
to receive anything from either of the contending parties, 
under any pretence whatever. So far did he watch over 
the interests of poor people, when attacked before the 
courts of justice by some rich and powerful person, that 
he even established a public fund to enable them to 
defend their cause, and support them until it should be 
decided. 

The vigilance and firmness of Basil soon restored peace, 
abundance and security, in every part of the state. Com- 
plaints against governors and magistrates, which were very 
common before, ceased so completely, that the emperor 
having one day gone, as usual, to receive and examine the 
petitions which might be presented to him, did not hear 
of a single grievance. Fearing lest the injured persons 
might have been, by violence or treachery, prevented 
from entering the palace, he sent confidential officers to 
inquire into the situation of his subjects. After diligent 



SPAIN, ETC, 233 

research, all returned and assured the emperor, that they 
had found no one who had expressed any dissatisfaction; 
this news filled Basil with extraordinary Joy; he shed tears 
of exultation, and gave thanks to God for so admirable a 
change. On another occasion, having been informed that 
the price of flour had become so high that poor people were 
almost dying with starvation, he directly caused all his 
granaries to be opened, and the wheat to be sold at one= 
twelfth of the ordinary price. 

This excellent emperor died in 886, of an accident that 
happened to him in the chase, A strong and stately stag, 
rushing by him, caught his cincture, and dragged him 
from his horse; before assistance could arrive, the animal 
shook him so violently, that a fatal disease ensued, and 
in a few days brought him to the grave. He had reigned 
about nineteen years, during which, by constant and suc- 
cessful application to affairs, he infused new life into the 
Greek empire. His glory indeed is tarnished by the share 
which he took in the murder of his predecessor, by some 
acts of inhumanity towards prisoners taken in battle, and 
a certain pride which occasionally betrayed him into 
wrong measures; still the great number of his illustrious 
and generous actions has justly ranked him among the 
most remarkable sovereigns of Constantinople. His de- 
scendants occupied the throne for nearly two centuries; 
but none of them was equal in talent and merit to the 
founder of their dynasty, and the empire fell again into 
the state of weakness from which it had been rescued by 
the exertions of Basil. 



SPAIN DURINO THE NINTH AND TENTH CENT- 
URIES.— AD. 800-998. 

Growth of Asturias. — On the contrary, the increase 
of extent and power of the new kingdom formed by the 
Christians in Spain became from that epoch peculiarly 
remarkable. Ever since their first endeavors, under Pela- 
gio and Alfonso I., to struggle against the fierce invaders 
of their country, they almost constantly gained new ad- 
vantages ; but it is chiefly to the ninth century that the 
ardor of their heroical times ought to be referred. Their 
noble ardor and natural bravery, continually stimulated by 
obstacles, rose now to a full disnlay of their energies, and 



234 MODERN HISTORY. 

while the Moors began to be enervated by a long posses- 
sion of wealth and a fine climate, thirst after glory united 
with religious zeal produced among the Christians unin- 
terrupted wonders of courage and virtue. 

Alfonso III. — In the first rank of great and conspicu- 
ous men who flourished at that time, must be placed Kings 
Alfonso II. and liamirez I., both of whom conquered the 
Saracens in many battles, and greatly enlarged the Chris- 
tian territory. Still more brilliant were the achieve- 
ments of Alfonso III., surnamed the Great, during his 
long reign of about fifty years, from 862 to 912. He first 
employed himself in vindicating his rights to the throne 
against different competitors. This being accomplished, 
he attacked the Moors, and spreading terror among them 
by the rapidity of his marches, so often overthrew their 
armies in various campaigns that he repeatedly com- 
pelled them to sue for peace. 

He was obliged to desist from war for a time, in order 
to suppress conspiracies that had been formed against 
him in his own family. Alfonso quelled them all by his 
activity and prudence, but dishonored himself on this oc- 
casion by an act savoring more of cruelty than of justice. 
Having discovered that his four brothers were at the head 
of one of these conspiracies, besides confining them in a 
prison, he caused their eyes to be plucked out: a sort of 
punishment which, although frequently inflicted at that 
period on state criminals, was in itself especially in this 
instance, inhuman and shocking. 

Alfonso, being thus delivered from all foreign and do- 
mestic enemies, devoted his time to the improvement of 
his kingdom of Asturias and Oviedo. By this means, he 
regained the affection of his people, but not that of his 
family. While a new war with the Saracens Avas afford- 
ing him an occasion of new triumphs, another conspiracy 
at home recalled him from the pursuit of his conquests, 
and, though opposed by this warlike prince, at first with 
some success, it finally obliged him to resign the sovereign 
power in favor of his two sons (a.d. 911). Still, he re- 
quested that some troops should be left to him, that 
he might attack the Moors once more before his death. 
Having obtained his request, he made an irruption into 
their territory, and returned loaded with spoils. This 
was the last of his exploits. He died in the following 



SPAIN, ETC. 335 

year, after a reign almost continually disturbed both by do- 
mestic dissensions and by foreign wars. 

Alfonso the Great being no longer on the throne, the 
success of military expeditions was sometimes on the side 
of the Christians, sometimes on that of the Saracens, and, 
for a long period, nearly equal on both sides. In the year 
921 the former were entirely defeated at Jonquera by the 
Arabian mpnarch Abderahman III. ; but in their turn, 
under the conduct of King Eamirez IL, they gained a com- 
plete victory at Simancas, in 939; on which occasion eighty 
tliousand Mussulmans are said to have lost their lives. 

Abderahman. — This bloody defeat and others which 
followed did not prevent Abderahman from raising his 
kingdom to a degree of prominence it probably had never 
attained before. Being a skilful politician as well as a 
brave general, sometimes victorious, frequently defeated, 
but always great, whether in peace or war, he ever knew 
how to improve his success and repair his losses. Notwith- 
standing the obstinate warfare in which he was engaged, 
and the great expenses he must have incurred to support 
his armies, he displayed at court a magnificence which 
would appear incredible, were it not unanimously recorded, 
by contemporary historians. His palaces, his gardens, 
and his various monuments were splendid. Like two of 
his predecessors of the same name, and even more than 
they, he protected the arts and sciences; established cele- 
brated schools, especially of medicine; attracted to his 
court the ablest physicians, architects, astronomers and 
poets of his age and nation; and rendered Cordova, his 
capital, the centre of industry and learning. If we give 
credit to Arabian authors, this city contained two hundred 
and thirteen thousand houses, eighty-five thousand stores, 
six hundred mosques, nine hundred public baths, seventy 
libraries, and seventeen large institutions for the instruc- 
tion of youth. 

Abderahman, having the reputation of a great love for 
justice, and possessing those moral qualities which may 
be found in a false religion, went through a long 
reign, in a manner which secured to him the esteem and 
confidence of his very enemies. But nothing perhaps 
so well proves the greatness and superiority of his mind, 
as the following note found among his papers after his 
death: "I have been caliph for fifty years, and have 



23 G MODERN HISTORY. 

enjoyed all that men can possibly desire here on earth. 
Being desirous to know the number of the days in which, 
during this long space of time, my heart was truly satis- 
fied, I found it upon exact enumeration, to amount to 
fourteen only. Mortals, learn from me how to appreciate 
worldly grandeur and this transitory life." 

Almanzor. — Abderahman III. died in 961, at the age of 
seventy-two years. The good effects of his government 
continued to be felt under his first successors, owing 
chiefly to the exertions of their prime-minister, Mahomet 
Almanzor, Avhose fidelity was equal to his courage, and 
who always remained satisfied with an inferior rank, al- 
though he might have occupied the first with the consent 
of his nation. This famous warrior invaded, it is said, 
fifty-two times the Christian territory, and generally re- 
turned triumphant and loaded with booty. 

At first, he met with an invincible opponent in the 
person of Count Fernando Gonzales, the chief founder of 
the sovereignty of Castile, and one of the greatest men of 
an age which produced in Spain so many heroes. Most 
unfortunately for the Christians, Gonzales died in the 
year 979, twenty years before Almanzor. The undaunted 
Moor determined then, not only to repair his late defeats 
by new efforts and new invasions, but also to effect, if pos- 
sible, the final overthrow of the Christians, Although they 
sometimes found him a generous conqueror, they never 
experienced a more formidable enemy. He ravaged their 
dominions, attacked their armies separately, and defeated 
them all, notwithstanding their courageous resistance. 

Of all his victories, the most splendid and glorious was 
that which he gained, in the year 995, over King Bermu- 
dez II. This prince had just mustered great forces, in 
order to stem the destructive torrent: although afflicted 
with the gout he put himself at their head, and from his 
litter gave the signal for battle. The Christians, animated 
by the presence of their sovereign, and by the thought 
of their religion, their liberty and their lives, for which 
they were going to fight, attacked the Saracens with 
irresistible fury, routed them on all sides, and obliged 
them to flee in great disorder, Almanzor did, on that 
occasion, nearly the same that is related of Julius Caesar.* 

* In the battle of Munda (Spain), against the sons of Pompey (b.c. 45). 



SPAIN, ETC. 237 

Dismounting from his horse, he lay upon the ground, 
and cried out that he preferred to be either trodden 
under foot by the fugitives or slain by the conquerors, 
rather than outlive his glory. The sight of this great 
man in such imminent danger made his soldiers ashamed 
of abandoning him, and inspired them with fresh courage. 
Rallying around their general, they rushed with him 
against the pursuers, whom the anticipation of victory 
had rendered too confident; the Christians were terrified 
in their turn, and fled, yielding the victory to their in- 
trepid and obstinate enemies. 

Battle of Medina Cceli. — After this, Almanzor, with 
little or no difficulty, overran the whole country, and tak- 
ing, ransacking or burning the cities, pursued the van- 
quished as far as the mountains of Asturias, which had 
been their first asylum nearly three hundred years before. 
He would have probably carried his conquests still farther, 
had not a dreadful plague broken out among his soldiers, 
which destroyed a considerable part of his army and 
forced him to retire in great haste. When he returned 
with fresh troops, he found that the Christian princes of 
the different parts of Spain had now united their forces 
against the common enemy. They stopped his victorious 
march at Medina Cceli, or Calacanasor, in Castile (a.d. 
998). The battle, upon which such great interests de- 
pended, was begun with equal animosity on both sides, 
and lasted the whole day. The following morning, the 
Christians prepared to recommence the attack, but soon 
perceived that the Moors had retreated. Almanzor, 
frightened at the greatness of his loss, which amounted 
to one hundred thousand men, dismissed his surviving 
soldiers, fled in despair to Medina, and there put an end 
to his life by starvation. 

Foundation of Christian kingdoms in Spain.— 
With Mahomet Almanzor fell the splendor of the Arabian 
empire in Spain. His death was soon followed by a series 
of feuds and civil wars among the Arabs, which distracted 
their monarchy, and divided it into eight or nine 
petty kingdoms. This permittted the Christians, not 
only to recover entirely from their recent losses, but even 
to found and solidly establish four kingdoms in the north 
of the peninsula, viz., Leon including the more ancient 
kingdom of Asturias and Oviedo, Navarre, Arragon an(? 



238 MODERN HISTORY. 

Castile. These latter two, though the last in order of 
time, soou became the most powerful of the four, and 
afterwards formed by their reunion the present kingdom 
of Spain. 



ENGLAND DURING THE NINTH AND TENTH 
CENTURIES A.D. SOO-1016. 

Among the states of modern Europe, none experienced 
during the middle ages more vicissitudes and revolutions 
than England. Its conquest by the Anglo-Saxons, and 
the establishment of the Heptarchy, have been already 
mentioned. As long as any district remained in the 
island, that might be easily subdued, the Saxon kings 
lived together in harmony, each one being content with 
his dominions, or extending them only at the expense of 
their common foes. Afterwards, tliey turned their arms 
against one another, and thus gave occasion to the ruin 
of the Heptarchy. 

Egbert. — Egbert, the apparent heir to the crown of 
Wessex, had been first compelled by a strong party to leave 
the shores of England, and to take refuge at the court of 
Charlemagne. He served three years in the armies of that 
emperor, and spent the period of his exile in acquiring 
proficiency in the science of war and of government. 
Charles spared no pains in improving the noble and prom- 
ising qualities of the British prince, and in every impor- 
tant transaction wished to have him near his person. He 
had taken him along in his last journey to Eome, when 
Egbert was informed of the death of his competitor, and 
of other favorable circumstances, which recalled him to 
his native country. 

The royal exile lost no time, but, taking leave of the 
French monarch, who loaded him with marks of affec- 
tion and esteem, he returned to England, where his claim 
was unanimously acknowledged by the West-Saxon lords. 
Being crowned, with universal applause, king of Wessex 
in the year 801, he devoted the first part of his reign 
to peaceful pursuits; but, irom the time when he 
first unsheathed the sword against the Britons of Wales, 
each succeeding year was marked by new victories 
and conquests. The Britons were subdued; then the 



ENGLAND, ETC. 239 

feeble kingdoms of Essex, Kent, and others shared the 
same fate; and before 830, Egbert had extended his 
authority over the greater part of the island. 

Invasion of the Danes. — Scarcely however had he at- 
tained this superiority among the native princes, when he 
saw himself attacked by a foreign and most dangerous 
enemy. At this period, Denmark was the birthplace of a 
race of men who spent the best portion of their lives on 
the sea, either because they were compelled to leave their 
country which was too thickly inhabited, or because they 
preferred the fruits of rapine to those of industry. While 
the Normans, their countrymen, laid waste the coasts of 
France and Spain, the Danes directed their attempts 
against the British isles. Their first descents, it is true, 
had no great effect, and produced temporary alarm, rather 
than permanent uneasiness ; but towards the close of the 
reign of Egbert, the numbers of the pirates perpetually 
increased, and their visits being annually renewed, took a 
much more alarming aspect. In 833, Egbert himself had 
the mortification of seeing his West-Saxons defeated by the 
invaders. Convinced of the necessity of adopting 
stronger measures, he summoned all his vassals around 
him, and waited in anxious suspense for the next descent 
of the enemy: success crowned hia efforts, and a decisive 
though bloody victory compelled the Danes to take refuge 
in their ships. This was the last exploit of Egbert, who 
died in the following year (a.d. 836), after a prosperous 
reign of about thirty-five years. 

Ethelwulf. — His death, and the pacific disposition of 
his son Ethelwulf, emboldened the barbarians to renew 
their invasions. Eedoubled exertions were made, on the 
one side for the attack, and on the other for the de- 
fence, with a continual alternation of success and mis- 
fortune. At last, a general battle was fought at Okeley 
(a.d. 851), in which the Danes were so completely over- 
thrown, that their loss is said to have been greater than 
they had ever sustained in any age or country. They ap- 
peared to be disheartened by so severe a defeat, and re- 
spected, for a time, the shores of England. But their 
loss seemed only to urge them to make more extensive 
preparations for subsequent attacks. After the death of 
Ethelwulf, and under his four sons, Ethelbald, Ethelbert, 
Ethelred and Alfred, all of whom reigned successively. 



340 MODERN HISTORY. 

those undaunted pirates renewed their efforts and inroads 
with fresh and incessant fury. In spite of many severe 
losses whicli they again suffered, they returned to the 
charge so often and so repeatedly, as finally to take pos- 
session, in a few years, of a great part of the island. 

Alfred the Great. — Such was the state of Great Brit- 
ain, when Alfred, the last of the four brothers just men- 
tioned, ascended the throne in 871. No reign ever com- 
menced with more unfavorable auspices. The Saxon 
prince had scarcely any troops to oppose the invaders, 
and saw himself compelled to enter into a treaty with 
them, by which he was left in possession of Wessex and 
a few other districts, while they kept the better part of 
the country for themselves. Nor even did this arrange- 
ment last long. Eepeated attacks of the Danes forced 
Alfred to abandon for a time the whole of his dominions 
to their rapacity, and retire into a small island situated in 
a morass between two rivers. Here he submitted to his 
humble lot with piety and resignation, in hope of better 
times. Being one day buried in deep reflection on his 
misfortunes, he happened to let some cakes burn, Avhich 
the wife of the herdsman with whom he lodged, had com- 
mitted to his care. She reproached him severely, telling 
him he was more ready to eat than to earn his bread. On 
another occasion, the pious king did not hesitate to give 
one-half of the only loaf that remained in the place, to a 
poor and needy traveller: a truly charitable action, which 
the providence of God shortly afterwards rewarded by the 
arrival of a large supply of provisions. 

War with the Danes. — In the mean time, the Danes 
spread terror throughout the whole country, which they 
plundered and laid waste, with almost no resistance.. 
However, one of their parties was entirely defeated ir 
878, by the earl of Devonshire, who killed their general 
Ubbo with twelve hundred of his followers. This revived 
the courage of the Saxons, and Alfred having now quitted 
his retreat, a multitude "of brave warriors flocked to his 
standard, ready to shed their blood for his defence and 
the independence of the realm. The king immediately 
marched out with them against the main body of the 
Danes, who, on their side, advanced with hasty steps to 
meet him on the field of battle. 

As the armies approached, they uttered shouts of 



ENGLAND, ETC. 241 

mutual defiance, and, after the first discharge of their 
missile weapons, came to a close and sanguinary engage- 
ment. The animosity of the two nations, the efforts of 
their leaders, the fluctuations of victory, can be more 
easily imagined than expressed. The Danes displayed a 
valor worthy of their former renown ; the Saxons were 
stimulated by honor, shame, and every motive that can 
influence the heart of man. At length, their intrepidity 
bore down all opposition; the Northmen, after suffering 
a tremendous slaughter, fled to their camp, where being 
pursued and closely surrounded, they consented to capitu- 
late. The terms imposed on them by the conqueror were, 
that they should either leave the island, or embrace the 
laws of Christianity ; and if they became Christians, that 
they should quit the kingdom of Wessex, and confine 
themselves to their former settlements in other parts of 
England. All this appears to have been at the time faith- 
fully executed. 

Alfred's policy. — Alfred being now in a state of 
comparative tranquillity, set about repairing the dam- 
ages occasioned by war, and providing against future 
disasters. The army, fortifications and navy claimed his 
first care. Bodies of regular troops were organized for 
the defence of his kingdom, especially along the coast ; 
castles were built in places the best fitted to prevent the 
landing, or to impede the progress of an enemy ; and a 
considerable fleet wa;S equipped, which, within a few years, 
obtained numerous triumphs over the pirates : so that 
Alfred may be regarded as the real founder of the naval 
and military glory of Great Britain. 

His legislation. — He next turned his attention to the 
improvement and civilization of his people. In order to 
check the spirit of disorder and anarchy which, during 
the long period of barbarian invasion, had become prev- 
alent throughout the realm, the king restored and en- 
larged the salutary institutions of his predecessors, and 
from ancient statutes, composed a code of law adapted to 
the present circumsta'nces. But, as legislative enact- 
ments are of little avail, unless well observed in the com- 
munity, he insured their execution by his constant 
vigilance and firmness. Particularly attentive to the pro- 
ceedings of the courts of judicature, he frequently revised 
them himself, and receiving the appeals of all injured 



342 MODEKN HISTORY. 

persons, inflicted severe though proportionate penalties 
on all ignorant or iniquitous judges. This severity pro- 
duced the most beneficial result ; magistrates were taught 
to become more learned and more conscientious ; while 
murder, theft and other crimes, being sure to meet with 
due punishment, were rendered as rare as they had been 
common before. So exact was the observance of the laws, 
that according to the unanimous assertion of English his- 
torians, if a traveller lost his purse on the road, he would 
the next day find it untouched ; and some relate besides, 
that golden bracelets having been suspended on the high 
road, nobody ventured to steal so valuable an object. 

Alfred as Protector of literature and art. — Alfred 
was also the restorer of literature and learning, whicJi 
had considerably suffered during the late wars. With the 
assistance of distinguished scholars of his own and foreign 
countries, whom he invited to his court, he not only 
founded the university of Oxford, but likewise opened 
schools in many other places for the instruction of his 
subjects. He himself gave to all an example of applica- 
tion to study, in which he succeeded so well, that several 
good works were either composed, or translated by him 
from the Latin into the Saxon tongue. Nor were these 
the only services that Alfred rendered to his people. He 
also encouraged agriculture, commerce, and all necessary 
and useful arts ; applying himself above all to restore the 
salutary influence of religion, and to revive piety around 
him both by word and example. In fact, the domestic 
life of this admirable prince was as well regulated as his 
public conduct, and a proper management of his time 
enabled him perfectly to fulfil all his duties. Each day, 
he gave eight hours to the care of his kingdom, eight to 
study and works of piety or charity, and the other eight to 
sleep and necessary recreation. As the use of watches 
and clocks as we have them at present, was not yet 
known, he employed, for the division of the day, six wax 
candles, each one of which burnt during four hours, and 
his chaplains informed him when it was extinguished. 

Alfred's death. — After many years of peace, Alfred 
was attacked by those same Normans, who had so long 
and so often desolated the coasts of France. He opposed 
them with superior ability, defeated them by land and 
sea, and, more successful than the French kings, delivered 



ENGLAND, ETC. 243 

his kingdom from those adventurers. Shortly after, he 
died, full of glory and all good qualities (a.d. 900), hav- 
ing lived fifty-one, and reigned twenty-nine years. 

With the name of Alfred posterity has associated the 
epithet of Great; which indeed few princes have equally 
deserved for courage in danger and wisdom in govern- 
ment. While many other kings of England are chiefly 
known in history by their actions in the field of battle, it 
is the glory of Alfred, that he Avas not merely a warrior, 
but also the patron of learning and the legislator of his 
people. The celebrated Henry Spelman, filled with 
enthusiasm at the recollection of this illustrious king, 
speaks of him thus: " Alfred, the wonder and prodigy 
of all ages! If we reflect on his piety, we will be inclined 
to believe that he always lived in retirement and solitude; 
if we recollect his warlike exploits, we will judge that he 
never departed from the camps; if we call to mind his 
learning and writings, we will imagine that he spent his 
whole life in a literary institution; if we direct our atten- 
tion to his wise administration and wholesome laws, it 
will seem that these had been his only study and employ- 
ment. ''* 

Edward. — Alfred was succeeded on the throne by his 
son Edward. In legislation and literary merit, Edward 
was much inferior to his father; but he surpassed him in 
the magnitude of his conquests. During the whole of 
his reign (900-924), there were but few intervals free 
fronl war against the Danes. He gained many victories 
over them, and, by the subjugation of various provinces, 
acquired more real power than had ever been possessed by 
his predecessors. All the tribes from Northumbria to the 
channel owned his sway; the kings of the Scots and the 
princes of Wales acknowledged him as their lord, or paid 
him tribute; and the other nations in the island eagerly 
solicited his friendship. 

Athelstan. — Athelstan, Edward's eldest son and suc- 
cessor (924-940), pursued the same line of policy. By 
his unceasing efforts, the influence of the British and 
Danish chieftains disappeared in England during the 



* See, on the reign and qualifications of Alfred, besides civil historians, 
a very learned, extensive and interesting note of Alban Butler, in hi? 
Lives of the faints under the 28th of October. 



244 MODEKN HISTORY. 

latter part of his reign. All the provinces originally sub- 
dued and colonized by the different Saxon tribes, became 
united under the same crown; and the celebrated battle 
of Brunanburg in Northumbria (a.d. 937), confirmed the 
ascendency of Athelstan. He thus completed the work 
commenced by his forefathers, and to him chiefly belongs 
the glory of having established what has ever since been 
called the Kingdom of England. 

This happy state of G-reat Britain was however soon dis- 
turbed by new storms, more furious and lasting than had 
ever been experienced before. After a few short reigns, 
the most remarkable of which was that of Edgar, and 
after the death of King Edward the Martyr, in 978, the 
Danes reappeared with fresh forces, and resumed their 
former course of invasion. So furious indeed, and so 
persevering were their inroads and ravages, that for many 
years, viz., from 980 to 1016, England presented nothing 
but almost uninterrupted scenes of devastation, plunder, 
bloodshed and all kinds of misery. 

FRANCE AKD OERHAIVY IN THE TEKTH AND 
ELEVENTH CENTURIES.— A.D. 912-1024. 

Such had been also, for a long iime the case with 
France, the conquest of which was the ambition of the 
terrible Normans. Although repelled with great loss 
from the walls of Paris in 886, they persevered in their 
course of piracy, under the conduct of Eollo, one of the 
greatest warriors of that iron-age. At length. King 
Charles the Simple consented to give up to them, on the 
condition of vassalage, the north of France, which thus 
became their permanent property about the year 912, and 
took from them the name of Kormandy. This cession 
proved indeed most beneficial to the kingdom, and to the 
Normans themselves, who, without renouncing their war- 
like spirit, abandoned their predatory habits, and adopted 
those of a civilized and Christian life; but it did not stop 
the decline nor prevent the downfall of the dynasty of 
Charlemagne. The same year, 912, beheld the imperial 
sceptre pass from his family into the hands of the German 
lords, while his successors on the French throne, for want 
either of talent and firmness, or of sufficient authority, 
were little respected in their own dominions. The king- 



ENGLAND, ETC. 245 

dom was parcelled out, as it were, between themselves 
and the great vassals of the crown, who, being fre- 
quently more powerful than the sovereign, became mere 
nominal subjects, and, refused to obey his orders when 
they appeared to conflict with their supposed interest or 
their caprice; while they freely waged war against one 
another, with the help of their own respective subjects.* 

The Capetian dynasty in France. — Such was the 
wretched condition of France and of its sovereigns during 
the tenth century. In fact, after the demise of Louis V., 
who died without issue, the French lords refused to 
acknowledge as his successor, his uncle Charles, duke of 
Lorraine, who had lately submitted himself in the quality 
of a vassal, to the German emperor. They offered the 
sceptre to Hugh-Capet, duke of France, as being the 
most worthy of it for his royal qualities and the great 
power he already enjoyed (a.d. 987). In vain did Charles, 
at the head of an army, attempt to maintain his claims to 
the throne; Hugh, having popular favor on his side, baf- 
fled all his measures and remained in possession of the 
sovereign power. 

His reign lasted nine years, the greater part of which 
he spent in keeping his vassals and subjects within the 
bounds of respect and duty, as well by his prudence and 
moderation, as by multiplied victories. His wisdom still 
more appeared in his successful efforts to establish a reg- 
ular mode of succession to the throne: instead of dividing 
the kingdom among his sons, as had been so often and so 
imprudently done before, he, with the consent of the 
nation, ordered that Robert, the eldest, should be his 
only successor. The like was done after him at every 
new accession, and this practice became one of the funda- 
mental laws of the French monarchy. 

Conrad L of Franconia. — The case was just the 
reverse in Germany. Ever since the empire- was trans- 
ferred from the French to the German princes, from 
hereditary it had become elective. The sceptre was first 
offered to Otho, duke of Saxony, who thought proper, on 
account of his advanced age, to decline the honor, and 



* The great vassals were six in number, viz., the three dukes of Bur^ 
gundy, Normandy and France properly so called : and the three earls of 
Flanders, Champaigne and Toulouse. 



346 MODERN HISTOEY. 

recommended Conrad, duke of Franconia, though his 
personal enemy, to the choice of the electors."* Conrad 
therefore was selected, and reigned seven years (912- 
919). When he found himself drawing near the end of 
life, he, with equal generosity, proposed for his successor, 
Henry, the son of Otho, as being the best fitted to rule 
the state in those turbulent times. 

Henry I. the Fowler. — Henry, surnamed the Fowler, 
on account of his fondness for hunting, was in truth well 
qualified to wear a crown and fully answered public expec- 
tation. He delivered Germany from the attacks of the 
surrounding tribes, especially of the Hungarians, a fierce 
and warlike people of Mongolian descent, whose only de- 
light was in pillage and destruction. The emperor suc- 
ceeded in uniting all the Grerman forces against them, and 
the effect of this coalition was the entire defeat of the 
Hungarians in two great battles fought near Merseburg 
(a.d. 920 and 934), in one of which they lost eighty thous- 
and, and in the other forty thousand men. 

Henry was endeavoring at the same time to promote, by 
every means in his power, the safety and happiness of his 
people. He organized a militia, inured the nobility to the 
hardships of war, fortified the towns, rescued the country 
from banditti and robbers, and took proper measures to 
extend the who>,some infiuence of religion throughout all 
his dominions. The wisdom of his laws against vice and 
disorder was not less conspicuous than the multitude of 
his exploits against foreign enemies. This great prince 
died in 936, having lived sixty and reigned seventeen 
years. 

Otho I. the Great.— Otho I., his eldest son, was chosen 
to succeed him in the empire, not however without much 
opposition and many obstacles, all of which he overcame 
by his prudence, firmness and activity. He was equally 
successful in different wars against the Bohemians, the 
Hungarians, and the Italian princes. His reign lasted 
thirty-seven, years, during which he gave such proofs of 
unparalleled magnificence, generosity, valor, wisdom, re- 



* The number of the electors did not continue always the same. By the 
Emperor Charles FV., in 1366, it was reduced to seven, viz., the arch- 
bishops of Mainz, Triers and Koeln ; the king of Bohemia, the duke of 
Saxony, the count Palatin, and the marquis of Brandenburg: tOfMhom 
were subsequently added the dukes of Hanover and Bavaria. 



EASTEKN NATIONS, ETC. 24T 

ligion and Justice, as to deserve, notwithstanding some 
failings in the exercise of his power, the praises of im- 
partial posterity. 

After him the German throne was successively occupied, 
from 973 to 1002, by Otho II., Otho III. and Henry II, 
his son and grandsons respectively ; and from 1002 to 1024 
by ibeir relative Henry II., or St. Henry, under whom Ger- 
many again enjoyed all the advantages that can be expect- 
ed from a good, wise and virtuous sovereign. Some 
years before he died, he had wished to renounce all earthly 
grandeur, and, applying to Richard, abbot of St.' Vannes 
in Lorraine, begged admittance into the monastery. The 
holy abbot, not to aflQict him by a stern denial, received 
his vow of obedience, but immediately commanded him, 
in virtue of it, to reassume the government of the empire, 
for the honor of God and the good of his people; to which 
the pious monarch humbly, though reluctantly, submitted. 
As he left no children, the imperial sceptre passed a 
second time into the hands of the Franconian dukes, and, 
after a few reigns, devolved on the princes of the house of 
Suabia. 

EASTERN NATIONS IN THE TENTH AND 
ELEVENTH CENTURIES.— A.D. 960-1040. 

Nicephorus Phocas. — In the mean time, the Greek 
empire had shone with great splendor under three succes- 
sive emperors, Nicephorus Phocas, John Zimisces and Basil 
II., the first of whom began to reign in 962. He was born of 
an illustrious family in Constantinople, and from his youth 
distinguished himself in the army. Having become a gen- 
eral, he succeeded, by his persevering eiforts and vigilance 
united with valor, in expelling the Saracens from the im- 
portant island of Crete, of which they had been masters 
one hundred and thirty-five years (a.d. 960). The troops, 
to whom he was much endeared, raised him to the throne, 
after the death of Romanus II. He then enlarged his 
projects, and, attacking the Saracens of Asia with unre- 
lenting vigor, wrested from them many towns and several 
provinces, which he reunited to the empire. 

To these splendid achievements, the zeal of Nicephorus 
for military discipline contributed as much as his personal 
bravery. He kept his soldiers within the strict bounds of 



248 MODERN^ HISTORY. 

duty by the most efficacious of all means, that of example: 
claiming for himself no special exemption, he easily in- 
duced others to become equally patient and courageous. 
Unfortunately, so great a warrior, the terror of all his 
enemies, was also, by his avarice and exactions, the 
terror of his own subjects. Augmenting the taxes, 
and debasing the coinage, he seemed obstinately resolved 
to make all the riches of the nation pass into his coffers. 
Hence it happened that many officers, even among those 
who had been most sincerely attached to him, being now 
exasperated by his injustice and tyranny, secretly con- 
spired against his life. John Zimisces, their leader, and 
five others, were introduced during the night in a basket, 
and through a window, into the apartment in which Ni- 
cephorus was asleep. He awoke only to see the daggers 
directed against his breast. The conspirators dragged 
him from his couch, and stabbed him at the feet of Zim- 
isces, whom they proclaimed emperor in his place (a.d. 
969). 

Zimisces. — If heroic fortitude and courage, if the ha- 
bitual practice of mildness, justice, generosity, in a word, 
of all public and private virtues, ever could obliterate a 
crime, this lenity should be extended to Zimisces, a prince 
undoubtedly one of the greatest among the successors of 
Constantine. The Greek historians seem to vie with each 
other in bestowing upon him the highest encomiums, and 
even the annals of northern nations have praised this il- 
lustrious emperor, who stopped their warlike and victori- 
ous hordes. For, it was at this juncture that a formidable 
army of Rossi or Russians, having, under the conduct of 
their duke Wenceslas, crossed the Danube, made an irrup- 
tion into Bulgaria and Thrace, which they ravaged as far 
as Adrianople. At first, Zimisces sent his ablest generals 
against them; afterwards, marching in person, he expelled 
the invaders from the towns and fortresses which they had 
taken, and driving all their detachments before him, at 
length forced them to a general engagement, near the 
city of Dorostolis, on the banks of the Danube. 

The Russians defeated. — The multitude and natural 
bravery of the Russians on the one side, and the valor and 
skill of the imperial legions on the other, rendered this 
battle one of the most obstinate and terrible in the annals 
of war. So great was the animosity of the -Bombatauts 



EASTERN jS"ATIONS, ETC. 249 

that the advantage is said to have successively passed 
from one army to the other no fewer than twelve times. 
The contest thus raged with unabated fury from morning 
until late in the evening, when the Russians began to 
waver, and Zimisces, redoubling his efforts gained at last 
a complete victory. Three or four more battles, fought 
within a short time, saw him equally victorious, and 
almost destroyed the Russian forces. Being now deprived 
of all resource, the remnants of their army came to the de- 
termination of abandoning all their designs of conquest, 
and of retracing their steps to their own country. But, 
while they were retreating, another barbarous tribe sur- 
prised them by an ambuscade, and mercilessly put them 
all to the sword (a.u. 971). 

Zimisces' death. — Zimisces, on the contrary, returned 
in triumph to Constantinople, where he was received with 
extraordinary joy and magnificence. Shortly after, he 
marched against the eastern Saracens, who had availed 
themselves of his absence, to reconquer many places in 
Asia. The arrival of Zimisces once more changed the 
state of affairs : wherever he appeared, towns and for- 
tresses were either compelled by force or induced by 
promises to surrender. When he returned from this glo- 
rious expedition, as he was passing through a tract of 
land extremely rich, beautiful and adorned with palaces, 
he was told that all these belonged to his minister Basil. 
"Behold," he exclaimed, "it is then to enrich 07ie man 
that the state is exhausted, that the armies undergo so 
many hardships ; that soldiers, officers, emperors, expose 
their lives and shed their blood in battles I " These words 
were, by perfidious friends, related to the minister, who, 
fearing an inquiry into his administration, determined to 
avoid, by the commission of an atrocious crime, the dis- 
grace with which he was threatened, and bribed the cup- 
bearer of the emperor to poison this excellent prince. 
The fatal draught being tendered and taken, Zimisces felt 
an inward fire, which soon manifested itself outwardly by 
carbuncles and vomiting of blood. However, the sight of 
approaching death did not terrify his great soul ; he spent 
his last days in preparing, by confession and other relig- 
ious exercises, to appear before the tribunal of God, and, 
after forbidding inquiries to be made as to the author of 
his death, terminated with the sentiments of an humble 



250 MODERN HISTOEY. 

penitent, a career which, with the exception of one day, 
had been that of a Christian hero (a.d. 975). 

Basil II. — After him the throne was filled by two 
brothers, descendants of Basil the Macedonian, Basil 
II. and Constantine VIII. They reigned together, and 
equally enjoyed the honors of the purple ; but the exer- 
cise of the supreme authority was left entirely to Basil, 
who far surpassed his brother in genius, ability, and ap- 
plication to public affairs. He skilfully extricated him- 
self from various rebellions and civil wars excited in the 
beginning of his reign by some discontented generals. 
He then directed all his energies against the Bulgarians, 
who had been so long a match for the empire. Their 
courageous resistance protracted the war probably much 
longer than had been anticipated, and a series of contin- 
ual attacks and bloody engagements was hardly sufficient 
to subdue that nation and its leaders, who defended them- 
selves with truly heroic fortitude ; but so obstinately, 
and, it may be said, so cruelly bent was Basil on the en- 
tire reduction of Bulgaria, that it finally passed under his 
sway, with all the treasures which the Bulgarians had 
amassed during three hundred years, by war and pillage. 

In the East also, Basil extended considerably the bound- 
aries of the empire. Even age could not extinguish his 
martial spirit ; and he was actually preparing for an ex- 
pedition against the Saracens of Sicily, when a violent 
fever carried him off in the sixty-eighth year of his life, 
and the fifty-first of his reign (a.d. 1025). This long 
period had indeed been marked by many successful 
wars and by a firm administration ; but unfortunately, 
Basil II. did not know how to win the affection and 
esteem of his subjects. While his armies were everywhere 
victorious, the people were groaning under heavy taxes, 
and religion and humanity often condemned the actions 
of the monarch. The fifty years immediately following 
his decease beheld the rapid succession of fifteen em- 
perors, most of them unworthy of notice. 

Decline of Arab power in the East. — In the mean 
time, the vast monarchy founded by the Arabs had been 
going to decay. The indolence of the caliph of Bagdad 
encouraged the ambition of the different governors of 
provinces to withdraw their allegiance from him, and to 
proclaim their independence. In this manner were 



IRELAND, ETC. 251 

Africa and Persia gradually severed from the sway of the 
Abassides. Towards the end of the tenth century they 
lost also Palestine and Egypt, where the Fatimites (real 
or pretended descendants of Fatima, a daughter of Mo- 
hammed) established their dominion, under the venerated 
title of caliphs (a.d. 972). 

The Seldjuks. — Against these and other invaders, 
the caliphs of Bagdad called to their assistance some of 
the Turkish tribes stationed in the neighborhood of the 
Caspian sea; tribes famous for their exploits under their 
leader Seldjuk. At first the caliphs had reason to 
applaud themselves for this measure. Those warlike 
tribes fought with great valor and suceess against the 
enemies of the reigning dynasty, and re-established its 
authority in several provinces; but, towards the year 1040, 
they began to make conquests for themselves. Animated 
by the favorable result of their first attempts, they spread 
their wandering hordes over Mesopotamia, Syria, Pales- 
tine and Asia Minor, and, defeating the Greek emperor 
Eomanus Diogenes in a great battle, took possession of 
those rich countries, which formed the renowned though 
short-lived empire of the Seldjukian Turks. In a few 
years, Iconium, Jerusalem, Antioch, Tarsus and Nicea 
were subdued by them, and remained in ^heir power until 
the time of the Crusades. 



IRELAND, PARTICULARITY DURI^fG THE 
TEWTH AND ELEVENTH CENTURIES.— A.D. 
965-1 014. 

Returning to the history of western Europe, we shall 
here speak exclusively of Ireland, and by retracing for a 
moment our steps to more remote ages, we will place 
together before the eyes of our readers, the chief events 
which then distinguished this interesting portion of the 
world. 

The origin of the Irish as a distinct nation is generally 
referred to a very high antiquity. During a long lapse 
of centuries, both before and after tlie coming of Christ, 
they were governed by kings, one of Avhom, called the 
king of Tara, was considered as the supreme ruler of the 
island. The subordinate princes who reigned in the four 
great provinces of Ulster, Leinster, Munster and Con- 



252 MODERN HISTORY. 

naught, were obliged to pay a tribute to that monarch, 
as a sign of inferiority; but, in several cases, they endeav- 
ored to render it a merely nominal subjection, while, in 
other respects, they were by right absolutely independent 
in their own respective kingdoms. Thus the government 
was in its form pentarchical ; a form which, though 
possessing several advantages, was calculated to create 
and foster a spirit of disunion, as experience too often 
fatally showed in the course of ages. 

St. Patrick converts Ireland. — In the fifth century 
after the coming of our Lord, Ireland was converted to 
Christianity by the great St. Patrick. This truly apos- 
tolic man had the satisfaction of baptizing an incredible 
multitude of pagans, who hastened, at his call, to ex- 
change their heathenish superstitions for the pure pre- 
cepts of the Gospel. *' While, in other countries,^' says 
Moore, "the introduction of Christianity has been the 
slow work of time ... in Ireland, on the contrary by 
the influence of one humble but zealous missionary, and 
with but little previous preparation of the soil by other 
hands, Christianity burst forth at the first ray of apostolic 
light, and, with the sudden ripeness of a northern sum- 
mer, at once covered the whole land."* Churches arose 
everywhere; schools and monasteries were founded, in 
which science arid exalted virtue continued long to flour- 
ish. Such was indeed the renown of Ireland for sanctity 
and learning, that, by common consent, she received the 
glorious title of "the island of saints; " foreigners flocked 
to her shores to be instructed in religion and letters, and 
a residence in Ireland was considered as almost essential 
to establish a literary character. Not content with 
affording an asylum to strangers at home, the sons of 
Hibernia crossed the seas to diffuse the same blessings 
abroad, all the neighboring nations, England, France, 
Germany and Switzerland, profited by the zeal and learn- 
ing of Irish missionaries, and the most celebrated nurs- 
eries of science in those remote ages were founded or 
improved by Irish scholars. 

Invasion of the Northmen. — At the close of the 
eighth century, Ireland began to be invaded by the Panes, 
those terrible Northmen, who, for above two hundred 

* History of Ireland, p. 110. 



IKELAND, ETC. 253 

years, proved so formidable to several nations of Europe. 
Here, as elsewhere, ruin and desolation marked the prog- 
ress of these invaders: the country was ravaged; churches, 
monasteries and universities were plundered and destroyed. 
From time to time, it is true, the Danes were boldly 
attacked and defeated; but fresh swarms succeeded, and 
committed new outrages and depredations throughout 
the island. Thus fortune was alternately propitious, till 
the reign of Brian Boru, who came to the throne of Mun- 
ster in 965. This gallant hero soon compelled the ene- 
mies of his country to flee before him. In 970, he at- 
tacked Limerick, of which they had become masters, 
drove them from this post, and pursuing his advantage, 
gained over them from twenty-five to thirty pitched bat- 
tles. 

Defeat of the Northmen. — Success so brilliant and 
uninterrupted, united with truly royal qualities, prudence, 
valor, magnanimity and patriotism, elevated the king of 
Munster to the higher station of monarch of Tara. Some 
years after his elevation, he was again summoned to the 
field by a new and formidable attack of the Danes. 
Eegardless of his advanced age, he resolutely marched at 
the head of thirty thousand warriors against his undaunted 
foes, and attacked them in the plains of Clontarf, on the 
33d of April (a.d. 1014). The battle lasted from eight 
in the morning till four in the afternoon, with a display 
of almost superhuman courage on both sides. It raged 
most fiercely around the chiefs of either party, numbers 
of whom perished in this memorable action, among others, 
Brian's heroic son, Morrough, who, during the whole con- 
flict, had performed prodigies of valor; Brian himself was 
slain in his. tent after the battle, by a fugitive Dane. 
Notwithstanding these losses of the Irish, their victory 
was complete, and the Danes were driven from the field 
with immense slaughter. 

The battle of Clontarf gave the deathblow to the power 
of the Northmen in Ireland. Of the survivors, some 
bade an eternal farewell to the country; others submitted 
to the government which they had in vain endeavored to 
suiDvert, and the remainder, few in number, mingling 
with the mass of the population, gradually disappeared as 
a distinct people. Thus was Ireland, through her own 
persevering efforts, entirely freed from those terrible and 



254 MODERN HISTORY. 

obstinate invaders; an event so much the more glorious, 
as this very period, witnessed their success in England, of 
which they made themselves masters, and over which, 
during three successive reigns, they ruled with absolute 
sway. 

DANISH KIIVOS IN ENOI. AND— SAXON LINE 
RESTORED, A.D. 1016—1066. 

Edmund Ironsides. — The bloody struggle of the An- 
glo-Saxons against the Danes, their obstinate enemies, 
had now lasted two hundred years, when Edmund, sur- 
named Ironsides (from his great bodily strength), came to 
the throne of England in 1016. This prince seemed des- 
tined to restore the independence of his country, having, 
within the short space of six months, fought no fewer 
than five battles, and gained nearly as many victories 
over the Danish King Canute. But having been, through 
the perfidy or cowardice of a certain Count Edric, en- 
tirely defeated in the fifth battle, the noblemen of both 
parties, equally tired of this sanguinary warfare, obliged 
their sovereigns to come to a compromise, and divide the 
kingdom between them. Edmund died within a month 
after this treaty of pacification, and left Canute in posses- 
sion of all England. 

Canute, 1016-1035. — The Saxons had no reason to 
repent of submitting to this foreign prince. No sooner 
did Canute see himself secure on the throne, than he 
became, from a turbulent warrior, a just and beneficent 
monarch. He often lamented the bloodshed and misery 
which the Danish war had inflicted on the natives, and 
considered it his bounden duty to compensate their suffer- 
ings by a mild and equitable administration. He always 
treated them with kindness, and, placing the people of the 
two nations on a footing of equality, admitted them alike 
to offices of trust and emolument. By this means, he won 
the affection of all, even of his English subjects; while 
he also gained their admiration and esteem by his Chris- 
tian virtues and sincere piety, of which he gave a strik- 
ing proof on the following occasion: 

Canute's character. — Being one day near the sea- 
shore, his courtiers, to flatter him, said that he was the 
king of kings, the master of both land and sea. Canute 



ENGLAND, ETC. 255 

took this opportunity to show how much he despised their 
foolish flattery. Sitting down, and addressing himself to 
the tide which was advancing: "I am thy master/" he ex- 
claimed; '^ mine also is the earth: I command thee', there- 
fore, to stay where thou art, and not to move farther and 
wet my feet."" All present thought the king mad, to 
imagine that the sea was going to obey his orders: it con- 
tinued to advance, and at length came to the feet of the 
monarch. Turning to his flatterers, he said: ''You see how 
far I am from being the master of all things. Learn hence 
that the power of kings is very inconsiderable. There is 
indeed no other king than Almighty God, by whom alone 
the heavens, the earth and the sea are governed."' He 
rose at these words, went to the church of Winchester, 
and taking the crown from his head, placed it on the 
great crucifix in the cathedral, and never more wore it 
even at public ceremonies. 

End of the Danish Supremacy, 1042. — Canute was 
king not only of England, but of Denmark also, and 
moreover acquired and exercised a sort of jurisdiction over 
the Norwegians, the Swedes, the Welsh and the Scots. 
This vast extent of dominion rendered him one of the 
mightiest monarchs in Europe, while his truly royal 
qualities gained him universal respect from foreign 
princes. He died after a glorious reign of eighteen years 
(a.d. 1035). His kingdoms were divided among his three 
sons, two of whom successively reigned in England, 
namely, Harold and Hardicanute. After their death, the 
English having determined to restore the Saxon line of 
their monarchs, Edward, a brother to Edmund Ironsides, 
was recalled from Normandy where he had spent many 
years in exile, and with general applause, ascended the 
throne of his fathers (a.d. 1042.) 

Edward the Confessor 1042-1066. — If we estimate, 
as Dr. Lingard observes, the character of a sovereign by 
the test of popular affection, we must rank Edward among 
the best of princes. While alive, the goodness of his 
heart, which he had improved in the time of banish- 
ment, was adored by his subjects; and, after death, his 
memory became an object of veneration to posterity. 
The blessings of his reign are the constant theme of 
ancient English writers; not that he displayed any of 
those brilliant qualities which attract the admiration of 



256 MODERN HISTOEY. 

the world, while they inflict misery on the human race; 
but he exhibited the interesting spectacle of a king negli- 
gent of his private interests, and entirely devoted to the 
welfare of his people. To ward off foreign aggression and 
restore the dominion of laws, to preserve peace and pro- 
mote religion, were the constant objects of his solicitude. 
He was pious, kind, and compassionate, the protector of 
the weak, and the father of the poor; more willing to give 
than to receive; more inclined to pardon than to punish, 
and better pleased to bestow his own revenues in acts of 
charity, than profit by the labors of his subjects. 

Edward published a new compilation of the statutes of 
his Saxon predecessors, among which those favorable to 
the people held the first rank. Hence they were ever 
after called the laws and customs of the good king Ediuard. 
This truly good and excellent monarch died in the begin- 
ning of the year 1066, and was canonized, about a century 
after, by Pope Alexander III. 

IVORHABTS TS E^fGLAWD— H^ILLIAM THE CON- 
qUEROR. A.D. 1066-1087. 

Harold and William. — By the death of King Edward, 
England was replunged into the miseries of war. As he 
had died without issue, the British sceptre was claimed by 
several competitors, among whom Harold, the chief of the 
English nobility, and William, duke of Normandy, were ■ 
the most powerful. Setting aside the question which of I 
the two was more entitled to the throne, both of them 
were worthy of it through uncommon qualifications of 
body and mind, and, what was very singular, each one 
claimed it in virtue of the late king's will and appoint- 
ment, and the former also by election of the Thanes. 

While William prepared to prosecute, by arms, his 
claims or his pretensions, Harold, being already present 
in the kingdom, was the first proclaimed and acknowl- 
edged as its sovereign. But he had the misfortune to be 
opposed at the same time, not only by a foreign rival, but 
also by his own brother Tostig, in whom he experienced, 
for having been accessary to his exile during the preceding 
reign, a bitter and deadly enemy. Tostig visited Nor- 
mandy, and arranged a plan of cooperation with the duke; 
having moreover sent deputies to the northern princes, he 



NORMANS IN ENGLAND, ETC. 257 

succeeded in obtaining the assistance of Hardrada, king 
of Norway. A gallant army in a fleet of three hundred 
sail, unexpectedly appeared, landed without opposition, 
and subdued the province of Northumberland with York 
its capital. Harold, who was at that time awaiting the 
threatened descent of the duke of Normandy, lost no time 
in marching against the Norwegians. He overtook them 
at Stamford Bridge, and completely defeated them in a 
bloody battle, in which both his perfidious brother and the 
Norwegian monarch were slain. The survivors were com- 
pelled to re-embark. 

Almost simultaneously with this great victory, intel- 
ligence arrived that the Normans had just landed on the 
coast of Sussex. William having at length completed his 
vast preparations for the invasion of England, crossed the 
channel with a fleet of at least nine hundred vessels, which 
carried an army still more formidable for the valor than 
for the number of the combatants. The duke set them 
an example of wonderful daring. At the very moment 
of the landing of his troops, happening to fall on the shore, 
and being afraid lest this should appear to weak minds a bad 
omen for the success of his enterprise, he cried out with ad- 
mirable presence of mind: " I take possession of England; 
it belongs to me; I lay hold of it with both hands." At the 
receipt of the fatal news, Harold mustered his forces, 
and led them straight forward against the enemy. He 
had defeated the Norwegians on the 25th of September; 
on the 14th of the following month, he arrived in sight of 
the Normans, at a place called Senlac, nine miles from 
Hastings. 

The battle of Hastings or Senlac, Oct. 14, 1066. 
— The next day both armies prepared for battle. Harold 
posted his troops on the declivity of a hill in one compj^ct 
body; William marshalled his host on the opposite emi- 
nence, and arranged with particular care the squadrons of 
his numerous cavalry, on which he principally rested his 
hope of success. After the usual discharge of arrows, the 
Norman knights fiercely advanced against their motion- 
less opponents. The shock was dreadful; but the 
English at every point opposed a vigorous and successful 
resistance, and their battle axe was so powerfully wielded, 
that the aggressors could not prevent their left wing from 
being thrown into confusion. Even a report was spread 



258 MODEEN HISTORY. 

that William himself had fallen; and the whole army 
was beginning to w&ver, when the duke, riding along the 
line, exclaimed : "I am still alive, and, with the help of 
God, I shall gain the victory. " This revived the coirrage 
of the Normans, and those among the English who had 
incautiously pursued the left wing too far, were intercepted 
and cut to pieces. 

The combat having now recommenced with greater 
vigor. William had recourse to a stratagem suggested 
by his previous success: he ordered a division of his 
cavalry to feign flight; a considerable number of their 
opponents pursued them, and were instantly destroyed. 
This, however, did not suffice to decide the bloody 
contest; the main body of the English obstinately 
maintained their position, and, by always opposing to the 
Normans a solid and impenetrable mass, bade defiance to 
all their efforts. The battle continued in this manner, 
with doubtful success, from nine in the morning till 
about sunset, when Harold, who had, like William, con- 
stantly animated his troops by word and example, was 
shot by an arrow which penetrated to the brain. He in- 
stantly fell among heaps of the dead, and the knowledge of 
his fall broke the spirit of the surviving English: at dusk 
they fled in utter confusion, dispersed through the woods, 
and were pursued, with great slaughter, by their victori- 
ous enemy. 

Such was the ever memorable battle of Hastings, which 
put an end to the Saxon line of monarchs, and placed the 
Norman dynasty on the throne of England. On the side 
of the conquerors, more than one-fourth of their army, 
which amounted to almost sixty thousand men, were left 
on the field; the number of the slain among the van- 
quished, although justly supposed to have been much 
greater, is unknown; all agree at least in pronouncing the 
victory of William complete and decisive. After refresh- 
ing his army by a few days' repose, and taking the castle 
of Dover, he marched straight to London. His un- 
expected presence spread terror and dismay among the 
people, the nobility and the clergy, who were there assem- 
bled; they however received him with expressions of con- 
gratulation, and offered him the crown, which, after some 
hesitation, he accepted. 



NORMANS IN ENGLAND, ETC. 259 

William I. the Conqueror, 1066- 1087. — From the 
best and most impartial historians, it appears that the 
plan of William was that of a mild and moderate 
government. His first acts tended to sooth the feel- 
ings and to win the esteem of the English. Having 
shortly after his coronation, made a tour through the 
kingdom, he everywhere scattered benefits around him, 
and graciously received the submission of his new subjects. 
The privileges of the citizens were rather increased, nor 
was any change attempted in their laws and customs, un- 
less imperiously required by existing circumstances. It 
is true that, in order to secure their obedience, he built 
and garrisoned castles in various parts of the country, and 
granted valuable rewards to his Norman followers; but 
the former step was a precautionary measure which it 
would be unreasonable to blame in a conqueror; and the 
latter transaction appears to have been so far conducted 
according to the strict rules of justice, as to give to no 
Englishman any just cause of complaint. 

These proceedings however displeased the natives, and 
William soon perceived that he had gained neither their 
favor nor confidence. As he had set out in the spring of 
1067, to visit his continental dominions, the English, no 
longer awed by his presence, thought it a happy opportun- 
ity to obtain their freedom. Their feelings of aversion for 
a foreign yoke were now highly excited by the imprudence 
of the governors, whom the Conqueror had left, and who, 
instead of adopting hiS system of conciliation, arrogantly 
oppressed the people; the hatred of the people increased, 
discontent became general, and rebellion seemed every- 
where inevitable. 

William being informed of all this, returned to Eng- 
land with a secret determination to crush by severity, a 
people whom he could not win by mildness. In fact, 
from this time forward, he laid a heavy hand upon his 
English subjects, and treated them with that rigor which 
he thought the right of conquest justified. He obliged 
them to extinguish their fires and candles at an early hour 
(eight o'clock) in the evening, the signal for which was 
given by a bell called the curfew {couvre-feu); nor were 
they permitted to rekindle their fires till the morning bell, 
which rang at four o'clock. His policy suffered 110 
Englishman to hold any place of trust. By means of 



260 MODERN HISTORY. 

fines, land taxes, banishment, and sometimes capital exe- 
cutions for crimes of state, William had the disposal both 
of property and honors, and secured in his own hands the 
whole strength of the nation. 

If these measures terrified some of the natives, others 
raised the standard of insurrection in different parts of 
the kingdom. But nothing could surprise William. His 
vigilance, firmness and activity disconcerted all the plans, 
or baffled all the measures of the insurgents; and his good 
fortune so constantly prevailed, that every attempt to 
ruin his power, served only to establish it more firmly. 
He maintained it with equal success against foreign 
enemies, the Scots, the Danes and the French. At last 
after having gloriously reigned during forty-one years in 
Normandy, and twenty-one in England, he died in 1087; 
odious indeed to many, on account of his severity, but 
still in point of natural talents, of enterprising spirit, 
of political and military achievements, undoubtedly one 
of the first princes, and perhaps the most conspicuous 
sovereign of his age. Except for a brief interval his pos- 
terity, either in the right, or in the female line, has ever 
since occupied the throne of Great Britain. 

NORMANS IIV ITAI.Y.— A.D. 1016-1089. 

Beginning of Norman power in Italy. — The sub- 
jugation of England was not the only conquest made by 
the Normans in the eleventh century; during the same 
period, other warriors of the same nation equally aston- 
ished Europe by their exploits in Italy. A little before 
th3 year 1016, forty Normans, returning from a pilgrim- 
age, to tho Holy Land, happened to stop at Salernum, a 
maritime town of Campania, at the very time when it was 
closely beseiged by the Saracens. These pilgrims were 
men of remarkable size, warlike appearance, and still 
greater courage. Having penetrated into the town, they 
asked for arms and horses, and, making a sudden sally 
against the besiegers, slew many of them, put the rest to 
flight, and by a signal victory obliged them to abandon 
the siege. Both the prince and the inhabitants of Sa- 
lernum exceedingly admired their valor, loaded them with 
presents, and endeavored to retain such useful warriors in 
their country. But they refused, alleging that they had 



I 



CHIVALRY, ETC. 261 

fought for no other end than the glory of God and the 
honor of his religion. However, the Italians prevailed 
upon them to carry to their countrymen different kinds of 
excellent fruit, as proofs of the fertility of the land, and 
an inducement to come to Italy. 

Tancred. — To a warlike and enterprising people, pro- 
posals so flattering could not fail to be acceptable. 
Many Normans flocked to the peninsula, and, by de- 
fending it against its enemies and invaders, began to ac- 
quire in that delightful country rich and honorable settle- 
ments. Among these fortunate adventurers, there was a 
whole family of heroes, consisting of the twelve sons of a 
certain Norman lord, called Tancrede, who, with the help 
of some hundreds of their countrymen, performed most 
surprising exploits. Sometimes united with the Lom- 
bards and Italians against the Greeks, sometimes With 
the Greeks against the Saracens, they became a match 
for all, defeated numerous armies, took well defended 
and fortified towns, and subdued extensive provinces. 

Robert Guiscard and Roger. — Of these heroic broth- 
ers, the most illustrious were: William Ironarm, who, by 
incredible exertions of courage, solidly established the 
Normans in Apulia (a. d. 1043); Robert Guiscard, who 
stripped the Greeks of their last possessions in the same 
province (1080); and Eoger, who expelled the Saracens 
forever from Sicily (1089). All these conquered terri- 
tories formed, when united, a powerful and flourishing 
state, which lasted upwards of one hundred years. During 
that interval, the Norman princes who ruled over it, a 
number of times defeated the emperors of Constantinople, 
but were themselves, in the end, obliged to yield to the 
emperors of Germany. 

CHIVALRY, PARTICULARLY IX SPAIM.— RISE 
OF THE KIXODOM OF PORTUGAL. A.D. 

1045-1095. 

The age which immediately preceded the Crusades, 
was eminently the age of chivalry properly so called. 
The order of chivalry was composed of Knights-Errant, 
who rode through all parts of the country, in com- 
plete armor, for the purpose of redressing grievances, 
and of protecting innocent, weak and afflicted per- 



262 MODERN HISTORY. 

sons, against tyranny and oppression. Their origin may 
be traced to the reign of Charlemagne, or thereabouts; 
their decline must be referred to the twelfth century, 
which gave rise to many Military Orders, of far greater 
merit and celebrity than private knighthood; however, 
during the epoch of which we are now speaking, chivalry, 
notwithstanding the abuses that occasionally attended it, 
proved truly beneficial to humanity and social order in 
Europe, especially when there was question of defending 
Christians against infidels. 

Ruy Diaz the " Cid." — Owing to its state of con- 
stant warfare against the Moors, Christian Spain pos- 
sessed numbers of those generous knights ever ready to 
shed their blood in the cause of national glory, religion, 
and Justice. Among them, the foremost in heroic valor 
and fortitude was the illustrious Eodriguez Diaz of 
Bivar, who, during the last fifty years of the eleventh 
century, fought with wonderful" success the enemies of 
his country. All Europe resounded with the fame of 
his prowess and repeated triumphs; of the battles he 
had fought, the victories he had won, the princes 
he had conquered, the towns he had subdued; exploits 
so much the more astonishing as they were effected 
entirely by his personal exertions, and frequently per- 
formed without any assistance from his sovereign. His 
fame extended even to Asia ; and the Mohammedan king of 
Persia sent deputies to the Christian knight of Spain, to 
congratulate him upon his glorious achievements. The 
name of Cid, or Seid (lord), under which he is known in 
history as well as poetry, was given him for the first time 
by the ambassadors of five Moorish chieftains whom he 
had Just defeated in a great battle. He died in 1099. 

Christian ascendancy over the Moors. — It was 
chiefiy with the help of this great warrior that King Al- 
phonso VI. succeeded in the most important and difficult 
expedition as yet attempted by the Christians against the 
Moors. This prince cherished an ardent desire to re- 
conquer Toledo, the ancient capital of the Goths, which 
had been in the power of their enemies for three hundred 
and seventy-two years, and which contained nearly three 
hundred thousand inhabitants. No sooner was his inten- 
tion made known, than, from all parts of Spain and other 
states of Christendom, multitudes of warriors and knights 



AFFAIR OF INVESTITURES. 263 

flocked to the standards of the Spanish monarch, to share 
with him in this glorious enterprise. The siege was long 
and perilous, and the defence was not less vigorous than 
the attack. At length the bravery of the Saracens yielded 
to the valor of the Christians, and, in the spring of 1085, 
Toledo, with many other towns, surrendered to Alfonso, 
who made it the capital of his kingdom and the seat of 
his residence, instead of Burgos, the chief city of old 
Castile. 

Among the foreign knights who had come to unite their 
efforts with those of the Spaniards for the achievement of 
this great conquest, the most distinguished were Counts 
Kaymond and Henry of Burgundy, of the royal family of 
of the Capetians in France. In every battle, they dis- 
played a valor worthy of their rank, and on every occasion 
evinced such noble feelings, as to attract general esteem, 
and particularly from the Spanish king. In order to 
secure their subsequent services, Alfonso gave them his 
daughters in marriage, and loaded them with honors. 
The posterity of Eaymond inherited the throne of Castile, 
and occupied it until it passed, by alliance, to the house 
of Austria, in the beginning of the sixteenth century. 
Henry was invested with extensive power over the more 
western provinces which had been taken from the Moors, 
and thus laid the foundation of the Portuguese monarchy, 
so called from Porto, its first capital (a.d. 1095). This 
new state, however, did not acquire the title of king- 
dom, until forty-four years later, when Alfonso Hen- 
j'iquez, the worthy son of Count Henry, having gloriously 
defeated five Saracen kings on the same day, was himself 
proclaimed king by his troops on the field of battle. 

AFFAIR OF INTESTITURES. 

Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand). — During these 
civil revolutions in many parts of Christendom, trans- 
actions of a different nature engaged the public mind in 
Germany and northern Italy. The custom had been in- 
troduced in various places, and particularly throughout 
the German empire, of putting the newly elected bishops 
and abbots in possession of their benefices, by giving them 
the ring and the crosier, the symbols of pastoral authority. 
As this ceremony, called investiture, seemed to imply the 



264 MODERN HISTORY. 

conferring of spiritual jurisdiction by temporal princes, 
it was, after due examination, justly considered as an en- 
croachment on the rights of the Church. Not content, 
however, with exercising it, the emperor Henry IV. 
carried on a shameful and most scandalous traffic in 
ecclesiastical dignities, bestowing them, not on worthy 
candidates, but on those who offered him the largest 
sums of money. Pope Gregory VII. inveighed against 
these crying abuses with ardent zeal and unabated 
vigor. But both his entreaties and expostulations were 
disregarded ; and the wicked emperor, instead of amend- 
ing his conduct, convened an assembly at Worms, in 
which, with a body of schismatical associates, he pre- 
sumed to pass sentence of deposition against the pontiff 
(a.d. 1076). 

Excommunication of Henry IV. — This outrageous 
act served only to increase the zeal of Gregory. He not 
only continued to govern the Church with apostolic vigor 
but even thought that his duty required more than he had 
hitherto done. With the advice of a numerous council, 
and taking into consideration both the incorrigibleness of 
Henry and the repeated complaints of his oppressed sub- 
jects, he excommunicated him, and pronounced him 
fallen from his royal dignity; at the same time declaring 
the Germans no longer bound by their former oath of 
allegiance to him. Singular as the power may appear 
which Gregory then exercised, the general opinion of his 
contemporaries admitted that it lay within the sphere of 
papal jurisdiction, and it was supported by the civil 
and common jurisprudence of the times.* 

Henry IV. at Canossa. — At the news of the sentence 
pronounced by the pope, the lords and princes of Germany 
assembled in great numbers, in order to appoint another 
emperor in the place of Henry. The distressed monarch 

* This point has been, from a variety of public and authentic documents, 
set in the clearest light by the learned and judicious author of a very able 
work published in Paris, entitled : " Pouvoir du Pape au inoyen age." 
It is likewise solidly proved by Count de Maistre (Du Pape, livre 11, ch. 
X.) ; by Abbe Jager (in h.\s Introduction to the life of Gregory VII., trans- 
lated from the German), etc. Nay, it is admitted by many celebrated 
Protestant writers, such as Leibnitz, De Jure Suprematus, PseiTel, etc. 
and even by the infidels Bolingbroke and Voltaire. This alone must 
appear sufficient to vindicate the conduct of Pope Gregory with regard to 
the emperor Henry IV., and of some of his successors towards other sover- 
eigns of the same stamp. 



AFFAIR OF INVESTITURES. 265 

perceived the gathering storm, and saw no means of 
averting it but by a reconciliation with the See of Eome ; 
he therefore departed in great haste for Italy, fully de- 
termined to effect this desired reconciliation on any terms. 
Gregory had left Kome and advanced as far as Canossa, 
a castle of Lombardy, on his way to Germany where he 
was expected by the princes. Henry, in a penitential 
garb, presented himself before the gates of the castle, 
humbly begging to be admitted into the presence of the 
pontiff, acknowledging his guilt, and with every mark of 
true repentance, expressing his readiness to give all the 
satisfaction in his power. 

Gregory, who had more than once experienced the in- 
sincerity and inconstancy of the emperor, kept him, by 
way of trial, in suspense for three days : on the fourth 
day, Jan. 28, 1077, he gave him an audience, received his 
submission, and absolved him on certain conditions. 
But the repentance of Henry did not last more than fif- 
teen days; having assembled a numerous army, he refused 
to- comply with the terms which he had accepted, and 
resumed his former course of violence against Church and 
State. At length the German lords, disgusted with this 
faithless and wicked monarch, proceeded to the election 
of another, and chose Eudolph, Duke of Suabia, for their 
sovereign. Still, Henry remained master of the empire, 
his competitor having perished in a battle uearMerseburg, 
after three years of a disputed succession (a.d. 1080). 

Henry IV. besieges Rome. — Death of Pope Greg- 
ory VII. — Elated with success, the conqueror marched at 
the head of his troops into Italy, and besieged Eome, 
which he took after a long siege, more however by bribery 
than, by force of arms. He entered the Lateran palace, 
and endeavored to have the excommunicated bishop of 
Eavenna, Guibert, declared pope, under the name of 
Clement III. In the mean time, Gregory had retreated 
into the strong castle of St. Angelo, where he remained 
secure till the arrival of Eobert Guiscard, the valiant 
leader of the Normans, who compelled the emperor to 
retire with his anti-pope. The lawful pontiff was thus 
left master of the city ; but, as party violence rendered 
it either unsafe or unpleasant for him to remain there, he 
removed first to Mount Cassino, and thence to Salerno, 
where he was taken dangerously ill. In his last moments. 



266 MODERN HISTORY. 

he uttered these words : '' I have loved justice, and hated 
iniquity ; wherefore I die in a strange land ; " * after 
which, amidst the prayers and tears of the cardinals and 
bishops who had gathered around him, he calmly expired, 
on the 25th of May, 1085. 

Henry IV. 's death. — Far different was the end of his 
violent persecutor. The obstinate perseverance of Henry 
in the schism kept up a strong opposition against him in 
Grermany ; even his own sons openly revolted, and obliged 
him to abdicate the crown. The dethroned monarch 
retired to Liege, where he died shortly after, like the 
early persecutors of the Church, a prey to excessive grief 
and misery, and hated by the whole world. He had 
reigned about fifty years, and during that time, had been 
present in sixty-two battles, in most of which he was 
victorious. His exploits, his bravery, and his talents 
might have placed him among the greatest emperors of 
Germany, had he not disgraced himself by his perfidy, 
and by yielding to detestable and unruly passions. 

Concordat of Worms. — The question of investitures 
was settled after his death ; in the year 1122, the em- 
peror Henry V. agreed to resign the right of giving the 
ring and the crosier, and this transaction was solemnly 
confirmed by the first general council of Lateran, in 
1123. 

REmARKS ON THE MIDDLE AGES. 

TEUCE OF GOD. 

The ninth, tenth and eleventh centuries, are commonly 
called the middle, and, by a numerous class of writers, 
the dark ages. To know whether or how far this second 
appellation is correct, deserves a particular investigation, 
and will be the object of the following remarks. 

The Church the mother of science and knowl- 
edge. — In the first place, it must be confessed that, a 
short time after the reign of Charlemagne, ignorance 
began anew to greatly increase in Europe, especially 
among nobles, many of whom, being exclusively devoted to 

* " Dilezi justitiam et odi iniquitatem, propterea morior in exilio." 



I 



REMARKS ON THE MIDDLE AGES. 267 

the profession of arms, even boasted of their want of 
instruction and literary knowledge.* But never perhaps 
were more strenuous efforts made to keep alive the sacred 
flame of science, and promote the instruction of youth, 
than were made by the Church at the period of which we 
are speaking. f Besides smaller schools for children in 
country parishes, there were in large cities, in monaster- 
ies, and in episcopal houses, various institutions in which 
a relish for study and learning was carefully preserved. 
In these, besides the Holy Scriptures and Christian doc- 
trine, the students could learn what were then termed the 
seven liberal arts ; Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric, Arithmetic, 
Geometry, Astronomy and Music. Many schools of this 
kind are known to have existed in Italy, England, France, 
Germany, etc., such as those of Rome, Lyons, Paris, York, 
Oxford, Fulda, Ratisbon, Paderborn,! etc. They did not, 
it is true, possess men like St. Basil and St. John Chry- 
sostom, Fenelon and Bossuet, Newton and Leibnitz ; yet 
it cannot be denied that they produced many learned 
writers and eminent scholars, who might have become 

* Many deeds and legal instruments of those ages are found, which ter- 
minate thus: "And the aforesaid lord has declared that he did not know 
how to sign his name, owing to his heing a nobleman." 

t See the decrees of Popes Eugenius II , Leo IV., etc., in the councils of 
Ilome, A.D. 826, 853, etc. ; — the canons of the councils of Mentz aud Cha- 
lons, A.D. 813; of Paris, 829; of Valence, 855; of Toul, 859, etc:— and the 
statutes of Herard, Archbishop of Tours ; of Riculfus, bishop of Soissons ; 
etc. Merely to quote one or two of these decrees ; the council of Toul, in 
the tenth canon, earnestly entreats princes and recommends bishops to 
establish everywhere public schools, for the teaching of both sacred sci- 
ence and polite literature : and Herard, archbishop of Tours, in his book of 
synodical regulations, commands his priests to have, as far as they can, 
schools in their parishes. Not long before, Theodulphe, bishop of Orleans, 
had expressed himself thus, in the 20th Art. of his 1st Capitular ; " Let the 
priests establish schools in towns and villages for the instruction of chil- 
dren, and not refuse to receive and teach those who are personally addressed 
to them. But in so doing, let them require no salary, nor accept anything 
but what may be voluntarily and charitably offered by the parents." 

t In Paderbornensi ecclesia publica floruerunt studia, quando ibi musici 
fuerunt, et dialectici enituerunt, rhetoric!, clarique grammatici. Ubi 
mathematici claruerunt, et aatronomici habebantur, physici atque geomet- 
rici. Viguit Horatius, magnusque Virgilius, Sallustius et Statius. Apud 
Thomassin, Disc.ipl. de I'Eal. Part, ii, 1. 1, ch. 99. n. 2 •,—vol. n. col. 638. 

In the same chapter and in other chapters of the same work, the learned 
Oratorian shows that studies were also very flourishing in the schools of 
Worms, Paris, Lyons, and still more so in that of Rome, of which he speaks 
at length, and then says; " Let us conclude that the pontifical palace of 
Rome was the palace of polite literature, and the sanctuary of ecclesia*- 
tical learning." c^. 100, n. 3. See also on this subject, Digby's Ages oj 
Faith, vol. iipart in, ch. 5 and 6. 



268 MODERN HISTORY. 

models for posterity in point of literature and learning, 
had they enjoyed the number of books and other advan- 
tages which we now possess. 

Distinguished learned men.— Whatever may be the 
diffusion of superficial knowledge at the present day, it may 
certainly be doubted whether in point of solid, profound 
and extensive learning, many persons could be found su- 
perior to such men as Lupus, abbot of Ferrieres, a writer 
of the ninth century, in whose treatises and letters all 
impartial critics acknowledge an immense fund of erudi- 
tion ; or St. Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, in the tenth 
century, whose biographers relate that there was no part 
of Latin and Greek literature, no branch of sacred and 
profane learning, with which he was not familiar.* The 
same, or nearly the same, may be said of the following 
anthers, as their own writings testify ; Agobardus, arch- 
bishop of Lyons, who died in 840; — Eabanus, archbishop 
of Mentz, 856 ; — Paschasius Eadbertus, a monk, 865 ; — 
St. Ado, archbishop of Vienne, in France, 875 ; — Anas- 
tasius, tlie Roman librarian, 880 ; — Hincmar, archbishop 
of Rheims, 882 ; — Remigius of Auxerre, a monk, 908 ; — 
Notker, a monk of St. Gall, 612 ; — Atto, bishop of Ver- 
celli, 960 ; — Flodoardus, a canon in the church of Rheims, 
966 ; — Sylvester IL, pope 1003 : — Abbo, a monk and abbot 
of Fleury, 1004 ;— Fulbert, bishop of Chartres, 10^9 ;— 
St. Peter Damian, cardinal, 1072 ; — St. Gregory VIL, pope, 
1085 ; Lanfrancus, archbishop of Canterbury, 1089 ; — 
St. Bruno, founder of the Carthusian order, 1101 ; — St. 
Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, 1108 ; — and many oth- 
ers, belonging to the secular clergy or to religious orders. 

To speak now of laymen ; although generally less fond 
of study and less instructed, it ought not to be imagined 
that they were plunged in a state of barbai'ism and com- 
plete darkness — far from it ; an attentive perusal of the 
history of the Middle Ages will rather lead to the conclu- 
sion that without knowing how to display much elegance 
in their manners, and to appreciate the flowing periods 
of Demosthenes and Cicero, they had in their noble sim- 

■ * Prsster Sacras litteras quidquid historic!, oratores, poetse atque phil- 
osophi, noTum et grande perstrepunt, diligentissime cithi doctoribus cujus 
ciimque linguae perscrutatus est. Nullum penitus erat studiorum libera- 
lium genus, in omni Grseea vel Latina eloquentia quod ingenii sui vivaci- 
tatem aufugeret. Apud, Thomass. lib. eit. c.99, n 3 



REMARKS ON THE MIDDLE AGES. 3G9 

plicity, as much good sense and judgment with regard 
to affairs of real importance, as we have in this our age of 
light, and frequently more than we manifest. They 
knew how to set a higher value on religion than on tem- 
poral concerns, even their own lives; they knew how to 
refer their best achievements in the arts to the honor and 
service of the Almighty rather than to the petty motives 
of selfish gratification and human applause; they knew, 
too, how to examine attentively difficult matters, to reason 
with accuracy, to act with prudence, to succeed in compli- 
cated negotiations, and adopt the best course in perplex- 
ing circumstances: witness, among others, the emperor 
Otho I. in Germany; Kings Alfred, Edgar and Canute in 
England; Hugh Capet in France; Alfonso III. in Spain, 
and John of Gortz and Luitprand, the ambassadors of 
Otho I. to the courts of Cordova and Constantinople. 

Inventions during the Middle Ages. — Nor did our 
ancestors want sagacity and genius for useful discoveries 
and improvements, since many were made during the 
Middle Ages. It was at the end of tlie tenth century 
that Gerbert, a monk afterwards archbishop of Ea- 
venna, and at length pope under the name of Sylvester 
II., invented clocks with a balance, which continued in 
use till pendulums began to be employed in 1650. To 
him also arithmetic was greatly indebted for its progress. 
About the same time, lanterns, and paper made of cotton 
rags, commenced to be used. Towards the year 1022, 
Guy, a monk of Arezzo in Italy, invented and introduced 
into the Church singing the gamut or scale of musical 
notes, by which a child can learn in a few months, what 
no person before could learn without several years of 
study. With regard to mechanical arts, it is enough to 
read the history of the siege of Jerusalem in 1099, to 
know what wonderful and complicated machines of every 
description were constructed by the first Crusaders, men 
consequently of the Middle Ages. 

True character of Arabian culture.— Still, if credit 
were to be given to certain authors, the inhabitants of 
western Europe, at the time of which we are speaking, 
were mere barbarians, compared with the Arabs, to_ whom 
alone, we are told, belonged the honor of cultivating let- 
ters and the arts and sciences. This notion is altogether 
false and unjust. The Arabs indeed, whether in the 



370 MODERN HISTORY. 

empire of Bagdad or in the kingdom of Cordova, distin- 
guished themselves by a great show of politeness and 
magnificence, by some happy discoveries, and the brilliant 
dreams of their imagination; but that they were superior, 
in point of solid acquirements, to the Christian nations 
of Europe, it would be difficult to prove, and may be justly 
doubted.* Their metaphysical science instead of being a 
source of true learning, was filled up with subleties 
taken from the categories of Aristotle; their astronomical 
observations were blended with the ridiculous theories of 
astrology, and their prejudices against anatomy and sur- 
gery greatly impeded the progress of the art of medicine. 
Nor were they better in historical composition, which was 
characterized by a bombastic style and exaggerated state- 
ments. Hence the learned author of a recent history of 
the Crusades does not hesitate to prefer the plain and 
unaffected narrative of the First Crusade, left by some 
Christian writers of the eleventh century, to the Arabian 
records of the same epoch, f 

Christian architecture during the Middle Ages. 
— Another and still more striking vindication of the 
Middle Ages against the charge of complete darkness is to 
be found in the great number of splendid churches that 
were then built throughout Christendom, many of which 
still exist; for, as several learned men have justly re- 
marked, the state of architecture has always been in every 
country a sure proof of the degree of perfection in which 
the other arts flourished. Not only was this advantage 
possessed by England during the reign of the great Alfred, 
but also by other countries under less favorable circum- 
stances. A little before the close of the tenth century, 

* Even at the time when arts and sciences were in their most flourishing 
state among the eastern Arabs, namely, under Al-Mamon the son and 
second successor of Haroun-Al-Raschid : that caliph was himself obliged to 
acknowledge the superiority of Christian scholars over his subjects. In his 
own palace, a Greek slave, who had formerly studied mathematics in Con- 
stantinople, confounded all the doctors and masters of the court. While 
all present stood astonished, the slave said that there were many persons 
among his countrymen more skilful than himself, above all, a certain phi- 
losopher, called Leo. from whom he had received lessons. In fact, as a 
feometer and an astronomer, Leo had not his equal in the whole empire, 
he caliph endeavored^ but in vain, by the most flattering letters and pro- 
mises, to bring him over to Bagdad : the Emperor Theophilus would never 
let him go, nor consent to deprive his own capital of so distinguished a 
scholar. — See Lebeau, Hist, du Bas. Emp. vol. xvi. pp. 441, 446. 

t Michaud, Hist, des Croisades, vol. i.,p. 519. 



KEMARKS ON THE MIDDLE AGES. 271 

an opinion had been entertained by many simple persons 
that the world would end with the year 1000, nor had the 
writings of learned men been able to remove that imag- 
inary fear. Rut when all saw the eleventh century begin 
without accident, joy took the place of terror, and the 
gratitude of the people towards Almighty God prompted 
them to repair churches, or build new ones still more wor- 
thy, by their splendor, of being consecrated to his honor. 

Gothic Cathedrals. — Then, indeed, arose in different 
parts of Christendom those Gothic temples whose ap- 
pearance, at once grand, majestic and imposing, surpasses 
the flimsy elegance of most modern edifices. Then 
were laid in many European cities the foundations of 
tliose splendid cathedrals, in which we still admire the 
symmetrical rows of beautiful pillars supporting immense 
arched roofs, the towering steeples, and a thousand other 
ornaments : monuments the more astonishing and worthy 
of admiration as they are found even in many inconsid- 
erable cities, and bear testimony to the grand ideas as 
well as to the zeal and piety of our European ancestors. 

Conversion of Northern Europe. — Furthermore it 
was also during the Middle Ages that, through missionaries 
from Italy, Germany, France, England, etc., northern 
Europe received the light of the gospel ; that the Nor- 
mans, the Hungarians, the Danes, the Swedes, the Rus- 
sians, the Bohemians, the Poles, etc , began at the same 
time to become Christian and civilized nations. But how 
could this, we may ask, have been effected by any of their 
contemporaries, had those contemporaries been themselves 
mere barbarians? How could so arduous a task ever have 
been undertaken and performed, except by men equally 
zealous and learned, equally possessed of the heroic virtues 
and great mental acquirements? And indeed, that such 
were the qualifications of the missionaries who subjected 
these nations to the laws of Christianity, we learn from 
all the documents of that period. 

From this variety of evidence and facts we are certainly 
authorized to conclude, in the first place, that the opinion 
commonly entertained about the Middle Ages is egre- 
giously wroTig : and secondly, that it is to the Catholic 
Church, to her popes, bishops and monks, that we stand 
indebted for the preservation of civilization, literature, 
arts and sciences in Europe. The complete revival of 



272 MODERN HISTORY. 

letters came from the same source, and the progress of 
ignorance, after having been vigorously opposed even in 
the most difficult times, was at length efEectually checked 
(a.d. 1179-1215), by the decrees of popes Alexander III. 
and Innocent II., in the third and fourth councils of Lat- 
eran, conformably to which decrees, colleges and univer- 
sities began to spring up in every part of Christendom. 

The " Truce of God." — Another excellent institution 
that owed its existence to the Middle Ages, and for which 
humanity was also indebted to the happy influence of 
religion, was the sacred compact usually termed the Truce 
of God. From the ninth to the eleventh century, the 
feudal system, however beautiful in many of its principles, 
had been a constant source of contentions and wars. 
Each petty chieftain arrogated to himself an almost un- 
limited use of force and violence to avenge his wrongs, 
and enforce his rights whether real or pretended. As, 
moreover, vassals, were obliged to espouse the quarrels of 
their immediate lords, rapine, bloodshed and their attend- 
ant miseries were everywhere; nor could the most peace- 
ful citizens depend on one moment of perfect security, 
either for their properties or their lives. 

Religion, by her divine and universally revered author- 
ity, was alone capable of raising an efficacious barrier 
against this torrent of evils. Experience having already 
shown the impossibility of stemming it at once, prudent 
measures were taken gradually to diminish its violence. 
Several bishops ordered under penalty of excommunica- 
tion that every week, during the four days consecrated 
to the memory of our Saviour's passion, death, burial, 
and resurrection, viz., from the afternoon of Wednesday till 
the morning of the following Monday, whatever might 
be the cause of strife and quarrel, all private hostilities 
should cease. Shortly after, the same prohibition was 
extended to the whole time of Advent and Lent, includ- 
ing several weeks both after Christmas and after Easter- 
Sunday. This beneficial institution, which originated in 
France towards the year 1040, was adopted in England, 
Spain, etc. and was confirmed by several popes and coun- 
cils : nor must it be thought that it remained a dead 
letter ; its success, on the contrary, was so remarkable, 
that the pious age in which the experiment was made, 
hesitated not to attribute it to the interposition of heaven. 



REMARKS ON THE MIDDLE AGES. 273 

Thus by the exertions of ecclesiastical authority, the hor- 
rors and calamities of feudal war began to be considerably 
diminished. Its ravages were restrained to three days 
in the week and to certain seasons of the year; during the 
intervals of peace, there was leisure for passion to cool, 
and for social habits to become more and more deeply 
rooted. A considerable number of days and weeks afford- 
ed security to all, and all being now shielded by this sacred 
compact, could travel abroad, or attend to their domestic 
affairs, without danger of molestation. Such was the 
splendid victory which the religion of Christ won over the 
natural fierceness of the ancient tribes of the North; a vic- 
tory perfected also by her influence, when the Crusades 
obliged these restless warriors to turn against the invad- 
ing hordes of the Saracens and Turks, those weapons 
which they had hitherto so frequently used against their 
fellow-Christians. 



PART V. 

FKOM THE BEGINNING OF THE CEUSABES (A.D 1096), TO THEIB 
END (A.D. 1272.) 

ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF THE CRUSADES. 

We have now reached the eventful period in which a 
violent struggle took place between two great divisions of 
the globe, for the possession of Jerusalem and Palestine; 
when Europe, shaken, as it were, to its foundation, 
seemed repeatedly to precipitate itself against Asia. The 
better to fix our attention on so grand and interesting a 
subject, we will be more than ever careful to say little 
about contemporary transactions of merely secondary im- 
portance. 

By Crusades are meant those military expeditions which 
were set on foot under the banner of the cross, for the 
purpose of delivering the Holy Land from the oppressive 
yoke of the Mohammedans. Numerous and forcible were 
the motives that urged the nations of Europe to engage 
in these expeditions. New hordes of barbarians were 
threatening to invade all Christendom, and required a 
powerful barrier to check their destructive course. The 
Seljukian Turks had conquered, within a few years, the 
fairest portions of western Asia; the extent of the Greek 
empire was more and more reduced by their usurpations; 
and the emperor Alexius Comnenus, harassed and dis- 
tressed on every side, eagerly solicited the assistance of 
the Latins against the common enemy of Christianity. 

On the other hand, public indignation was roused 
throughout Europe by the daily recital of the enormities 
which the Arabs and Turks committed in the Holy Land, 
and of the cruel treatment which they inflicted on the 
Christians, whether inhabitants of the country, or travel- 
lers and pilgrims who went to Jerusalem. At this period, 
a lively faith and fervent piety induced multitudes of 
Christians from all countries to visit the places conse- 
crated by the sufferings of our Redeemer. When, after a 

274 





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FIRST CRUSADE. 275 

thousand dangers and hardships, they arrived in Palestine, 
the gates of Jerusalem were opened only to those who 
could pay a piece of gold; and, as most of them were 
poor, or had been plundered on the way, they were obliged 
to linger in wretchedness around the city for which they 
had left their native land and every domestic comfort. 
Many died of hunger, or fell by the sword of the bar- 
barians. In the city itself, they who had been allowed to 
enter it, were exposed, like its Christian inhabitants, to 
all sorts of torments and outrages, some being loaded with 
chains, some forced to draw a car or a plough, and others 
condemned to an ignominious death. Those who could 
escape and return to Europe, did not fail to relate what 
they had seen and suffered; and these reports being 
widely circulated, excited universal commiseration among 
the faithful, 

FIRST CRUSADE.— A.D. 1096-1099. 

Peter of Amiens. — Such were the feelings of Chris- 
tian Europe when a French priest, called Peter, and sur- 
named the Hermit on account of his retired life, under- 
took a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Seeing the cruel oppres- 
sion which weighed down his brethren in Asia, his 
heart was deeply afflicted; and, after a moving inter- 
view with Simeon, the pious patriarch of Jerusalem, he 
prevailed upon him to write to the pope, and to the 
princes of Europe, for the purpose of imploring their 
assistance, offering himself to be his deputy and the bearer 
of his letters. This measure being readily adopted, Peter 
set out from Palestine, crossed the seas, and, landing on 
the Italian coast, hastened to the pope. Urban II. The 
pontiff received him with kindness, listened to him with 
emotion, praised his devotedness and zeal; and, as he 
himself was convinced of the necessity of opposing the 
alarming progress of the infidels, and of rescuing the 
eastern Christians from oppression, he commissioned 
Peter to go forward and preach everywhere in favor of the 
speedy deliverance of Jerusalem. 

Councils at Placentia and Clermont. — The gen- 
erous hermit was eminently qualified for this noble office. 
Though poorly clothed and of mean appearance, he was a 
man of elevated mind, great energy of soul and heroic sen- 



276 MODEEN HISTORY. 

timents; his pathetic and glowing eloquence readily found 
its way to the hearts of his hearers. He travelled through 
Italy, France and other countries, communicating to all by 
his preaching and his exhortations, the zeal with which he 
himself was animated. The pope soon followed him, and, 
after a first council held at Placentia in Italy,, appointed 
for the final decision another to be celebrated at Cler- 
mont in France towards the close of the year 1095. 

The assembly met at the time and place which had been 
assigned, and, from the great number of bishops, princes, 
dukes, and other distinguished persons who composed it, 
together with an immense crowd of spectators, it might 
be considered a general convention of Christendom. 
Peter the hermit having first spoken with his usual ardor 
in favor of the holy war, Pope Urban delivered an el- 
oquent and animated discourse, at the end of which the 
whole assembly spontaneously exclaimed: God wills it; 
God wills it. Most of those who were present hastened 
to be enrolled for the sacred expedition. They wore, in 
token of their holy cause, a cross made of red stuff, 
and commonly fastened on the right shoulder; whence 
originated the name of Crusaders and Crusade. 

The enthusiasm spread rapidly through the cities and 
states of Christendom. Those who in the council of Cler- 
mont, had listened to the animating voice of the pontiff, 
on their return to their homes diffused a similar fer- 
vor among their countrymen. Thousands and thousands 
flocked to the banner of the Cross from every part of 
Europe, particularly from France and Italy where all 
ranks manifested the greatest eagerness to share in the 
Crusade, and, forgetting their private quarrels, began to 
prepare for their departure into the East. 

Leaders of the First Crusade. — Among the 
princes who engaged themselves in the holy war at the 
head of their vassals and subjects, the most illustrious 
were: Eaymond, count of Toulouse; Eobert, duke of Nor- 
mandy, and brother of the king of England; Hugh the 
Great, count of Yermandois, and brother of the French 
king; Stephen, count of Blois; Eobert, earl of Flanders; 
Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of Lorraine, with his two 
brothers Eustace and Baldwin; and Bohemond, prince 
of Tarentum, with his heroic nephew, Tancred, the very 
personification of ancient chivalry. Warriors like these 



I 

« 



I 



FIRST CRUSADE. 277 

might have conquered the world, had there been stricter 
discipline and order among their troops, and better under- 
standing among themselves; but this could hardly be ex- 
pected from so many different nations, and from so many 
princes independent of each other, and all worthy of the 
chief command. 

Godfrey of Bouillon. — One of them, however, God- 
frey of Bouillon, without being invested with the title of 
commander-in-chief, generally held the first rank in the 
army, in consequence of his reputation for unblemished 
virtue and extraordinary valor. Although he was not, 
by birth, either the most conspicuous or the most power- 
ful of the lords who headed the Crusade, he brought to 
the field no fewer than ninety thousand chosen troops, 
whom the reputation of his uncommon merit had gath- 
ered to his standard. The whole number of the Crusaders 
may have amounted, in the beginning, to seven or eight 
hundred thousand, having among them, as legate of the 
pope, the celebrated bishop of Puy, Adhemar de Monteil, 
a prelate equally renowned for his consummate prudence 
and tender piety. At the close of winter, they set out 
from various points, and advanced towards the East by 
different routes. The first bodies that marched for- 
ward, being destitute of discipline, met, with few excep- 
tions, a disastrous fate. Some of them, as soon as they 
entered Asia, fell by the swords of the Turks; others 
could not even reach the capital of the Greek empire, 
but were slain in their march through Hungary and Bul- 
garia, by the inhabitants whose attacks they had provoked 
by their own excesses (a.d. 1096.) 

Arrival at Constantinople. — The principal leaders 
of the expedition acted with more prudence, and arrived 
in safety at Constantinople, which had been selected for 
their general rendezvous. Here they met with an un- 
foreseen obstacle. The Greek emperor, who had expected 
only some bodies of troops to assist him in repelling the 
Turks, could not see such a multitude of warriors cover- 
ing his empire, and so formidable a force encamped under 
the very walls of his capital, without apprehending an 
attack against himself. In his perplexity, he resolved to 
adopt towards the Crusaders a course of dissimulation and 
craftiness, which it is not easy to reconcile with the usual 
courage, generosity and other noble qualities of Alexius. 



278 MODERN HISTOEY. 

He loaded the chiefs with presents, used every means in 'l 
his power to attach them to his interest, and making ] 
them fair promises of powerful aid, gave directions that 
vessels should be prepared, with the utmost despatch, to 11 
convey them across the Bosphorus to the Asiatic coast. ' 

Attack upon the territory of the Sultan of' 
Iconium. — The Christian army, consisting of about six 
hundred thousand men, about one-sixth cavalry, directed 
their march to Nice, the chief city of Bithynia. This 
town, famous for the reception it formerly gave to the 
Fathers of two general councils, was now in the power of 
the Turkish Sultan Kilidgi Arsland, or Soliman the 
younger; a prince highly commendable for the inexhaust- 
ible resources of his genius and the unshaken firmness 
of his character. At the head of a numerous body of 
cavalry, he moved forward to protect his capital. Furi- 
ous and repeated attacks were made against the Christian 
camp, but, after prodigious efforts, the Crusaders re- 
mained masters of the field, and bore off the spoils. 
Soliman himself could not forbear admiring the lion-like 
courage of the Christian leaders, who, with a thousand 
lances, would often break and put to flight twenty times 
that number of Turkish troops. Thus repulsed with 
great loss, he retired to a distance in order to collect new 
forces, and with greater advantage attack the Christians at 
their departure. 

Siege of Nice. — The siege was now carried on with 
unabated vigor, the besiegers and the besieged making 
use of all the resources that military science had hitherto 
devised for the attack and defence of fortified places. 
Besides a double wall and a numerous garrison, the city 
was protected on one side by large ditches, and on the 
other, by the lake Aecanius; but the Christian warriors 
were not to be stopped or dispirited by these obstacles. 
They at length succeeded in preventing all access to the 
town, even by the lake; and Count Eaymond undermined 
one of the principal towers. Nice, reduced to the last 
extremity, was on the point of being stormed, when the 
flags of the Greek emperor suddenly appeared on the 
walls, Alexius, by private embassies, having prevailed 
upon the inhabitants to surrender to him rather than to 
the Franks. This artful conduct highly displeased the 
Crusaders: still, not to break their treaty with the Greeks, 



FIRST CRUSADE. 279 

nor be diverted from the main object of their enterprise, 
they consented to leave the town in the hands of Alexius; 
for they had previously promised him to conquer in his 
name, and to restore the cities which had formerly be- 
longed to the empire of Constantinople, on condition that 
he should aid them in the conquest of the Holy Land. 

Baldwin founds the principality of Edessa. — As, 
however, the Greek monarch soon evinced little inclination 
to fulfil his own promises, the Latin lords thought them- 
selves no longer bound by the treaty. Shortly after the 
reduction of Nice, they began to occupy the cities of 
Asia-Minor and Syria, to leave garrisons in them, and ap- 
point governors in their own name. Tarsus and the rest 
of Cilicia were already in their possession, when Baldwin, 
the brother of Godfrey, led off a detached body of Cru- 
saders towards the north, and traversed a large tract of 
country inhabited entirely by Christians, till he came to 
the Euphrates. The citizens of Edessa, in Mesopotamia, 
as soon as they heard of his arrival, invited him to take 
them under his protection. He cheerfully acceded to 
their request, assumed sovereign power among them, and 
established a principality, which stood until the year 
1144, when it was subdued by the famous chieftains 
Zenghi and Nouradin. 

Victory of the Crusaders at Dorylaeum. — A little 
before the departure of Baldwin, the Crusaders were ex- 
posed to a greater danger than they had yet encountered. 
As they were marching in two great divisions, the less 
numerous body, commanded by Eobert of Normandy, 
Bohemond and Tancred, was suddenly attacked near 
Dorylaeum in Phrygia, by a countless multitude of Turks, 
Persians and Arabs, who covered all the hills and plains 
as far as the sight could extend.* Bohemond instantly 
sent messengers to Godfrey of Bouillon and to the other 
princes, whom he knew to be near, to inform them of the 
danger with which he was threatened. In tlie interim, 
he drew up his forces as well as the spot permitted, and, 
at their head, together with Duke Eobert and Tancred, 



* The number of the Turks and Persians is believed to have amounted 
to nearly two hundred thousand men, all on horseback ; as to the Arabs, 
says a contemporary historian who was present at the battle, so great was 
their multitude that God alone could count them. 



280 MODERN HISTORY. 

exerted all his courage to resist tlie shock of the enemy. 
The battle lasted for many hours ; but about noon the 
Christians, forced back by the multitude that pressed 
upon them, and exhausted by heat, thirst and fatigue, 
began to give way before the infidels, and their defeat 
seemed inevitable, when repeated shouts and a cloud of 
dust rising from behind the hills announced the arrival 
of the main body of the Crusaders. 

Grodfrey, Hugh the Great, and Kobert of Flanders, had 
taken the lead with fifty thousand cavalry; Eaymond of 
Toulouse and Adhemar of Puy were following as rapidly as 
possible with the rest of the army. Each one marshalled 
his troops, as they came up; and, after the usual cry, 
*'God wills it," all, with levelled lances, advanced against 
the Turks, who vainly endeavored to maintain the superi- 
ority which they had acquired. Unable to withstand the 
charge of the Latin chivalry, the infidels fled in disorder, 
and abandoned to the Christians their camp with all their 
provisions and treasures (a. d. 1097). 

The loss of the Crusaders, after so long and severe a 
battle, was less than might have been anticipated; only 
four thousand of them are said to have fallen, and nearly 
all in the earlier part of the day. The loss of the Turks 
was far more considerable, as it amounted to upwards of 
twenty thousand soldiers and three thousand officers, 
with several of their generals. Those who escaped, 
spread themselves, by the orders of Soliman, in large 
bands over the country, and hopeless of defending it any 
longer, began to waste and destroy everything in their 
way. When the Crusading armies, after some days of 
repose, resumed their march, they found themselves 
obliged to traverse large tracts which had been com- 
pletely ravaged by the enemy. There, in barren plains or 
narrow defiles, under a scorching sun, and without water 
to quench their thirst, thousands sank under the weight 
of fatigue and sickness, and most of the horses perished. 
Still, the survivors marched with an unshaken resolution, 
and at length reached a better country. After subduing 
many towns, and defeating many parties of Turks, they 
saw themselves in the midst of delightful plains, near 
the great and well fortified city of Antioch, the capital of 
Syria. 



I 



FIRST CRUSADE. 281 

Siege of Antioch. — In a council of war held by the 
leaders, it was thought unsafe to leave so important a 
place behind them. Accordingly, they resolved to 
besiege it; an undertaking, which the strength of the 
ramparts, the valor of the garrison, and the impru- 
dence of the Crusaders rendered both tedious and diffi- 
cult. At first, many of the Christians, delighted with 
the beauty of the land, spread themselves without pre- 
caution through the neighboring plains, where they were 
surprised and slaughtered by the Turks. Others, forget- 
ting their duty and the laws of the Gospel, gave them- 
selves up to many disorders, which God did not delay to 
punish, want of food during winter, continual rains and 
other calamities having soon caused the death of many, 
and made others repent of their excesses. At length, the 
united exertions of the princes and clergy put an end to 
those evils. Abundance returned with the spring ; the 
courage of the troops was revived with the restoration of 
good order and discipline; and the Moslems were repulsed, 
whenever they attempted to attack the Christian camp, 
whether from the town or from the neighboring country. 
On one occasion, particularly, they were entirely defeated, 
and, by the vigorous efforts of the Christian knights, ex- 
perienced such slaughter, as to lose twelve of their gen- 
erals called emirs, and fifteen hundred of their most dis- 
tinguished warriors, besides a multitude of others who 
were drowned in the river Orontes. 

Still, Antioch continued to resist with undaunted obsti- 
nacy. Every means employed by the Crusaders to destroy 
its mighty bulwarks, proved ineffectual; and all their 
efforts might ultimately have failed, but for the follow- 
ing circumstance. The prince of Tarentum had of late 
opened a secret correspondence with a Mussulman officer 
named Phirouz, formerly a Christian, who was invested 
with the chief command in three of the principal towers 
that defended Antioch. By splendid promises, Bohemond 
succeeded in inducing this officer to deliver them into the 
hands of the Christians. The plan was concerted between 
them; the darkness of a stormy night facilitated its execu- 
tion; and in a few hours the whole army, being introduced 
into the city, took possession of it on the third of June, 
1098. At the break of day, Bohemond planted his banner 
on one of the highest towers, and was, by common assent. 



282 MODERN HISTORY. 

acknowledged sovereign of Antioch and its dependencies, 
under the title of prince. 

Kerboga, Emir of Mosul. — The joy of the Crusad- 
ers at this valuable conquest, was in a very short time 
dampened. They had not yet subdued the citadel, 
into which a great part of the garrison had retired, 
nor taken measures to procure the necessary supplies 
of provisions, when they saw themselves besieged by 
an army much more numerous than their own. It con- 
sisted of three hundred and sixty thousand men, whom 
the Persian sultan sent to the relief of Antioch, under 
the command of Kerboga, prince of Mosul. This general 
manifested on every occasion the greatest contempt for the 
Crusaders and, having arrived too late to preserve the 
city from their invasion, he considered them as so many 
victims reserved for his vengeance. 

Sufferings of the Crusaders. — Everything, at first, 
seemed to favor his design. After a few days, the Crusad- 
ers, having consumed all the provisions in Antioch were 
exposed to a most dreadful famine, so far as to eat the 
flesh of horses and camels, afterwards leaves of trees, and 
boiled leather. Such was the excess of their misery, that 
many of these renowned warriors, even among the barons 
and knights, after having resolutely endured a thousand 
other hardships, now lost courage, abandoned their colors, 
and fled from Antioch. Both the strength and resources 
of those who remained, were exhausted. Several of the 
chief lords themselves were reduced to absolute beggary, 
and became completely dependent on the bounty of 
Godfrey even for their food, till he himself having killed 
his last horse, had nothing more to give. Mourning, con- 
sternation and death reigned throughout Antioch, and 
the whole city seemed destined to become the sepulchre 
of the Christian soldiers; nor could the princes, either by 
exertions or entreaties, stimulate them to new combats. 

In this desperate state of things, the evil suggested its 
remedy. The Crusaders, deprived of all human assistance, 
placed their hopes in heaven; and, in the abyss of misery 
to which they were reduced, they received with the 
greatest alacrity every token and mark of the return of 
God^s special protection, their warlike enthusiasm being 
particularly excited, as many authors relate, by the discov- 
ery of the lance which had pierced the side of our Saviour, 



FIRST CRUSADE. 283 

In the meanwhile, Tancred, ever foremost in heroic feel- 
ings and actions, pledged himself with an oath not to turn 
back from the road to Jerusalem, so long as he should be 
followed by sixty knights; and the whole army, imitating 
his example, took the same oath. Furthermore, the unex- 
pected discovery of some provisions in the city increased 
the confidence and restored the strength of the soldiers of 
the Cross. Their activity, resolution, and energy reap- 
peared; they felt in themselves the same intrepid ardor 
which they had displayed in former battles, and loudly 
asked to be led against the enemy. 

Victorious sally of the Crusaders. — The princes 
lost not a moment. The gates of Antioch were thrown 
open, and early on the morning of the twenty-ninth oi 
June, one hundred thousand emaciated but brave warriors 
were seen marching out with noble assurance, while the 
banks of the Orontes and the neighboring hills resounded 
with their usual battle cry, ''God wills it; God wills it/' 
Kerboga did not imagine, at first, that the Crusaders 
could entertain the thought of fighting, and believed they 
were coming to implore his clemency. His illusion having 
soon vanished, he hastened to draw up his numberless squad- 
rons in battle array, and made several skilful movements 
for the purpose of surrounding the comparatively small 
host of the Crusaders. The Christians, on their side, with 
little attention to the ordinary arts of warfare, continued 
to march on, their courage increasing rather than dimin- 
ishing; till, having come within bowshot of the Persians, 
after the clarions and trumpets had sounded, they rushed 
against the enemy. 

Kerboga's signal defeat. — Then only did Kerbog?, 
and his troops perceive what sort of heroes were Tancred^ 
Godfrey, Hugh-the-Great, the duke of Normandy and the 
earl of Flanders, whose swords flashed with the rapidity 
of lightning. As the other chiefs arrived, they also 
threw themselves into the thickest of the battle; and 
the fight had scarcely lasted one hour, when the infidels 
began to waver. They endeavored, but in vain to stop 
the Christian soldiers by setting the weeds on fire; noth- 
ing could damp the enthusiasm of the Crusaders; the 
Persian columns were driven forward, broken and routed 
with dreadful slaughter. In vain too did their most 
courageous warriors attempt to rally upon a hill behind a 



284 MODEKN HISTOKY. 

deep ravine; the Christian knights, hurried on by almost 
superhuman valor, followed them across the precipice, and 
their victorious swords destroyed all who dared await their 
approach. The Persians were scattered in every direction 
through the woods and hollows; and the banks of the 
Orontes, the mountains, the plains, appeared covered 
with fugitives abandoning their colors and throwing aside 
their arms. The haughty Kerboga himself, who had 
promised the sultan the entire defeat of the Christians, 
and who had, in anticipation of that event, prepared a 
great quantity of fetters for his prisoners, fled towards the 
Euphrates with a few horsemen, leaving a hundred thou- 
sand of his bravest soldiers on the field of battle. The 
loss of the conquerors was ten, or, according to several 
historians, only four thousand. 

Immense was the booty of gold, arms, rich vestments, 
horses, cattle and provisions which the Crusaders found 
in the Persian camp. The whole army, loaded with 
wealth and rejoicing in their abundance, entered once 
more within the walls of Antioch, and made the air 
resound with their thanksgivings for the triumph which 
tiiey had obtained. To the infidels themselves this 
victory of the Christians seemed so wonderful that many 
were induced, on that account, to abandon the religion of 
Mohammed. They who defended the citadel of Antioch, 
struck with astonishment and terror, surrendered, on the 
very evening of the battle, to Count Kaymond who had 
been left to guard the town; three hundred of thenj 
embraced Christianity; and several went through the 
cities of Assyria, everywhere proclaiming that the God 
of the Christians was the only true God. 

Expedition towards Jerusalem. — The way towards 
Jerusalem was now left open; the princes however, for the 
sake of granting to their troops a necessary repose, thought 
proper to postpone their further advance till the next 
spring. In that interval, a pestilence broke out among 
the Crusaders, sweeping off not only thousands of the less 
cautious multitudes, but also many illustrious knights, 
and the venerable bishop of Puy, whose noble qualities of 
mind and heart had given much dignity and strength to 
the enterprise. Another sad effect of the delay just men- 
tioned, was that it enabled the Egyptian caliph to turn 
the losses of the Turks to his own profit: driving them 



1 



FIRST CRUSADE. 285 

from Jerusalem, whilst he amused the leaders of the Cru- 
sading host with proposals of alliance, he took possession 
of the Holy City. It was therefore against this new 
enemy that the Christians had to fight during the last 
period of the Crusade (a.d. 1099). 

Arrival before Jerusalem, June 7th, 1099. — The 
time appointed for their departure from Antioch at 
length arrived. They advanced along the fertile coasts 
of Phoenicia, and then through the desolate lands of 
Palestine, without finding much resistance; at length, on 
the seventh of June, Jerusalem lay before their eyes. 
No one can sufficiently describe the pious transports 
which, on the appearance of the Holy City, the remem- 
brance of our Saviour's passion and death excited in 
every bosom, and their feelings of indignation at behold- 
ing Jerusalem in the hands of the infidels. The army 
marched on in haste, driving back some parties of the 
enemy, and almost immediately made so vigorous an as- 
sault that the town would probably have been taken at 
the first onset, but for want of ladders and other necessary 
instruments. After many on each side had fallen to no 
effect, the attack was suspended, and all the energies of the 
Crusaders were employed in constructing wooden towers, 
catapults, battering rams and other warlike engines. 

Five weeks' siege of Jerusalem. — While these 
machines were being made a severe drought afflicted 
the army. For many days the soldiers of tlie Cross again 
experienced all the inconveniences of heat and thirst; 
and their number, already so much diminished by previ- 
ous plagues, diseases, desertions, battles, and garrisons 
left in various places, became reduced to about forty 
thousand, one-fourth of whom were unable to fight. 
The garrison alone of Jerusalem was more numerous than 
the whole army of the Crusade; the town, too, was de- 
fended by strong fortifications, and supplied with all 
things requisite for a long resistance. 

So many obstacles, instead of abating, seemed rather to 
increase the ardor of tlie Christians; and as soon as the 
engines were completed, the attack was renewed. Early 
in the morning of the fourteenth of July, towers, mango- 
nels and battering rams moved all at once against three 
different parts of the wall, and began to cast a shoAver of 
arrows and stones, and to make a breach. Language can- 



286 MODERN HISTORY. 

not describe the violence of this first shock. As did 
princes, who fought all that day from the platform of 
their wooden towers, the multitude of the assailants fear- 
lessly braved all kinds of perils; but, in return, the Sara- 
cens obstinately opposed them at every point, and being 
abundantly furnished with darts, boiling oil, and Grecian 
, fire, spread ruin and dismay among the Christians. Thus 
passed that whole day in one of the most tremendous en- 
counters that the Crusaders had ever sustained ; night 
came on, and the besiegers re-entered their camp, burn- 
ing with indignation because the city was not taken. 

Storm of Jerusalem on July 15th, 1099. — On the 
following day, a new attempt was made to storm the city. 
During the whole morning thousands of darts were heard 
continually whizzing through the air; beams and rocks, 
thrown by the engines, dashed against one another, and 
fell with "a frightful crash upon the assailants. Many of 
them had already been killed, or had received wounds at 
the foot of the ramparts; the others were almost ex- 
hausted, whilst the Saracens, on the contrary, seemed to 
fight with renewed vigor. At that moment, Eaymond 
and Godfrey, though placed at a great distance from each 
other, suddenly exclaimed that they saw a celestial war- 
rior coming to their assistance, and giving a signal to en- 
ter the town. This instantly revived the fainting hopes 
of the Christians; prodigious efforts were made on all 
sides; the tower of Godfrey, in spite of a shower of darts 
and Grecian fire, was rolled forward till it touched the 
wall ; and, a movable bridge being let down, two illustri- 
ous brothers, Letold and Engelbert of Tournai, immedi- 
ately sprang upon the battlements. They were followed 
by the intrepid duke and other knights, who bore down 
upon the Saracens with irresistible force, and rushed af- 
ter them into the very streets of Jerusalem. Tancred, 
with the earl of Flanders and the duke of Normandy, 
imitated their example in another quarter; while Eay- 
mond of Toulouse, almost at the same instant, forced his 
way into the town by scaling the walls. Thus was the 
Holy City, after exertions of the most heroic fortitude, 
at length taken by the Christians, on a Friday at three 
o^clock in the afternoon; a circumstance which has been 
carefully noted, as coinciding with the day and hour in 
which our Saviour expired on the cross. 



^ 



FIRST CRUSADE. 287 

Terrible Massacre. — Most terrible were the first 
moments of victory. The Crusaders, exasperated bj 
their long suflferings and by the obstinate resistance of 
tlie infidels, and being also probably afraid of new dan- 
gers, put to the sword nearly all the garrison and inhab- 
itants of Jerusalem. The streets, the mosques, and the 
citadel were filled with blood, and the number of the slain 
is estimated by many to have been at least seventy thou- 
sand. 

Pilgrimage to the Church of the Resurrection. — 
After this bloody scene, the conquerors exhibited a spec- 
tacle more consonant with the mild spirit of Christian- 
ity. Assuming the robe of penitents, and going up to 
the Holy Sepulchre, they bedewed with their tears the spot 
consecrated by the sufferings and death of our Blessed 
Redeemer. The princes afterwards directed their atten- 
tion to the appointment of a king, for the defence and 
preservation of Jerusalem; and the brave, the generous, 
the virtuous duke of Lorraine, Godfrey, was chosen 
by unanimous consent. For the sake of the public good, 
he modestly accepted the distinguished task intrusted to 
him; but firmly refused the diadem and other insignia 
of royalty, saying that he would never consent to wear 
a golden crown, where the Saviour of the world had been 
crowned with thorns. 

Godfrey feudal king of Jerusalem. — Scarcely was 
Godfrey proclaimed king, when certain information ar- 
rived of the approach of a powerful army sent by the 
caliph of Egypt against the Crusaders. The new sover- 
eign and his undaunted knights instantly determined 
to meet the foe half-way, which they did with as much 
alacrity as if they had been going to a feast. After 
a few days, they met the enemy in the vast plains of 
Ascalon, near the sea. Notwithstanding the great dis- 
parity between the opposing forces, the host of the Cru- 
sade having been reduced to twenty thousand men, whilst 
the Egyptians and their allies amounted to about four hun- 
dred thousand, the Christians gained, with less difficulty 
than on any former occasion, a complete victory. In a 
few moments, and with the loss of but a few soldiers, 
they strewed the plain with ninety thousand dead bodies 
of the Egyptian army, and dispersed the rest. The 
enemy, says a contemporary historian, fell under their 



288 MODERN HISTORY. 

swords, as the grass falls in the harvest before the 
mower ;* or, to use the words of a great poet, fled at 
their approach, as clouds are seen flying through the 
air, when driven before the northern blast, f The 
victorious army, after gathering an immense quantity of 
spoils, returned in triumph to Jerusalem. 

OEIVERAL. VIEW OF THE FIR§T CRUSADE.— 
RETURX OF THE CRUSADERS. 

Such was the result of the First Crusade, one of the 
most heroic enterprises and most brilliant expeditions of 
all ancient and modern history; one which, notwithstand- 
ing the accidental interference of human passions was 
sustained by the loftiest and noblest motives that ever an- 
imated an army, and was at length brought to a happy 
issue by prodigies of valor and feats worthy of eternal re- 
membrance. We behold in it a multitude of warriors, 
knights and princes leaving their country and their 
homes, their estates and their dignities, for the sake of 
religion and of humanity. We see them cheerfully ex- 
posing themselves to all the dangers of a long and distant 
expedition, undergoing the fatigues of a painful march, 
the severity of the winters or the excessive heat of the 
climate, famine, thirst and contagious diseases; and 
still, almost continually fighting against the Turks, the 
Persians and other foes, frequently too against their own 
imprudence, and the dangers occasioned by the quarrels 
of the leaders or the want of discipline among the troops. 
We see them, through the various vicissitudes of the Cru- 
sade, surmounting all these obstacles, conquering all their 
enemies, and, at last, bringing their enterprise to a fortu- 
nate conclusion. What warlike achievement is more de- 
serving of the admiration of posterity ? 

Nor can it be objected, that the success of the Cru- 
saders was owing to their overwhelming numbers; this 



* Apud M.\ch?mA.,Hist. des Croisades, vol. i. pp. 475-76. 
t La Palestine enfin, apres tant de ravages, 
Vit fuir ses ennemis, comme on voit les niiages 
Dans le vague des airs fuir devant I'Aquilon ; ♦ 

Et des vents du midi la devorante haleine 

N'a consume qu' a peine 
Leurs ossemens blanchis dans les champs d' Ascalon. 

B. Rousseau, Ode ac/ainst the Turks. 



GENERAL VIEW OF THE FIRST CRUSADE. 289 

circumstance proved rather a disadvantage, on account of 
the difficulty they had to procure a sufficient quantity of 
provisions in an unknown country. Moreover, their 
number was soon greatly diminished by desertion, fam- 
ine, disease and battles; so that, in the end, they were 
far less numerous than their enemies. It is true, many 
bodies of fresh troops were successively sent from Europe 
to their assistance; but none of them arrived, having all 
been destroyed before reaching Syria, either by starvation, 
or by the swords of the Turks. Hence, the success of 
the First Crusade could be attributed to no other cause 
than the heroic patience, constancy and intrepidity 
which the crusaders evinced, during three years, in a 
great number of combats, but chiefly during the sieges 
of Nice, Antioch and Jerusalem, and in the great battles 
at Dorylaeum, at the Orontes and at Ascalon, against all 
the forces of Asia and Africa. 

Fate of the principal leaders. — After this last vic- 
tory, which secured their conquests and crowned all their 
exploits, most of the Crusaders thought of returning to 
Europe. Count Raymond, however, did not go far- 
ther than Constantinople; but being invested by the em- 
peror Alexius with princely jurisdiction over the terri- 
tory of Laodicea, he retraced his steps into Syria, to take 
possession of this new state. Baldwin and Bohemond 
were already settled in their principalities of Edessa and 
Antioch. Robert of Flanders and Robert of Normandy 
reached their European dominions, and were received 
with great joy by their vassals and subjects; but the 
latter, having imprudently undertaken to dethrone his 
brother Henry I., king of England, was taken prisoner, 
and, being unable to recover his liberty, died after many 
years of severe confinement. Peter the Hermit also re- 
visited his native country, and, retiring to a monastery 
founded by himself, lived sixteen years in the practice of 
the most edifying virtues. As to Hugh the Great and 
Stephen of Blois, having departed from the East before 
the end of the Crusade, shame and public discontent com- 
pelled them to go back to Asia, where they both fell 
Avhile fighting against the infidels. 

Among the other knights who returned to France, his- 
tory has not forgotten two noble twin-brothers, Stephen 
and Peter of Salviac, whom their own age admired as 



290 MODERN HISTORY. 

models of fraternal affection. Peter having taken the 
cross in the council of Clermont, Stephen, though au- 
thorized by many just reasons to remain at home, deter- 
mined to follow his brother, and to share with him all 
the perils of the Crusade. In battles, they always stood 
side by side; and they fought together at the sieges of 
Nice, Antioch and Jerusalem. A short time after their 
return from the East, they both died in the same week, 
and the same sepulchre received their mortal remains; 
their tomb bears an inscription transmitting to pos- 
terity the remembrance of their exploits and of their ad- 
mirable friendship. 



KINODOm OF JERUSAL.E1I.— AD. 1095-1144. 

Godfrey 1099-1110. — By the death or departure of 
most of the Crusaders, the new kingdom of Jerusalem 
was left to be maintained by the wisdom of Godfrey and 
the sword of Tancred, with an army of less than three 
thousand men. Fortunately, this want of forces did not 
last long; fresh bands of Crusaders daily arrived from 
Europe, and the new sovereign was enabled, not only to 
defend, but also to enlarge his conquests. At the same 
time he compiled and published, for the improvement 
of his rising state, an admirable code of laws, under the 
title of "Assises de Jerusalem,'" and promoted or patron- 
ized many establishments equally beneficial to religion 
and social order, above all, the Hospitallers of St. John 
of Jerusalem, who afterwards became so much renowned 
as the Knights of Malta.* 

His character. — These numerous achievements were 



* Their first origin dated from the year 1048, when certain merchants of 
the city of Amalfi in the kingdom of Naples, trading in the Levant, ob- 
tained leave ftom tlie Saracen caliph to build a house at Jerusalem for pil- 
grims, on the condition of paying an annual tribute. Shortly after, they 
founded in honor of St. John the Baptist, a church and a hospital, from 
which they took their name ; and being exceedingly favored by Godfrey 
and his successors, they enlarged their benevolent projects, and, besides at- 
tending the sick and the pilgrims with the utmost care and assiduity, 
bound themselves by a vow to defend aU Christians in the Holy Land 
against the attacks and insults of infidels. By this noble determination, 
the Hospitallers, without ceasing to be a religious, became a military 
order, and a permanent body of sacred soldiery, which conferred innu- 
merable services on the kings of Jerusalem and on all Christendom. 



i 



KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM. 291 

accomplished by Godfrey within the short space of one year. 
On his return from a distant expedition, he was seized 
with a severe illness, and died on the eighteenth of July 
of the year 1100, leaving behind him so unblemished a 
reputation for wisdom, courage and virtue, that his name, 
equally extolled by history and poetry, will ever live in 
the memory of men as the brightest ornament of the 
First Crusade. From his earliest years, his father, one of 
the greatest warriors of that age, taught him, by theory 
and practice, how to excel in the profession of arms. 
His mother, a very pious lady, impressed on his tender 
mind the maxims of our holy faith, which he ever after- 
wards observed, even at the head of armies, with as much 
regularity as if he had been in a religious house, always 
commencing and concluding his enterprises with acts of 
religion. Free from ambition and other human weak- 
nesses, his views were always perfectly disinterested, his 
feelings always generous, his morals always pure; and not 
only did he thus constantly present a perfect example of 
honor and virtue, but the troops also which he com- 
manded, were, during the whole Crusade, distinguished 
above all others for their excellent order and discipline. 
Never was there indeed a more admirable model of Chris- 
tian chivalry; nor did fabulous antiquity ever picture to 
itself so accomplished a hero as Godfrey of Bouillon. 
He prepared for death with the same piety and fortitude 
of mind that he had evinced during life; and, in his last 
moments, recommended to his knights the promotion of 
the divine glory and the defence of the Holy Land. The 
Christians, overwhelmed with grief, buried him near the 
Holy Sepulchre, the preservation of which was so dear to 
his heart ; and the infidels themselves shed tears over 
the tomb of a prince whom they were obliged to ac- 
knowledge, notwithstanding the difference of religion, to 



The Knights Templars were instituted in 1118, also at Jerusalem, hy 
some French and Flemish noblemen, for nearly the same purposes as the 
Knights Hospitallers, but under a plan and rule somewhat different. They 
derived their name from the first house which they possessed in the holy 
city, it being situated near the site of the temple of Solomon. The Teu- 
tonic order owed its establishment to some nobles from the cities of Bremen 
and Lubeck who assisted at the siege of Ptolemais in 1190, and was in- 
tended for the relief of German pilgrims. There were also three military 
orders founded in Spain alone, viz., the orders of St. James, Alcantara 
and Calatrava ; and one, that of Avis, in Portugal. 



292 MODERN HISTORY. 

have been at once the mildest and the greatest of their 
sovereigns.* 
Baldwin I., iiio-iii8and Baldwin II., 1118-1131. 

— The first successors of Godfrey in the kingdom of Jeru- 
salem, were Baldwin I., his brother, and Baldwin II., his 
cousin. Both of them prosecuted, with great vigor, the 
glorious work which he had commenced; and, notwith- 
standing some defeats, they gained considerable advan- 
tages over the Saracens. Strong and important cities 
were successively conquered, and the Christians now pos- 
sessed in Asia four extensive princedoms, Jerusalem, 
Antioch, Edessa and Tripoli. The Greeks, too, strove 
continually to recover some of their former possessions in 
Asia Minor and Syria; and, on many occasions, under 
their warlike and skilful emperors, Alexius and his son, 
John Oomnenus, success accompanied their efforts. Had 
the forces of the empire been at that time united with 
those of the Latins, the Turks might have been totally 
expelled from those envied regions. Unfortunately, 
mutual differences always kept the two powers at a dis- 
tance from each other; and, what was more unfortunate 
still, after the death of Baldwin 11. , in 1131, jealousy, 
animosity and violent dissensions began to arise among 
the Latin princes themselves. 

Fall of Edessa. — From this time, therefore, the pros- 
perity of the Christian states began to decline in the 



* To enable the reader more fully to appreciate the incomparable merit 
of Godfrey of Bouillon, we may be allowed to adduce, from authentic 
sources, some particular instances of his wonderful strength, generosity 
and piety. 

During the siege of Nice, a certain Turk of gigantic stature signalized 
himself by the immense slaughter he made of the Christians, throwing 
upon them large fragments of rocks from the wall. Godfrey advanced, 
and shooting an arrow with a vigorous hand, sent the weapon directly to 
his heart, and left him dead on the battlement. — During the stay of the 
army in Asia Minor, riding out on horseback in a wood, he saw a huge 
bear about to kill a poor soldier who was gathering sticks. Regardless of 
his own danger, the generous duke rode up, and seizing one of the paws 
of the ferocious beast with his left hand, with the right plunged his sword 
into its body to the very hilt. — In the field nothing could resist the edge of 
his sword ; helmets and cuirasses were broken by it to pieces. In one of 
the battles which preceded the capture of Antioch, a Turkish officer of ex- 
traordinary size and bravery singled him out as the object of attack. God- 
frey, indignant at such boldness, raised himself in his stirrup, and rushing 
against his opponent, aimed a blow which cut the infidel in twain. The 
upper part of the body fell to the earth ; but the headless trunk, being tied 
to the saddle, remained on the horse, and was thus carried into Antioch 



SECOND CRUSADE. 293 

East. The Moslems scattered through the country took 
adyantage of every new dispute among the conquerors^ to 
harass them with a desultory warfare. At length Zenghi, 
sultan of Aleppo and Mosul, attacked, stormed and took 
Edessa in 1144; after which his sou Nouradin, pursuing 
the same line of policy against the Christians, began to 
threaten their other possessions in the East. The news 
of these calamitous events being spread abroad, gave 
occasion to the 

SECOBTD CRUSADE.— A.D. 1147.— 1149. 

Bernard of Clairvaux. — King Louis VII. of France 
and Conrad III. of Germany. — Deputies had been sent 
in haste from Syria to Europe, for the purpose of obtain- 
ing necessary auxiliaries. Immediately after their arrival, 
the Crusade was preached under the direction of Pope 
Eugenius III., by the celebrated abbot of Clairvaux, St. 
Bernard, whose eloquent exhortations, supported by great 
miracles, had exactly the same eifect which the exertions 
of Peter the Hermit had produced fifty years before. 
Such was the excitement produced in France and 
Germany, that King Louis VII. the Younger and the 
emperor Conrad III. took the cross, with all the choicest 
men of both nations, so as to form in a very short time 
two powerful armies. The Germans alone brought to the 



where the awful sight spread terror and consternation among the Turks. 
In fine, such was the strength of the duke of Lorraine, that, heing once re- 
quested by some Saracen emirs to display it in their presence, he with one 
blow, severed the head of a camel from the body. 

On the other hand, such was his moderation, that he never undertook 
to vindicate by force mere private rights, or to avenge personal injuries, 
his sword, he used to remark, being destined to spill the blood, not of Chris- 
tians, but of infidels, and that, only in unavoidable battles. At the taking 
of Jerusalem, a success owing chiefly to his intrepid valor, he no sooner 
saw victory declare in favor of the Christians, than he ceased fighting, laid 
aside his armor, and hastened to visit the Holy Sepulchre with the most edi- 
fying piety: an example which was soon imitated by all the Crusaders. 
Mild and innocent as a lamb in the ordinary course of life, he was like a 
lion on the field of battle. While the other princes respected him as a 
perfect n^odel of Christian chivalry, the multitude loved him as the best of 
fathers ; and his servants being asked, before the election of a king of 
Jerusalem, about his private character, could say nothing against him, ex- 
cept that he remained too long in church after the divine offices ; in con- 
sequence of wliich, they complained, his dinner frequently grew cold, antl 
became almost good for nothing. This was the only fault that could be 
found in the whole conduct of Godfrey. 



294 MODERN HISTORY. 

field seventy thousand horsemen with coats of mail, 
beside light cavalry and the infantry, The French host 
consisted of a hundred thousand warriors. These forces 
were more than sufficient to repair the losses suffered by 
the Christians in the East, and to foil all the attempts of 
their enemies; but, such was the perfidy of the Greeks, 
and the want of discipline among the Latins, that no 
great enterprise ever failed so completely as the Second 
Crusade. 

Unsuccessful progress of both armies. — Both 
armies started in the year 1147. The Germans, being the 
first to reach the neighborhood of Constantinople, began 
to experience the ill-will of the Greeks, which, it must be 
confessed, they sometimes provoked by their predatory 
and disorderly acts. The emperor himself, Manuel Com- 
nenus, is generally charged with having, under the veil 
of friendship, acted perfidiously towards them. This 
at least is certain, that the Crusaders, without experience 
against cunning, were deprived by the Greek population 
of their money and of the means of procuring necessary 
provisions; while, on the other hand bodies of soldiers 
attacked them when marching through narrow de- 
files. Finally, treacherous or unskilful guides led them 
through the difficult passes of Cappadocia, where they 
had to endure all the horrors of a cruel famine, and 
at last saw themselves surrounded by the Turks. The 
heavy-armed Germans in vain endeavored to reach the 
Turkish cavalry. All their courage could not protect 
them against numberless foes, who fled and rallied with 
surprising quickness, attacked their exhausted squadrons 
from the tops of the mountains, and harassed them by 
continual skirmishes. It became absolutely necessary to 
retreat towards Bithynia, under an incessant shower of 
arrows, every day adding thousands to the number of the 
slain. Conrad himself received two wounds; and when, 
at length, he reached the city of Nice, he could scarcely 
gather around him a tenth part of the knights and sol- 
diers who had followed him from Europe. 

The French, under the command of Louis, had less per- 
haps to suffer from the Greeks, and yet were not less 
unfortunate than the Germans. Victorious at first on the 
banks of the Meander, which was crossed in spite of all 
the efforts of the Turks, they experienced, after a few 



SECOND CKUSADE. 295 

days, a signal overthrow near the town of Laodicea in 
Phrygia. This disaster was brought upon the Christian 
army by the imprudence of a single general. On coming 
near a steep mountain, the commander of the vanguard 
had received orders from the king to halt on the summit, 
and there wait for the rest of the army. Disregarding 
this just command, the incautious man, after accomplish- 
ing the ascent, advanced into the plain on the other side, 
two or three miles beyond the spot specified: in the mean- 
time, the Turks, taking advantage of the terrible mistake, 
occupied the hill and thus completely separated the two 
divisions of the Crusaders. 

Such was the perilous position of the French army, 
when the rear, commanded by the king in person, and as 
yet unaware of its danger, began to climb the mountain 
in full security and without any precaution against an 
attack. On a sudden, as they were toiling up the steep 
acclivity, a shower of arrows from the top of the hill fell 
upon them, spreading indescribable confusion and dismay. 
Numbers were precipitated headlong down the precipice, 
or killed by the masses of rocks hurled against them; 
others, who had nearly reached the summit, were forced 
back by the victorious enemy upon those in the rear. It 
was in vain that Louis, at the head of his cavalry, endeav- 
ored to protect the infantry, and repel the Turks: the 
steepness of the ascent, and the fierceness of the foe ren- 
dered the contest tpo unequal; men and horses fell 
together, and the king himself was in imminent danger 
of being killed; but springing upon a rock and leaning 
against a tree, he defended himself with his trusty sword 
against several Turks, till at the approach of night, they 
withdrew and thus premitted him to rejoin his surviving 
troops. 

The Holy Land reached by sea.— After these losses 
and others which the Greeks and the Turks continued to 
inflict on them, both Louis and Conrad put to sea, in 
order to reach Palestine. Having arrived at Jerusalem, 
all the princes tliere present were summoned to assemble 
in council; and it was agreed that, instead of attempting 
to reconquer Edessa, which had been the original object 
of the Crusade, the Christian forces of Syria, united with 
the Crusaders, should undertake the siege of Damascus 
(ad. 1148). The monarchs immediately took the field. 



296 MODERN HISTORY. 

approached the town, drove before them the advanced 
bodies of Moslems, and began the siege with such great 
vigor that success seemed certain. All at once, jeal- 
ousies and quarrels among the lords disturbed the Chris- 
tian camp ; former animosities were revived, and treason 
being added to all these evils, the siege was finally aban- 
doned. At length, Conrad and Louis, full of regret and 
indignation, left the Latin princes of Asia to their own 
wretched dissensions and departed for Europe. 

Failure of the Second Crusade. — The ill success of 
the Second Crusade spread mourning over all the West, 
and was felt particularly in France, where loud com- 
plaints were lodged against St. Bernard, as the chief pro- 
moter of this fatal enterprise. The holy abbot, in a 
written apology, triumphantly vindicated his conduct; 
showing, with equal modesty and strength of reasoning, 
that, exactly as the Hebrews of old more than once failed, 
through their own fault, even in designs approved by 
God, so also, in the present instance, the blame was to be 
laid, not on the promoter of the Crusade, but on the Cru- 
saders themselves, on their disorders and want of disci- 
pline, which had drawn upon them the avenging justice 
of the Almighty.* Shortly after (a. d. 1153), St. Ber- 
nard departed this life, at the age of sixty-three, having 
deserved, by his eloquence, sanctity, immense labors for 
religion, and the excellency of his writings, to be num- 
bered among the most illustrious Fathers of the Church. 

GERMANY AIVD ITALY UIVDER FREDERIC I. 
(BARBAROSSA).— EXOLABiD AI¥D IRELAND 
UNDER HENRY II. (PL.ANTAGENET).— A.D. 
1153-1189. 

Frederic I. (Barbarossa) 1152-1190. — Conrad lived 

three years after his return from Palestine ; at his death 
in 1152, he left the crown to Frederic Barbarossa, his 
nephew, a prince of great learning, ability and courage, 
but proud, haughty and ambitious. Wishing, like the 
first Eoman emperors, to be considered sovereign of the 

* See St. Bernard himself, De Consider atione, lib. ii, c. i, nos. 2, 3; where 
he adduces the example of the Israelites who died in the desert, and es- 
pecially that of the eleven tribes defeated by the tribe of Benjamin.— 
Judg. XX, 18-27. 



GERMANY, ETC. 29? 

whole world, he made powerful efforts, during twenty 
years (1157-1177), to oppress both the See of Rome and 
the small states of Italy. His wicked attempts to raise 
a general schism in the Church and to place popes of 
his own creation in St. Peter's chair, were defeated by 
the vigor of the lawful pontiff, Alexander III., united 
with the zeal evinced by the other sovereigns of Europe, 
particularly the kings of England and France (Henry II., 
Louis VII.), in acknowledging Alexander as the only true 
pope. The exertions of the emperor towards the sub- 
jugation of the Italian republics were in the beginning 
more successful ; but the Milanese, whose city he had 
destroyed in 1162, having entered with the neighboring 
states into a common league in 1167 to rebuild Milan 
and repel the violent usurper, he experienced from them 
a signal overthrow in the battle of Leguano in 1176, which 
entirely reduced his power, and blasted his hopes with re- 
gard to the possession of Italy. 

This state of things induced Frederic to come to a re- 
conciliation with the Pope and the Italians, on the con- 
ditions which they required, especially that of renouncing 
the schism and abandoning his hostile demonstrations 
against the peninsula. The treaty was finally settled at 
Venice (a.d. 1177), to the satisfaction of all parties, the 
emperor being now as eager to testify his sincere and per- 
fect submission to the Sovereign Pontiff, as he had 
before been in manifesting his opposition. It is not true, 
that the Pope, as some historians relate, set his foot on 
the neck of Frederic, and insulted him with these words 
of the Psalmist : Tliou shalt ivalk upon the asp and the 
basilisk : and thou shalt trample under foot the lion and 
the dragon* The story, as has been remarked by many 
Catholic critics, f and acknowledged by impartial Protes- 
tant historians, J is not in keeping with the well known 
meekness and moderation of Alexander III., nor founded 
on any credible testimony. This pretended humiliation 



* Psalm xc. 13. 

+ Feller, Diet. Histor., art. Alex, m.— Natalis Alexander, Hiit. Eccl., 
Sxculo xn, c. n, art. 9 de Alex, in.— Baronius, and Hist, de I'Egl. Gall 
ad ann., 1177. ^ , 

$The English authors of Univers. Hist., Paris' edit., 1787, Ooofc xxv^, c. 
IV, reign of Fred. I. ; — or vol. xcvii, p. 190, of the historical part, and 
p. 191, note. 



298 MODERN HISTORY. 

of Frederic is indeed represented in some modern pict- 
ures ; but who does not know that the liberty of fictions 
and symbolical representations is allowed " to painters as 
well as to poets ? " 

England under Henry I., 1100-1135 and Stephen 
of Blois II3';-II54. — England, during the same period, 
was not less disturbed than Germany and Italy. King 
Henry I., the last son of William the Conqueror, having 
died in 1135, the crown had been subsequently disputed 
by his daughter Matilda and his nephew Stephen of Blois, 
earl of Boulogne. At last, in order to reconcile the jar- 
ring interests of the two parties, it was agreed that, upon 
the demise of Stephen, the crown should devolve upon 
Henry, the son of Matilda and of Geoffrey Plantagenet, 
earl of Anjou, whom she had married after the death 
of the German emperor Henry V., her first husband. 
This agreement was executed in 1154, and Henry 
Plantagenet ascended the throne of England under the 
most favorable auspices. He inherited from his father 
Touraine and Anjou, and from his mother Maine and 
Normandy. He had also received with his wife Eleanor 
the provinces of Poitou, Saintonge and Guienne ; so that, 
besides England, a third part of France acknowledged 
his authority, and though he did homage for his conti- 
nental territories as a vassal to the French king, he was 
more powerful than that monarch. 

Henry H. of Plantagenet-Anjou,ii54-ii8o.— The 
reign of Henry II., like most long reigns, was marked by 
several important events ; among others, by the martyr- 
dom of St. Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, and by 
the conquest of Ireland. The invincible courage with 
which the archbishop defended the rights and immuni- 
ties of the Church against the encroachments of the civil 
power, excited the animosity of the king, and so provoked 
the fury of four of his courtiers, that, repairing to Can- 
terbury, they stabbed him in his own cathedral (a.d. 1170). 
So atrocious a deed raised a general outcry of horror and 
indignation, not only against the murderers, but also 
against the king ; nor could he otherwise avert the immi- 
ent dangers to which he now found himself exposed on 
all sides, than by submitting to an exemplary penance for 
the murder lately occasioned by his passionate words. 

Ireland added to England in 1171. — Having Qxtri- 



FALL OF THE KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM. 299 

cated himself from these diflficulties, Henry carried out 
the design which he had long since formed of adding 
Ireland to his dominions. Until then, this celebrated 
island, as we said before, had never been conquered, not 
even by the Danes, although their frequent ravages had 
greatly interfered with religion, morality and civiliza- 
tion. Under the plea of rescuing the Irish from the evils 
that pervaded their several provinces, the English mon- 
arch obtained leave from Pope Adrian IV. to enter their 
country, and skilfully availed himself of the intestine 
feuds which divided their sovereigns, to make conquests 
in Ireland. The natives, it is true, struggled long and 
desperately, even sometimes successfully, against the 
English ; but their dissensions and domestic broils pre- 
vented them from obtaining any permanent advantage, 
and Henry succeeded in obtaining a solid footing and ex- 
tensive settlements upon their territory. From that 
period, the British monarchs were called ''Lords of 
Ireland," until 1542, when Henry VIII. took the title of 
king, and Ireland was made a part of the United Kingdom. 
The remainder of Henry's reign was spent in improving 
the jurisprudence of his kingdom, and in various affairs, 
political and military, with foreign princes, during 
the course of which he generally showed himself an able 
monarch, a skilful general, and a courageous soldier. 
His greatest trouble was the disobedient and rebellious 
conduct of his sons, whose ingratitude he frequently ex- 
perienced. So bitter was his grief in consequence of their 
last revolt, that it is supposed to have accelerated his 
death, which happened in the year 1189. 

FALL. OF THE KINODOm OF JERUSALFKf. 
— A.D. 1187. 

After the departure of Louis and Conrad from the East, 
Nouradin, without much difficulty, continued his conquests 
in Syria. Even Egypt, which had long been an indepen- 
dent sovereignty, was subdued by his generals; and the 
Christian colonies were more and more closely surrounded 
by their indefatigable foes. Their danger further increased 
under Saladin, a Mussulman emir, who succeeded Nouradin 
in 1176, and who, to the possession of extensive dominions 
and an alarming power, joined all the qualifications nee- 



300 MODERN HISTORY. 

essary to complete the ruin of a contiguous and decaying 
state. Talents, ambition, activity, valor; sometimes in- 
flexible severity; sometimes wonderful generosity and 
kindness; everything, in fine, contributed to make him 
the greatest hero of Islamism and the most formidable 
enemy of the Christians. 

Guy of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem. — It was in 
the year 1187, that he wrested from them the possession 
of Jerusalem and of nearly all Palestine, He first en- 
tered the province of Galilee with eighty thousand horse- 
men, and cutting to pieces a body of knights who de- 
fended that part of the country, stormed and captured 
Tiberias, its capital, but was stopped before the citadel. 
In the meantime the Christian princes held a great council 
in Jerusalem, to deliberate on the measures to be taken 
for the preservation of the kingdom. Contrary to the ad- 
vice of the most prudent, it was resolved to march out 
against Saladin. Accordingly, the troops of the different 
princes, as well as those of Guy de Lusignan, king of Jeru- 
salem; the knights Hospitallers and Templars; the garrisons 
of the towns; in a word, all who could bear arms, were col- 
lected, and formed an army of fifty thousand men, who 
imniediately marched towards Tiberias. 

Battle at Tiberias. — The two opposing hosts were 
soon in sight of each other, and without delay prepared 
for battle. The advantage of position was on the side 
of the Moslems, who, occupying the summit of the hills, 
commanded the valleys and defiles through which the 
Christians had to pass before coming to close contest. 
They, however, continued to advance amidst a shower 
of darts and stones. Although the Mussulman cavalry 
rushed from the hills to oppose their passage they still 
preserved their ranks; and, animated by the exhortations of 
the chiefs and the consciousness of their own danger, with- 
stood unmoved the impetuous attack of the enemy. Sal- 
adin himself could not forbear admiring their intrepidity, 
and confessed, in one of his letters that the Franks had 
fought that day with extraordinary valor. But they had 
more courage than strength; destitute as they were of food 
and water, and debilitated by the heat of the day, even 
the most vigorous among them seemed prostrated by ex- 
cessive weariness. Night suspended the still dubious 
conflict. 



FALL OF THE KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM. 301 

Defeat of the Christians. — The next day, the Sar- 
acens and Franks again mingled in the combat; but Sal- 
adin, as a skilful general, did not give the signal for 
battle till the Christian army was weakened by the rays 
of the meridian sun. He moreover caused the dry herbs 
which covered the plain, to be set on fire, so that the 
Christians were soon encircled by the smoke and flames 
which reached them on every side. In this extremity, 
confusion in their ranks became unavoidable; yet they 
continued intrepid and formidable to their opponents, 
several of them rushing from among the clouds of dust 
into the thickest ranks of the Mussulman forces. The 
Templars, above all, and the knights of St. John, by their 
almost supernatural efforts, would have saved the army, 
could it possibly have been saved; but the combined exer- 
tions of courage and despair everywhere found an in- 
superable obstacle in the multitude of their opponents, and 
the repeated charges of the Christian warriors served only 
to diminish their own numbers. At length entirely over- 
come by thirst and fatigue, both their chargers and 
themselves fell before the infidels, who either butch- 
ered them on the spot or took them prisoners, together 
with the king of Jerusalem. A few only escaped, by cut- 
ting a passage for themselves through the enemy. 

Conquest of Jerusalem by Saladin 1187. — Saladin 
did not neglect to improve the signal victory which he 
had gained. He at once advanced into the heart of Pal- 
estine, took possession of many cities and fortresses, and 
at last laid seige to Jerusalem. As this capital was now 
stripped of its defenders, who had just perished in the 
fatal battle of Tiberias, it could not resist the victorious 
arms of Saladin. Moreover, the Syrian inhabitants of the 
city had conspired among themselves to deliver it into the 
hands of the conqueror. This fact being made known, 
increased the well-grounded alarm of the Latins, and they 
offered to surrender the place, provided honorable con- 
ditions should be granted. After some difficulty, Saladin 
complied with a part of their request ; permitting them 
to retire unmolested, after having required from each 
person the payment of a certain sum, he entered Jerusa- 
lem in October, 1187, eighty-eight years after it had been 
conquered by the heroes of the First Crusade. There now 
remained in the possession of the Latins only three con- 



302 MODERN HISTORY. 

siderable towns in Syria, namely, Antioch, Tyre and 
Tripoli. 

THIRD CRIJISADE:.— A.D. 11S§— 1194. 

The news of the fall of Jerusalem spread consternation 
through all Christendom. Pope Urban III. was so much 
afflicted, that he died of a broken heart ; the western 
princes, who had seemed before to disregard the danger 
of the Christian colonies in Asia, now condemned their 
apathy, and determined to forget their private quarrels 
for the common interest of Christianity (a.d. 1188). 

The three most powerful monarchs take part. — 
Three famous potentates were at that time reigning in 
Europe: Frederic I., emperor of Germany, Henry II., king 
of England, both of whom have been already mentioned 
in a preceding section; and Philip II., surnamed Augus- 
tus, king of France, whose abilities raised that nation to a 
degree of splendor and power which it had not possessed 
since Charlemagne. These three ilhistrious monarchs, 
together with the chief lords of their respective states, 
received the cross from the hands of William, the cele- 
brated historian, and archbishop of Tyre. Laws were 
enacted to maintain good order and discipline among the 
Crusaders more successfully than during the foregoing 
Crusades ; and, to raise money for the expedition, a coun- 
cil of princes and bishops ordered that every man who 
did not take the cross, should give the tenth part of 
his revenue and personal property. This tax, called 
Saladm's tithe, from the terror which the alarming pro- 
gress of Saladin inspired, was levied in England and 
France by royal commissioners. 

Frederic"!, proceeds by land. — The first to set 
out for Asia was the emperor Frederic, at the head of one 
hundred and fifty thousand men. How much might be 
expected for the success of the Crusade from such an 
army, under a high-spirited prince of consummate skill 
and valor, may be easily conceived. In fact, the progress 
of the Germans, until the death of Frederic, was but one 
series of victories. The Greek emperor, Isaac Angelus, 
who dared to attack them when they entered his terri- 
tory, had the mortification of seeing his troops routed, his 
capital in great danger, and himself compelled to supply 



THIRD CRUSADE. 303 

the conqueror with provisions for several months, and 
with a sufficient number of vessels to convey the Crusaders 
to the opposite shore in Asia. 

The Germans continued to advance with uninterrupted 
success. Although many of them died before reaching 
Syria, the progress of their army spread terror abroad. 
They cut to pieces or drove before them all the Turkish 
forces in their way, defeated twice the army of the sultan 
of Iconium, which consisted of two or three hundred 
thousand combatants; and, taking the city itself at the 
first onset, forced the sultan humbly to sue for peace. 
Their discipline was equal to their bravery, and from all 
sides information was conveyed to Saladin of the heroic 
patience of the Germans in a painful and harassing 
march, and of their indomitable valor. If we give credit 
to some historians, the Mussulman prince was already 
preparing to retire towards Egypt, when a fatal circum- 
stance unexpectedly delivered him from his most formid- 
able enemy. 

Frederic's death. — After crossing Asia Minor and 
passing the defiles of Mount Taurus, Frederic, with 
his army, was going along a small river, which many 
believed to be the very same (the Cydnus) in which 
Alexander-the-Great had well nigh perished. The heat 
of the day was excessive. The emperor, enticed by the 
coolness and clearness of the water, threw himself into 
it; but, being suddenly benumbed by the cold, he was 
taken out of the river in the agonies of death, or, as 
others say, was carried down by the rapidity of the cur- 
rent, and drowned. 

His death was more fatal to his army than the loss of 
a great battle could have been. Many soldiers aban- 
doned the army of the Crusade; while the others, pro- 
ceeding towards Palestine in spite of a thousand obsta- 
cles, saw their numbers so far diminished by famine, 
fatigue, disease and repeated battles, that they were 
no longer able to contend with the hardy troops of Sala- 
din. They therefore went to join the army of King Guy 
of Lusignan, who, after his deliverance from captivity, 
had undertaken to besiege the strong town of Acre or 
Ptolemais, on the Syrian coast (a.d. 1190). 

Richard the Lion-hearted and Philip II. proceed 
by sea to Palestine. — Various incidents had retarded 



304 MODEIW HISTOKY. 

the departure of the French and English monarchs. In 
the interval, Henry II. died, and left his place to be filled 
both on the throne and in the crusade by his son Richard 
I., suruamed CcBur de Lion. The new sovereign quickly 
made his last arrangements for the holy war ; and, in 
order to avoid the dangers of a march by land, both he 
and Philip resolved to convey their armies to Palestine 
by sea. These two princes were then in the flower of 
their age, ardent, ambitious, brave and intrepid; but 
Philip was the greater king, Richard the greater warrior; 
Philip had, in a greater degree than Richard, qualities 
which entitle a prince to affection and esteem; but he 
was inferior to him in those qualities which excite sur- 
prise and admiration. Moreover, the haughtiness and 
violence of Richard often made enemies and led him into 
unpleasant adventures. 

Although the two monarchs had sworn inviolable friend- 
ship and fidelity to each other, conflicting views and 
difference of character soon resulted in" jealousies and 
quarrels between them, which greatly injured the cause 
of the crusade. Philip arrived first in Palestine, where 
the siege of Acre, owing to the obstinate resistance of the 
garrison, had already lasted nearly two years, the besieg- 
ers being themselves besieged in their camp by the innu- 
merable troops of Saladin, who, from the neighboring 
mountains, constantly watched all their motions. Bloody 
and frequent were the conflicts, and incalculable the 
losses of both armies on the field of battle; many also were 
carried off by pestilence and famine; but the arrivals of 
each day supplied the losses of the preceding. The land- 
ing of Philip diffused new vigor among the Crusaders; 
military engines were erected, the walls were battered 
down and undermined; all the preparations were made for 
the assault; nothing was wanted but the presence of Rich- 
ard who had not yet arrived to share in the danger and 
glory of the attempt. 

Acre taken by the united forces. — This monarch 
had sailed from Sicily about three weeks later than 
Philip, and had moreover been detained in chastising the 
perfidy of a Greek prince, and in subduing the rich island 
of Cyprus. He at last reached the Christian camp, and 
the siege of Acre received from his presence a new im- 
pulse. Assaults were repeatedly made ; and although 



THIRD CRUSADE. 305 

the town held out for some time it was easy to perceive 
that the resistance could not last much longer. The 
garrison, seeing their defences ruined, and all the efforts 
of Saladin insufficient to stop the progress of the siege, 
consented at last to capitulate, and the Christians took 
immediate possession of the city (a.d. 1191). 

Thus ended the siege of Ptolemais, one of the most 
famous in history ; one during which such exploits were 
performed by the Crusaders as might, if well directed, 
have sufficed for the conquest of all Asia. Although it 
gave rise to some acts of cruelty and bloody retaliation, 
it was also distinguished by many acts of politeness and 
courtesy interchanged between tlie Latins and the Mos- 
lems. In times of truce, the contending nations mingled 
together in friendship ; and at one moment they recipro- 
cated good offices, while at another they met in impetuous 
and bloody conflict. Saladin used to send presents of 
excellent fruit to Kings Eichard and Philip, who, in 
return, sent him Jewels and productions of Europe. 

Philip departs for France. — The joy which the 
conquest of Ptolemais spread among Christian nations, 
was soon damped by the news that Philip intended to 
withdraw from the Crusade. No doubt can exist that the 
health of this monarch had been considerably impaired 
by a dangerous illness ; but his chief motive in returning 
to Europe, was the disgust he had conceived at the over- 
bearing conduct and passionate temper of Eichard, which 
ever prevented them from cordially co-operating. Under 
such circumstances, the French king seemed Justifiable 
in retiring from the army, on the plausible plea that he 
would, by so doing, rather advance the cause of the Cru- 
sade. Accordingly, he took his final determination, alid 
embarked for France, leaving behind him ten thousand 
men with the duke of Burgundy, to support the king of 
England. 

By this retreat of Philip, the chief command devolved 
solely on Eichard. After repairing the fortifications of 
Acre, he marched out with a considerable force, and, tak- 
ing the road along the sea-shore, proceeded towards Asca- 
lon, while vessels laden with provisions followed along 
the coast. The Saracens pursued the army as it marched, 
and harassed it by continual skirmishes, which led, how- 
ever, to no serious consequences. But near Antipatris. 



306 MODERN HISTORY. 

at the passage of a river called Arsur, the Christians were 
suddenly attacked by two or three hundred thousand 
Moslems, whom Saladin, in order to impede the progress 
of the Crusade, and to avenge the loss of Ptolemais, had 
assembled from all parts of his empire. 

Richard's valor. — Eichard, seeing that the battle 
was unavoidable, desired to make it a decisive one, and 
forbade his troops to commence fighting until the signal 
should be given. The Crusaders waited for it with impa- 
tience ; they could bear anything but the shame of 
remaining idle in the presence of an enemy who was vig- 
orously pressing upon them. At length, some of the 
most intrepid knights, forgetting the king^s orders, 
rushed against the Saracens ; and, as others followed 
their example, in a few moments the engagement became 
general. So furious was the shock, and so thick the dust 
which enveloped both armies, that several fell by the 
swords of their own companions, who mistook them for 
antagonists. Eichard seemed to multiply himself, and to 
be in every part of the field in which the danger was great- 
est ; and everywhere the enemy fled at his presence. 
The other chiefs under him seconded his efforts ; and the 
Mussulmans, unable to withstand so impetuous a charge, 
fled to the mountains, calling the Crusaders a nation 
made of iron, and which could not be broken. 

His victory over the Saracens. — In the meantime, 
the Christians could scarcely believe that they were so 
soon victorious ; nor were their doubts entirely ground- 
less. While they still occupied the spot on which they 
had just fought, attending to their wounded companions, 
the engagement was renewed by a body of twenty thou- 
sand infidels, whom their commander, a nephew of Sala- 
din, had rallied and led back to the charge, but with as 
little success as before. Finally, just as the conquerors 
were resuming their march, the enemy, hurried on by 
fury and despair, again attacked them in the rear. Eich- 
ard, with only fifteen knights, ran to the spot and again 
routed the Moslems. Their army, thus defeated three 
times on the same day, at last abandoned the field with 
the loss of thirty-two emirs, and several thousand of their 
choicest men. Many more yet might have fallen had 
they not found a timely refuge in the neighboring forests. 



THIRD CRUSADE. 307 

First retreat from before Jerusalem. — Still, this 
victory, splendid as it was, procured more glory than 
real advantage to the Crusaders. Yielding to the same 
spirit of inaction which is supposed to have proved fatal 
to Hannibal after the battle of Cannae, Richard, instead 
of leading his victorious troops without delay to Jerusa- 
lem, wasted his time in repairing the town of Jaffa and 
the castles of the neighborhood. The Moslems recovered 
from their terror, and Saladin had sufficient respite to 
fortify the Holy City in such a manner as to promise a 
most vigorous resistance. When afterwards Richard, on 
two different occasions, approached Jerusalem with the 
intention of besieging it, the difficulty of the attempt, 
the severity of the climate, the dissensions and jeal- 
ousy of the chief crusaders, and the fears which he enter- 
tained for his European dominions, induced him on both 
occasions to retire. This was a source of much regret 
and sorrow both to the army and to the king. While 
many persons loudly murmured against him, and with- 
drew from his standard, he shared in the common grief, 
and was indignant at himself. One day, while pursuing 
a party of Saracens as far as the hills that surround Jer- 
usalem, and from which he could see the towers and 
steeples, of the town, he burst into tears, and covered his 
face with his shield, thinking himself unworthy to con- 
template the Holy City which his arms could not rescue 
from the hands of infidels. 

Second retreat from before Jerusalem. — Notwith- 
standing these uncertainties and obstacles, Richard con- 
tinued to wage a terrible war against the Moslems, and, by 
splendid feats, to maintain the just reputation he already 
enjoyed of being the greatest warrior of his age. Imme- 
diately after the second retreat of the Christians from the 
neighborhood of Jerusalem, Saladin burst into the city of 
Jaffa, and, putting to the sword many of the inhabitants, 
drove the rest into the citadel, which he besieged. The 
English king had now returned to Acre. At the first 
intelligence of the event, he sent the bulk of the army by 
land, while he, taking advantage of a favorable wind, set 
sail with seven galleys, and arrived in time to save the 
besieged garrison by clearing the town of its invaders. 

This, however, was not enough for the impetuous cour- 
age of Richard. Disdaining to be confined within the 



308 MODEKlSr HISTORY. 

walls of the liberated city, he marched out to challenge 
the Moslems, and was soon attacked by an army three 
times as large as his own ; but inferiority of num- 
bers was of little consequence, when Kichard commanded 
in person. He repelled all the charges of the Mussulman 
cavalry, put it to flight, and vanquished every champion 
who dared to wait his approach, among others a valiant 
emir, whose head, right shoulder and right arm he cut off 
at one blow. Seeing the brave earl of Essex and his com- 
panions on the point of being slain or captured, he 
rushed forward with his usual courage, scattered the 
enemy like a whirlwind, and delivered his friends from 
their peril.* Indeed, he threw himself with such ardor 
among the Mussulman squadrons, that for some mo- 
ments, he disappeared from the sight of his own troops. 
When he returned, his horse was covered with dust and 
blood ; and he himself bristling with darts fastened in his 
shield and dress, resembled, according to an eye-witness, 
a cushion covered with needles. 

It was thought that Richard, on this occasion, sur- 
passed his former renown. His conduct won for him 
the admiration of the infidels themselves, particularly of 
Saphadin, the sultan's brother, who, during the very con- 
flict, sent him a present of two Arabian horses. His 
presence alone filled the Moslems with terror, and made 
their hair stand erect. When Saladin, after the battle re- 
proached the Moslem officers for having fled before a sin- 
gle man : "Nobody,^' answered one of them, "can with- 
stand him; his approach is frightful, his shock is irresisti- 
ble, his feats of arms are superhuman." In fact, Richard, 
to a mind incapable of fear, added an extraordinary de- 
gree of muscular strength, and such was the impression 

* The readiness of the king to succor his fellow-Crasaders in every dan- 
ger to which they might be exposed, was repaid by their devotedness in 
defending his life and liberty at the expense of their own. This appeared 
chiefly during the first sojourn of the Christian troops in the neighbor- 
hood of Jaffa. Richard, having one day gone to the chase in a forest, 
stopped to sleep under a tree, but was suddenly awakened by the cries of 
those who accompanied him, and who saw a troop of Moslems rapidly ad- 
vancing to take him prisoner. He quickly mounted his horse, and began to 
fight with his usual valor ; but, being surrounded on all sides, he would 
certainly have been captured or slain, had not one of his followers, named 
William of Pratelles, drawn the attention of the foes to himself, by ex- 
claiming, " I am the king ; save my life." The king, being thus enabled to 
make his escape, retired to Jaffa ; while William, having delivered him- 



THIRD CRUSADE. 309 

of terror produced by his exploits in Palestine that, for a 
century after, his name was used to check the impetuosity 
of the Moslem horse and quiet the restlessness of the 
Moslem child. 

Truce with Saladin.— Still, all these glorious 
achievements were lost for the Crusade. The dissensions 
of the Crusaders, which the haughtiness of the English 
monarch contributed much to increase, the jealousy of the 
other chiefs against him, and, above all, the informa- 
tion which he repeatedly received of great disturbances 
in England, made him earnestly desire the conclu- 
sion of a treaty of peace, and he repeatedly proposed it 
to Saladin. At last, a truce was agreed upon between 
them for three years and eight months. By it the Chris- 
tians were left in possession of the cities of Palestine sit- 
uated along the coast, and the Saracens kept the other 
towns with Jerusalem, under condition of granting to the 
pilgrims free access to the Holy Sepulchre. 

Result of the Third Crusade. — Such was the result 
of the Third Crusade, which had seen the most powerful 
monarchs, and, as it were, all the forces of Europe fight- 
ing against those of Asia during three years in succession. 
It led, indeed, to the surrender of Acre, a town of con- 
siderable importance for the Christians; and to the con- 
quest of the island of Cyprus, which Eichard gave to Guy 
of Lusignan, the disappointed king of Jerusalem, but it 
did not recover the Holy City, the real and professed ob- 
ject of the Crusade. Splendid and glorious were the per- 
sonal exploits of Eichard; still his vacillating conduct 
showed that he possessed neither all the talents of a great 
general, nor that constancy of mind so necessary for the 
success of any arduous enterprise. The superiority in 

self into the hands of the Mussulmans, was conducted to Saladin, who 
knew how to appreciate so noble an action, and, instead of punishing his 
deceit, praised his fidelity. Nor was Richard ungrateful towards the gen- 
erous knight ; in order to rescue him from captivity, he willingly returned 
ten of the principal emirs who had been made prisoners in the battle of 
Antipatris. 

This interesting event is not mentioned by Lingard ; still, it cannot be 
well doubted, being taken from authentic documents of that epoch, and 
related by many excellent historians, viz, Michaud,-ffjs(. des Croisades, 
vol. II, p. 473 — Maimbourg, Hist, des Crois. vol. II, p. 418; — and F. 
D'Orleans, Hist, des Bevol. D'Anglet., vol., I, p. 230, who all refer the fact 
to the end of the year 1191. 



310 MODERN HISTORY. 

both these particulars ought certainly to be given to Sala 
din, who, notwithstanding some defeats, finally remained 
master of Jerusalem and of the far greater portion of the 
Holy Land. 

Richard shipwrecked and imprisoned. — The 
English monarch, having nothing more to do in Palestine, 
sailed from Acre in October (1193); the inhabitants wept 
at his departure, nor could he suppress his own emotion. 
Many and disastrous were the adventures which attended 
his voyage. The vessel in which he sailed being wrecked 
on the coast of the Adriatic sea, the king resolved to 
cross Germany incognito and in the guise of a pilgrim, 
to avoid the snares of his numerous enemies; but even 
this precaution could not save him from the disasters 
which he feared. Being recognized at Vienna, in Austria, 
Duke Leopold, whom he had cruelly offended during the 
siege of Ptolemais, arrested him, and confined him as his 
prisoner in a strong castle. The royal captive was after- 
wards delivered into the hands of the German emperor, 
Henry VI., also his enemy, who kept him in prison, till a 
large sum of money was sent from England for his ran- 
som.r . At length, Eichard was allowed to pursue his jour- 
ney without further molestation. At Antwerp, he found 
his fleet; and, after a voyage of a few days, landed on 
the shores of England. The recollection of his recent 
exploits and misfortunes having obliterated the remem- 
brance of his former faults, he was received with uni- 
versal joy, after an absence of more than four years (a.d. 
1194). 

FOURTH CRUSADE.— A.D. 1195-1198. 

Saladin's death. — Saladin did not long enjoy the 
satisfaction of having maintained his superiority in Asia, 
and particularly in the Holy Land, against the combined 
efforts of the European princes. One year had scarcely 
elapsed after the conclusion of his treaty with Eichard, 
when death terminated his career. Finding his end ap- 
proaching, he commanded the shroud in which his body 
was to be enveloped, to be carried through the streets, 
and an emir to cry out with a loud voice: "Behold what 
Saladin, the mighty conqueror of the East, will carry 
away with him of all his vast dominions.^' He died at 



FIFTH CRUSADE. 3H 

Damascus (a. d. 1194) — a monarch in whose character, al- 
though not altogether blameless, humanity and justice 
were more conspicuous than in any other Mussulman con- 
queror. 

The death of this great sultan was followed by civil 
dissensions ' among the Moslems, which might have 
greatly weakened their power, had the Christians been 
more united among themselves. The sons of Saladin 
seized upon such portions of their father's empire as they 
could obtain; but his brother Saphadin, otherwise called 
Malek-Adel, finding himself equally beloved and re- 
spected by the soldiers, waged war against these young 
princes, and took possession of the greater part of Syria. 

Failure of the Fourth Crusade.— This was a favor- 
able opportunity for another Crusade. Pope Celestine III. 
exhorted all Christendom to improve it by a generous ef- 
fort, and to take up arms again in favor of Jerusalem. 
In England and France, his exhortation failed, as Richard 
and Philip were now too actively engaged in war against 
each other, to quit their dominions; but in Germany, so 
many persons offered themselves, following the example of 
the emperor Henry VI. that three armies were quickly as- 
sembled for this new expedition. Henry, however, with 
the most numerous of the three, did not proceed farther 
than Sicily, where he put an end to the power and race of 
the Norman sovereigns. The other two armies reached 
Palestine, and gained at first great advantages over Sa- 
phadin. Unfortunately, new quarrels among the leaders 
impodcd their progress, and the news of the emperor's 
death induced them to return to Europe for the election 
of his successor (a.d. 1198). Thus the hope which had 
been entertained with regard to the recovery of the Holy 
Land, was again disappointed. 

FIFTH CRUSADE. 

FOUNDATION OF THE LATIN EMPIRE OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 
A.D. 1202-1204. 

Another crusade soon followed, productive of the most 
singular and unexpected effects. Although the ill success 
of the foregoing expeditions liad greatly abated the enthu- 
siasm for the holy war, still the letters of Pope Innocent 



312 MODERN HISTORY. 

III. and the eloquent exhortations of a zealous priest, 
called Foulques de Neuilly, soon revived in many gener- 
ous hearts an ardent desire of reconquering Jerusalem. 
None, it is true, of the crowned heads, owing to their 
fear of each other, engaged in this new attempt to liber- 
ate Palestine ; but it. was vigorously pursued by several 
Italian and French lords, under the command of Boniface, 
marquis of Montferrat, and Baldwin, earl of Flanders. 

Siege of Zara in Dalmatia. — These new Crusaders 
determined, as kings Richard and Philip had formerly 
done, to convey their armament to Palestine by sea. 
A treaty was entered into with the republic of Venice, by 
which the Venetians agreed only to supply the Cru- 
sading army with vessels at a stipulated price, and to 
share in the enterprise. The fleet was soon ready ; but 
the unexpected departure of several among the barons 
and knights by a different way, greatly perplexed the 
others, who, although tliey melted down their plate, 
could not make up the sum required. In this distress, 
the famous doge Henry Dandolo, opened negotiations 
again, and offered, not only to unite with the French in 
the Crusade, but also to wait for the payment of their 
entire debt till the end of the expedition, provided they 
would first aid the Venetians in reconquering the city of 
Zara, in Dalmatia, which had been taken from the repub- 
.lic some time before by the king of Hungary^ The offer 
was accepted, and Zara being vigorously attacked both by 
land and sea, surrendered at discretion (a.d. 1202). It 
now seemed that nothing more could retard the voyage of 
the Crusaders; but just at this Juncture, there came from 
another quarter a request of an extraordinary nature, and 
promising the happiest results ; this request again 
diverted them from their former design, and gave a new 
direction to the operations of the Crusade. 

Expedition to Constantinople. — Isaac, the emperor 
of Constantinople, had lately been expelled from the 
throne by his brother Alexius, who moreover deprived him 
of his sight, and imprisoned him. Another Alexius, the 
son of the dethroned monarch, having made his escape 
from the hands of the usurper, went through the various 
countries and courts of Europe, to excite compassion and 
obtain assistance for his unfortunate father. The French 
and the Venetians had not yet sailed from Zara, when 



FIFTH CRUSADE. 313 

the deputies of that young prince, who were soon fol- 
lowed by himself, arrived in their camp. He bound him- 
self by oath, if they would expel the usurper and replace 
Isaac on the throne, to give two hundred thousand marks 
of silver, to aid in the conquest of the Holy Land, to 
maintain there, during his life, five hundred knights for 
its defence, and to re-establish among the Greeks the 
authority of the Roman Pontiff. Notwithstanding the 
tempting promises and engaging manners of young Alex- 
ius, his proposal did not receive the unanimous appro- 
bation of the Crusaders, many rejecting at once the idea 
of being again diverted from the main object of their 
enterprise. Still, the offers were so advantageous in 
themselves, and seemed moreover so well calculated to 
further the ultimate result which they wished to obtain, 
that most of the barons readily accepted them on the 
terms proposed. Accordingly, the fleet, having on board 
Prince Alexius, set sail from Zara; and, after a short and 
prosperous passage, came within sight of Constantinople 
(A.D. 1203). 

Dandolo. — A siege of ten days was sufficient to reduce 
that celebrated capital. After many skirmishes, a general 
attack was agreed upon by the Latins, and it was made on 
the seventeenth of July, both by land and sea, the French 
and the Venetians rivalling each other on that day in 
deeds of undaunted courage. Still, they would perhaps 
have been overcome by numbers, had not Henry Dandolo 
set them an example of heroic boldness and intrepidity. 
Although more than eighty years old, and almost blind, he 
ordered, with terrific threats in case of disobedience, that 
he should be landed, with the great standard of St. Mark 
before him. In compliance with the command, his vessel 
was immediately pushed to the shore, close under the 
walls ; the rest of the fleet followed ; and, in spite of 
darts, stones and Grecian fire thrown by the besieged, 
twenty-five towers were soon in the possession of the assail- 
ants. After this, Dandolo, without loss of time, flew to 
the assistance of the French who were opposed by innu- 
merable forces. The Greeks retreated ; consternation 
spread through Constantinople ; and the usurper, more 
terrified than any of the citizens, fled during the night 
from the town, carrying along with him his treasures and 
the insignia of the imperial dignity. 



314 MODERN HISTORY. 

The inhabitants opened their gates to the conquerorB. 
The old emperor, delivered from his prison, reascended 
the throne with universal applause, and ratified the 
promises made by his son to the Latins. But it was an 
easier task to reiterate them, than to carry them into exe- 
cution. The heavy taxes which Isaac and Alexius, in 
order to pay their debt, were obliged to impose on the 
people ; a dreadful conflagration, which raged during ■ 
three day^ in the capital ; and a variety of other incidents, m 
excited public hatred and contempt against the two 
emperors; while the Crusaders also were indignant at their 
delay in carrying out the treaty. The most dangerous of 
their enemies was a young lord of the court, known under 
the surname of Murzuphlis, who secretly aspired to the 
supreme power. While he deceived the sovereigns by an 
exterior show of zeal for their interests, he left nothing 
untried to incense the multitude both against them and 
against the Latins. Finally, the unwary princes having 
fallen victims to his intrigues and perfidy, he was ac- 
knowledged emperor in their place, and immediately pre- ' 
pared to oppose the efliorts which, he foresaw, the Crusad- 
ers would make, to punish his crime and avenge the 
death of those whom they had taken under their protec- 
tion. 

Revolt of the Greeks. — In fact, the intelligence of 
the murder of the young Alexius had no sooner reached 
their camp, than they determined to proclaim again an 
open war, and attack the imperial city a second time. 
They knew well the danger of the attempt, much greater 
indeed then, from the fury of the Greeks, than it was be- 
fore; but so little effect had this knowledge on the minds 
of those intrepid warriors, and so much did they rely on 
their valor and their swords, and on the protection of 
heaven, that, even before going to the assault, they 
agreed among themselves upon the measures to be taken 
for the preservation and government of their conquest. 

Not to divide their forces, they conducted the whole 
expedition by sea, and directed it against one single part 
of the city. The galleys approached the wall, and made 
a furious attack, which lasted until three o'clock in the 
afternoon, with more courage however, than success on 
the part of the assailants ; for they everywhere met so 
determined a resistance, that the multitude of their oppo- 



FIFTH CRUSADE. 315 

nents and the ravages of the Grecian fire compelled those 
who had landed to return to their vessels and withdraw 
to a distance. Still, instead of losing courage, they 
seemed inspired with redoubled ardor. Three days 
were spent in repairing the injured machines, and in 
consulting about a new attempt. The leaders of the 
army judging that a single vessel did not contain a suf- 
ficient number of troops to effect a successful assault on 
any particular spot, it was resolved to employ two vessels 
for each point of attack. 

Constantinople taken a second time. — On the fourth 
day (12th of April, 1204) the assault was recommenced, 
and the conflict carried on during the whole morning with 
the same spirit as before, and again with some advan- 
tage on the side of the G-reeks. In an instant, however, 
the fortune of the day was changed. About noon, a 
wind arising from the north, carried the vessels nearer 
to the wall; two of them lashed together, called the Pil- 
grim and the Paradise, were brought close to one of the 
towers, and by means of a movable bridge, two intrepid 
warriors, Peter Alberti, a Venetian, and Andrew d'lJr- 
boise, a French knight, sprang upon the battlement. 
The others crowded after them; three gates were at 
the same time forced by the battering rams, and the 
whole host of the Crusaders, entered the town driving be- 
fore them innumerable troops of soldiers and inhabitants, 
who fled at their approach like so many flocks of sheep. 
One Latin put to flight a hundred, or even a thousand 
Greeks ; and such was the terror which seized the van- 
quished, that they imagined a French cavalier whom they 
saw advancing at the head of his troop, to be fifty feet 
high. Murzuphlis, after some faint efforts to rally his 
troops, made his escape from the city during the night. 

The following day, Constantinople was pillaged; and, 
although the Greeks had time to conceal a great part of 
their most valuable effects, the conquerors collected an 
immense booty in gold, silver, jewels and other precious 
articles. Undoubtedly, several acts of violence, notwith- 
standing the strict prohibitions of the chiefs, were com- 
mitted by a victorious soldiery; still, implicit credit 
ought not to be given to the partial and virulent testi- 
mony of exasperated Greeks. From other and more im- 
partial accounts, it appears that there was much less 



316 MODERN HISTORY. 

actual bloodshed than might naturally hare been ex- 
pected; and that many noble and generous actions were 
witnessed on that occasion, notwithstanding the cupidity 
and licentiousness which ever accompany the sacking of 
a great city. 

Baldwin, Count of Flanders, elected Emperor. — 
Thus was Constantinople, that proud capital, well fortified 
and well defended on every side, containing one million of 
inhabitants and upwards of two hundred thousand fight- 
ing men, taken twice, within a short interval, by a hand- 
ful of warriors whose whole number was at most twenty 
thousand. In consequence of the agreement entered into 
previously to the first assault, twelve commissaries, six 
French and six Venetian, proceeded to the election of an 
emperor. After mature deliberation, their unanimous 
votes proclaimed for that high dignity, Baldwin, earl of 
Flanders, who held it only one year, as did Godfrey of 
Bouillon, whom he furthermore resembled in valor, abil- 
ity and virtue. Dandolo, Boniface, and other leaders of 
the Crusade received proportionate and splendid prefer- 
ments in the newly conquered empire, as a just recom- 
pense for their glorious exploits and services; while the 
survivors of the late reigning families fled to Asia and 
founded there two new states, which they called the 
empires of Nice and Trebizonde. 

It is but natural to presume that such extraordinary 
and complicated events, did not permit the heroes of the 
Fifth Crusade to pursue their former project of delivering 
Jerusalem. They were now too much occupied in defend- 
ing their new possessions, to think of any other conquest; 
nor was it without great difficulty that the Latin empire 
of Constantinople could be maintained for some time. 
From time to time deprived, by death, of its magnami- 
mous defenders, and surrounded by enemies, it had but a 
precarious existence, and, after a short duration of fifty- 
seven years, again fell into the power of the Greeks. 

WARS THROUGHOUT EUROPE. 
A.D. 1200-1226. 

War against the Moors in Spain. — While some 
French and Italian nobles were dividing among them- 
selves the spoils and the provinces of the Greek empire, 



WARS THROUGHOUT EUROPE. 317. 

the flames of war were kindled throughout the various 
parts of western Europe. The Christian inhabitants of 
Spain had very little share in the Crusades undertaken 
by the other nations of Christendom ; but they were them- 
selves engaged in a permanent Crusade against the Moors, 
and the whole peninsula was a theatre of almost uninter- 
rupted warfare. During the course of the twelfth cent- 
ury, as well as in preceding years, both parties had alter- 
nately gained victories and suffered defeats, the loss, how- 
ever, being more frequently on the side of the Moors. In 
the beginning of the thirteenth century, the conflict 
between the two nations became more desperate and 
determined than for a long time. The Miramolin (com- 
mander-in-chief) of the Spanish and African Moslems was 
now making immense preparations, to crush at once all 
the Christian kingdoms of Spain. The king of Castile, 
Alfonso IX., who was particularly exposed to the gather- 
ing storm, called to his assistance the knights of France 
and Portugal, together with the kings of Arragon and 
Navarre (D. Pedro II. — Sanchez VIL), to oppose the com- 
mon enemy; and Pope Innocent III. willingly extended to 
their army the privileges usually granted to the Crusaders. 
Their combined forces consisted of about one hundred 
thousand warriors; those of the Miramolin, the most 
numerous that Spain had ever beheld, amounted to four 
hundred and fifty thousand combatants, one third of 
whom were cavalry. 

The confederates came in sight of the Moors near a 
ridge of mountains called Sierra-Morena, which separates 
Andalusia from Castile. It was just behind these moun- 
tains that Mohammed, the Saracen prince, had encamped 
his army in a strong position, at the entrance of a vast 
plain called Navas de Tolosa. When the Christians 
arrived at the ridge, they found no other way to pass it 
than a narrow defile occupied by the Moors, in which, 
according to an expression of the king of Castile, one 
thousand men could have stopped all the warriors of the 
world; fortunately, a peasant of the country discovered 
to the leaders a safer and easier road, which conducted 
them to the top of the mountain. Mohammed, quite 
surprised at their sudden appearance, first sent bodies 
of troops to capture the position and afterwards endeav- 



318 MODERN HISTORY. 



1 



ored to bring on a general battle, while he justly sup- 
posed they had not yet recovered from the fatigues of 
a long and difficult march. The Christians defeated both 
his attempts, repelled the skirmishers, and took, during 
two days, the rest which they needed. 

Defeat of the Moors. — On the third day, the six- 
teenth of July (a. d. 1212), they advanced in good order 
against the enemy. The Miramolin appeared on a height, 
surrounded by his bravest troops, and even by a large 
iron chain, which was to be broken before the assailants 
could reach his person. The onset and the resistance 
were equally furious and obstinate; and, notwithstanding 
the prodigies of valor performed by the kings of Castile, 
Arragon and Navarre, the victory remained uncertain 
nearly the whole day. A last and desperate effort made 
by the Christian knights spread confusion and terror 
among the infidels: the intrepid king of Navarre first of 
all broke the iron chain; the whole army rushed in, and 
the Saracens were either cut to pieces or dispersed in 
every direction. Their haughty sovereign, who had 
anticipated an easy victory and the conquest of all Chris- 
tendom, fled in despair, having lost from one to two hun- 
dred thousand men, whereas the Christians did not lose 
more than one hundred and twenty-five in all and even, 
according to several grave historians, not more than 
twenty-five or thirty soldiers.* For this amazing suc- 
cess the conquerors acknowledged themselves indebted to 
a special interference of God in their favor, and returned 
him their solemn thanks on the field of battle. 

If this great victory did not entirely prostrate, it at 
least considerably weakened the power of the Saracens in 
Spain. Nearly the whole of this century was for them 
an uninterrupted series of disasters. On one side, the 
brave and pious king Ferdinand III., of Castile, took 
from them Cordova, Seville, and many other important 
cities; on the other, James I., king of Arragon, subdued 
the Balearic isles, with the two kingdoms of Murcia and 
Valentia, and added them to his own dominions. 



* See Roderic Tolet, lib. vin; — King Alf. Epist. ad. Inn. ni; — Hurter, 
Hist, du Pape Innocent III, vol. iii, pp. 192-204; F. D'Orleans, Hist, des 
Revol. d'Esp. ad ann. 1212;— Fleury, Hist. Eccles.b. lxxvii, n. 11; — 
Desormcaiix, Abrege Chronol. de I'Hist. d'Esp. vol. ii, p. 112 ; — in fine 
Univers. Hist. vol. lxx, pp. 493 and 656. 



WARS THROUGHOUT EUROPE. 319 

War in Germany between Philip of Suabia and 
Otto IV.— Frederic II. Emperor, 1212-1250. — Not 

less important were wars during the same period in Ger- 
many, France, and England. The death of the German 
emperor Henry VL, at the age of thirty-two years, in 1197 
had left the imperial crown to be claimed by two mighty 
competitors, Philip, duke of Suabia, and Otho, duke of 
Saxony. The latter was at first successful, but was him- 
self finally obliged to yield the sceptre to young Frederic 
II., son of the late emperor Henry, and grandson of Fred- 
eric Barbarossa, whom he afterwards imitated and even 
surpassed in his reputation for ability, his ambition, his 
pride, his success, and his subsequent disasters. 

War between France and England.— France also 
and England had been engaged, ever since the third cru- 
sade, in a vigorous war against each other. By Richard 
and Philip Augustus, formerly intimate friends, and now 
obstinate rivals, the contest was carried on for several 
years with alternate success; but the death of the lion- 
hearted king gave the French monarch great advantage. 
He then conquered Normandy and several other conti- 
nental provinces of the British crown. John, surnamed 
Lack-land, the successor of Richard, not having been able 
to preserve, seemed determined at least to recover his 
transmarine possessions. For this purpose, and for other 
causes, a powerful confederacy was formed by him with the 
emperor of Germany, the count of Boulogne, and the earl 
of Flanders, against France alone, which was obliged to 
divide its forces, in order to oppose so many enemies. 
Part of the troops were sent to the western provinces, 
where John had effected a landing; his progress, rapid 
in the beginning, was suddenly arrested by the arrival 
of Louis, the son of Philip, who compelled him to 
retire, with a great loss both of men and baggage. But 
the final result of the campaign was to be decided in the 
North. There, after gaining a naval victory against the 
French fleet, the English forces having landed under the 
command of the earl of Salisbury, were joined by their 
allies, and formed with them an army of more than one 
hundred and fifty thousand men, who hastened to invade 
the French territory. To this overwhelming multitude 
Philip could oppose only fifty thousand combatants; but 
inferiority of numbers was counter-balanced by the 



320 MODERN HISTORY. 

devotedness and bravery of his knights, the choicest men 
of the nation. 

Battle of Bouvines. — The two armies met at Bouvines, 
an obscure village between Lille and Tournay. The 
French took a position which obliged the enemy to face, 
during the whole engagement, the dust, the wind, and 
the rays of the sun, which disadvantages greatly contrib- 
uted to his entire defeat. The conflict, however, was 
long and obstinate, and so furious were the efforts of the 
combatants, that the chief leaders themselves, Philip and 
Otho, ran great risk of their lives. At last, the army of 
the confederates was broken, routed on all sides, and pur- 
sued with dreadful slaughter. The emperor made his 
escape; the other generals were made prisoners; and the 
French king had thus the happiness, not only of saving 
his kingdom from impending ruin, but also of obtaining 
a lasting advantage over all his enemies, (a. d. 1214). 

Signature of the " Magna Charta " on June 15, 
1215. — The battle of Bouvines having annihilated all the 
hopes of King John with regard to France, he set sail for 
England, where a still more disgraceful trial awaited 
him at his very arrival. The excesses of his passionate 
temper and dissolute life had previously excited much 
indignation against him, he now became in consequence 
of his late disasters, an object of contempt to his own 
subjects. The English barons took secret measures to 
form a powerful league against him, and having suc- 
ceeded in assembling a large body of men, asked of the 
king, with threats of a civil war, the revival of those priv- 
ileges which Edward the Confessor had granted to the 
nation, but which had been more or less disregarded 
by most of his successors. John at first positively 
refused; afterwards, seeing the numerous forces of the 
barons, he yielded to their request, and even granted 
more than had been originally asked, by signing an act 
which comprised all his grants, and which, under the 
name of Magna Charta, has been for centuries looked 
upon as the basis of the British constitution. 

Henry III. ascends the English throne under 
difficulties. — The king, however, soon showed that he 
repented having made these concessions that had been 
extorted from his fears, and he availed himself of the 
tir>st opportunity to declare that he would not suffer him- 



WARS THROUGHOUT EUROPE. 321 

self to be led by the nobles in the government of his 
kingdom. This resulted in a second civil war, in which 
the English nobles applied to the French monarch for 
assistance, and offered the crown to his eldest son. Ac- 
cordingly, Louis crossed the sea, and was acknowledged 
king in London and in many provinces, with hopes 
of subduing in a short time the other parts of the realm. 
But the unexpected death of John, whom a violent fever 
carried off after an illness of a few days, totally changed 
the face of affairs; patriotism was revived in the hearts 
of the English lords; many of them gradually abandoned 
Louis, and rallied around young Henry, son of the 
deceased monarch. He was crowned at Gloucester, and 
the care of his person, together with the title of guardian 
of the kingdom, was intrusted to the valor and fidelity of 
the earl of Pembroke, otherwise called earl-marshal 
(a.d. 1216). 

This faithful and able minister immediately took the 
best measures to secure the crown for his royal ward. To 
discredit the French party, reports of depredations com- 
mitted by the foreigners and of their contempt for the 
natives, were indiistriously circulated; all Englishmen 
who should return to the allegiance of their lawful sover- 
eign, were promised their liberties; a numerous host of 
brave warriors was quickly assembled, and a religious 
character was given to the war. As soon as Pembroke 
saw his followers animated with his own ardor, he marched 
to Lincoln, and surprising the main body of the hostile 
forces, gained a complete victory. Shortly after, a French 
fleet carrying auxiliary troops, was also defeated between 
Dover and Calais. By this sudden destruction of his re- 
sources, Louis, who had until then kept London and sev- 
eral of the barons on his side, was compelled to give up all 
hope of success. Negotiations were instantly opened, and 
the terms having been settled without much difficulty, 
Louis immediately returned to France, leaving the quiet 
possession of the British crown to his young competitor. 
He himself succeeded his father Philip on the French 
throne (a.d. 1223). Having occupied it three years, dur- 
ing which he showed himself well worthy of it by his 
lion-like courage and exemplary virtue, he died in 1226, 
while returning from an expedition against the Albi- 
genses. 



322 MODERN" HISTORY. 

The Albigenses. — These Albigenses, so called from 
the city of Albi in the south of France, where there num- 
bers appeared greater than in any other place, were secta- 
rians, whose principles, taken from the ancient Mani- 
cheans and Gnostics, aimed equally at the destruction of 
religion, social order and humanity. Shocking and 
frightful were the ravages, depredations and cruelties 
which they committed during a part of the twelfth and 
thirteenth centuries, pillaging, burning and killing, 
wherever they found any resistance to their abominable 
tenets. The lives of their fellow-mortals, as well as the 
most sacred objects of religion, were a mere sport for 
them; and, during a lo»g time, every attempt to check 
the growing evil proved ineffectual.* 

War against the Albigenses. — After many years 
spent to little purpose by holy missionaries, such as St. 
Bernard, St. Dominic, and others, in endeavoring to con- 
vert these wretched and infuriated people by means of 
patience, meekness, instruction, and prayer, it was unani- 
mously thought necessary to oppose coercive measures 
to their excesses and disorders. Troops were raised as for 
a crusade, and marched against the Albigenses under 
the command of Count Simon de Montford, a general of 
great energy and courage, who, being invested with full 
military and civil power, pursued with unrelenting vigor, 
and sometimes extraordinary severity, those desperate 
sectarians, whom it was not possible otherwise to subdue. 
Sometimes abandoned by a considerable portion of his 
troops, he however went on, and gained signal advan- 
•tages over the numerous forces of his opponents, whether 
Albigenses or their allies. His death, which happened in 
1218, permitted them, it is true, to regain for a time their 
former ascendency; but, being again defeated by King 
Louis VIII., their party was finally crushed during the 
minority of Louis IX. 

* These facts are incontestably proved by the Hist. Alhig. of Peter des 
Vaux de Cernay, a contemporary author ; — by the letters of Pope Innocent 
III; — the 27th Canon of the third general council of Lateran, in 1179; — the 
20th Can. of the council of Avignon, in 1209 ; — etc., etc. 

On the errors, crimes, and the whole history of these sectarians, see 
Natalis Alexander, Dissertationes in Hist. Eccles. sxciil. xii., cap. in. art. 
I, vol. VII, p. 65 ; Berault-Bercastel, Hist, de TEgl. I. xxxix ; — F. Fontenay, 
Hist, de I Eglise Gallic. I. xxix, xxx ; — Bergier, Diction, de Thdolog art. 
Albigeois; — Butler, Lives of the Saints, ith of August ; — Hert«r, Hist, du 
pape Inn. ni, I. xrv. etc. 



CONQUESTS OF GENGHIS-KHAN IN ASIA. 323 



COBfqiJESTS OF OEXOHIS-KHAIIV IN ASIA. 
A.D. 1206-1227. 

During the first part of the thirteenth century, Asia 
was, like Europe, the theatre of astounding revolutions. 
Its whole centre had been for many ages, occupied by 
numberless tribes scarcely known to the civilized world, 
and designated by the common name of Tartars. The 
Moguls, one of those tribes, were confounded with the 
others in the same obscurity, when Temujin, or Genghis- 
Khan, rendered them forever famous by his conquests, and 
by the foundation of an empire which, comprising in 
extent no fewer than thirteen or fourteen millions of 
square miles, was probably the greatest unbroken empire 
that ever existed. 

Temujin. — Temujin was the son of a Mogul prince, 
and had been brought up with great care under the direc- 
tion of a skilful minister. The death of his father and the 
rebellion of his subjects compelled him to fly for safety 
to the court of the chief sovereign of his nation. There 
he began to display that wonderful talent and activity, 
that consummate prudence and skill both in war and 
government, which afterwards raised him so much above 
all the other princes of Asia. But, in the beginning of 
his public career, he met only with reverses. The supe- 
riority of his merit soon excited the jealousy of many per- 
sons at court, and even that of the sovereign himself, to 
such a degree that a powerful leagu.e was formed against 
Temujin, who endeavored in vain, to oppose it peacefully 
without any success. Seeing his efforts useless, he on his 
side raised a numerous army, attacked his enemies, and 
gained a decisive victory, which, being supported by other 
advantages, united under his sway all the Mogul tribes. 

He no sooner found himself master of vast dominions, 
than he resolved to confirm his authority by the public 
homage of all his vassals, and to extend still farther the 
boundaries of his empire. The former of these designs 
he accomplished in 1306, by convoking a general assembly 
of the Tartar princes subject to his power; and it was on 
this occasion that he received the name of GefigJiis-Khan, 
which means Jcing of kings. The latter project was the 
object of his attention during the whole of his reign. 



324 MODERN HISTORY. 

which lasted twenty-two years; and China and Persia, 
with many other countries, after having been the objects 
of his ambitious attacks, became the reward of his gigan- 
tic exertions. 

Mongol invasion of China.— It was particularly in 
the two regions just mentioned, that the war conducted 
by Genghis-Khan was most disastrous in its effects. 
Neither an immense wall built previously by the Chi- 
nese to protect their frontiers from invasion, nor any 
other means of resistance, could save a flourishing em- 
pire from the attacks of those numberless hordes of 
Tartars, whom warlike enthusiasm and thirst for plunder 
rendered superior to all sorts of dangers and fatigues. 
The long struggle which the natives maintained against 
these terrible foes, only served to increase their misery; 
a considerable part of their country was subdued, and 
Genghis Kliau established in it a governor under the title 
of king. 

The Mongols in Persia. — This event was followed 
by the conquest, or rather devastation of Persia, India, 
Karazm and other extensive regions. The Sultan of Per- 
sia, Mohammed, having had the imprudence to provoke 
the indignation and resentment of the Mogul conqueror 
Genghis Kliau marclied against him at the head of seven, 
hundred thousand men, commanded by himself and by 
his four sons. The rapidity of his conquests cannot be 
better expressed than by comparing it to a furious and 
destructive torrent which sweeps everything before it with 
irresistible fury. Mohammed, with five hundred thou- 
sand Persian and Karazm ian soldiers, eiideavored in vain 
to stop the progress of the Tartars; he had the misfort- 
une to see all his efforts baffled, his troops constantly over- 
come, his most flourishing cities sacked and destroyed by 
the conquerors, and himself completely overthrown in a 
general battle on the banks of the river Jaxartes, near the 
Caspian Sea, where he lost one hundred and sixty thou- 
sand men. This defeat reduced Mohammed, with all his 
family and kingdom, to the last extremity. Everything 
was destroyed with fire and sword in those unhappy coun- 
tries, and millions of the inhabitants perished; a number 
which will not appear incredible, if we consider that there 
never was perhaps a greater scourge of nations than 
Genghis Khan, and that, according to some historians, the 



SIXTH CRUSADE. 325 

whole number of towns laid waste or destroyed by his 
armies may be supposed to amount to fifty thousand.* 

This terrible conqueror was preparing a new expedition 
against the remotest parts of Asia, when he died (a.d. 
1227), at the age of sixty-five years, leaving several sons, 
the heirs as well of his enterprising and warlike spirit, as 
of his vast dominions. Two of them particularly, Octay 
and Toley, led the Moguls to new victories. Those prov- 
inces of China which had, till then, escaped the Tartar 
yoke, were subdued like the rest. At the siege of Pekin, 
the capital, the Tartars employed machines, which cast 
enormous fragments of rock; while the Chinese, on their 
side, darted iron tubes filled with a certain powder, which, 
bursting upon the besiegers with a frightful explosion, 
consumed everything within a circumference of two thou- 
sand feet. These dreadful effects, so similar to those 
produced by gunpowder, seem to show that it was known 
and used in China, long before its discovery in Europe. 
In sixteen days and nights, a million of persons, Chinese 
and Tartars, perished at that siege. 

Batu. — From the western frontier of Tartary, Batu- 
Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khun, carried tTie war 
through Russia and Poland as far as Hungary and Austria ; 
fortunately, tliey retreated into Asia after the battle of 
Wahlstatt in 1241. Another Mogul chieftain, named 
Hulagu, took Bagdad in the year 1258, and thus put an 
end to tlie power of the Arabian caliphs ; but, having 
crossed the Euphrates in search of new conquests, his 
troops were defeated by the sultans of Syria and Egypt. 
This however was but a trifling check for the successors 
of Genghis Khan, and they long after continued powerful 
in all central Asia. 

SIXTH CRUSADE.— A.D. 1217-1244. 

The Children's Crusade. — The Fifth Crusade having 
failed to recover the Holy Land, a new one was earnestly 
desired by the Christians of Syria; and reports were dili- 
gently circulated that they stood in great need of speedy 

* See for the destructive conquests of Genghis Khan, Univ. Hist., end of 
i6th and beginning of 47</i wo^.— Anquetil, Precis de I'llist. Univ. vol. iv, 
pp. 382-396;— Michaud,//j«^ des Croisades. vol. iv, pp. 111-121 ;— Lebeau, 
Sist. du Bas. Emp. vol. xxi, pp. 412-424. 



326 MODERN HISTORY. 

assistance. However, the necessary succor, owing to a 
variety of obstacles, was long delayed; when, at length, 
fifty thousand children almost simultaneously enlisted in 
the holy cause, in France and Germany. To them, they 
maintained. Almighty God had reserved the honor of res- 
cuing his Holy City from the hands of infidels. Under 
this illusion, many embarked at Marseilles, but either 
perished during the voyage by shipwreck near the shores 
of Italy, or were betrayed to the Moslems, among whom 
several suffered martyrdom. Others, after incredible dif- 
ficulties, reached Genoa; but the Genoese wisely com- 
manded them to evacuate their territory. They then 
returned to their homes; and, although a great number 
died on the road, many arrived in safety, and escaped the 
fate which had overtaken the first bands of their young 
fellow adventurers. 

When Pope Innocent heard of this crusade, he is re- 
ported to have said: "While we are asleep, these chil- 
dren are awake. " At length, his untiring exertions, and 
those of his successor Honorius III., succeeded in rais- 
ing numerous bodies of Crusaders in France, England, 
Holland, Germany, and Italy. As all were not ready at 
the same time, but set out in different years, from differ- 
ent points, and for different places, there resulted not 
one expedition only, but a series of expeditions, making 
the Sixth Crusade very long and complicated. Some went 
to Portugal, where they aided the Christians of that 
country in conquering the Moors in the great battle of 
Alcazar (a.d. 1218). 

Crusade of King Andrew II. of Hungary. — 
Others, under the command of the kings of Hungary and 
Cyprus, arrived in Palestine, where, after gaining some 
advantages, they met with disappointment and disasters 
instead of success. The king of Cyprus died at Tripoli, 
on the coast of Syria; and the king of Hungary returned 
to his kingdom. This circumstance, and the continual 
arrival at Ptolemais of fresh supplies, left John of 
Brienne, the titular king of Jerusalem, more at liberty to 
direct as he thought proper the military operations of the 
Crusaders. 

John of Brienne's Crusade. — He resolved to attack 
Egypt, then the most valuable portion of the Mussulman 
empire, and the store-house, as it were, from which they 



SIXTH CRUSADE. 327 

drew continually new supplies of provisions, ammunition, 
and troops. Accordingly, the Christian army sailed from 
Ptolemais, and laid siege to Damietta, which was the key 
of Egypt on that side. The town, well supplied and ably 
defended, resisted eighteen months, and was not taken 
until, of seventy thousand inhabitants, scarcely three 
thousand remained alive. So great was the terror which 
both the siege and the capture of Damietta spread among 
the Mussulmans, that they repeatedly offered to restore 
Palestine, in order to save the rest of their dominions. 
John of Brienne and many of the other chiefs were of 
opinion that the offer should be accepted; but the strong 
opposition of several influential persons, who, under the 
impression that the moment had come in which the Mos- 
lem power was to be overthrown, displayed more valor 
than prudence, caused it to be rejected. 

The army advanced towards Cairo, the capital of Egypt. 
A few days' march brought the Christians to a spot where 
the Nile was to be crossed; but they were greatly disap- 
pointed at seeing the whole plain on the other side occu- 
pied by an incredible multitude of soldiers, whom the 
Sultan Meledin (Malek Kamel) had assembled to oppose 
the progress of the enemy. There was not a sufficient 
number of vessels to attempt the passage in presence of 
such a force, with any probable hope of success. Pro- 
visions, too, began to be scarce among the Crusaders; and 
to complete their misfortune, the rise and inundation of 
the Nile reduced them to the necessity of retracing their 
steps towards Damietta. 

The signal for the retreat was given; but the exhausted 
troops, incessantly pursued by the Mussulman cavalry, 
lost thousands, and the survivors were exposed to immi- 
nent danger. It was a fortunate circumstance that the 
victorious sultan possessed a generous soul. Moved with 
compassion at the misfortunes of the Christians, and see- 
ing them no longer able to weaken his power, he afforded 
them the means of returning in safety, on condition that 
they would surrender Damietta, and evacuate all Egypt. 
These conditions were indeed very different from those 
which he had proposed a few weeks before; but the 
respective situations of both armies were now completely 
changed. The treaty was speedily accepted and exe- 
cuted; and the Christians, leaving the Egyptian shores. 



328 MODERIS" HISTORY. 

returned by sea to Ptolemais, where their arrival pro- 
duced as much grief and consternation, as the news of 
their first success had produced hope and joy (a.d. 1221). 

Crusade of Frederic II. — Some years after, the 
famous Frederic II., emperor of Germany, arrived in 
Palestine at the head of new bands of Crusaders. He 
obtained, by a treaty from the sultan of Egypt, the resti- 
tution of Jerusalem; but this he purchased by terms 
so unfavorable, and moreover took so little precaution to 
defend the Holy City, that it was soon retaken by the 
infidels. The conduct of Frederic was condemned 
through all Christendom. He disregarded the com- 
plaints, returned to Europe, and there again indulged 
his vices and unruly passions to such a degree as to pro- 
voke more and more the indignation of his contempora- 
ries, the censures of the Church, and the anger of heaven; 
so that the end of his career was as gloomy and miser- 
able as its beginning had been brilliant and prosperous. 

Palestine was next visited by Theobaldus, king of 
Navarre, and by some other princes who did nothing very 
remarkable. Finally, Eichard, earl of Cornwall, and 
brother of the king of England, arrived with an army of 
English Crusaders. This prince had sufficient courage 
and resolution to carry on the holy war with more vigor 
than had been displayed for many years; but he found 
the Christians of Syria divided into so many parties that 
all he could do for them was to conclude a new treaty of 
peace with the Saracens (a.d. 1241). After his departure^ 
a sudden invasion of fresh barbarians fromKhorazan laid 
waste the Holy Land; the Christian colonies met with 
repeated losses; and there now remained no hope of 
bettering their unfortunate condition, unless some pow- 
erful monarch would take the arduous task upon himself. 

SEVESfTH CRUSADE.— ST. EOUIS. 
A.D. 124§-1254. 

Henry III. and Louis IX. were reigning at this time, the 
former in England, the latter in France. The beginning 
of Henry's reign had been quiet. This prince, being 
gentle, humane, and religious, at first easily won the 
hearts of his subjects by the solemn sanction which he . 
gave to the privileges contained in the Magna Charta, and j 



SEVENTH CRUSADE. 329 

by the success of his arms against Llewellyn, prince of 
Wales. Afterwards, his want of energy, his prodigalities, 
the many extortions committed by some of his ministers; 
above all, the repeal of certain national privileges, and 
the preference given at court to foreigners, gradually ren- 
dered his government odious to the lords and to the 
people. A powerful confederacy was formed against the 
king by the barons, who only waited for a proper occasion 
to commence hostilities; and, in the interim, the general 
discontent frequently manifested itself by the refusal of 
subsidies or ''grants of money" to the government. In 
such circumstances, it was plain that little or no assistance 
could be expected from England for the recovery of 
Jerusalem. 

King Louis IX. of France. — France, on the con- 
trary, was at that time in a flourishing condition under 
Louis IX. This prince, who, according to the infidel 
Voltaire himself, was virtuous even to heroism, had suc- 
ceeded his father Louis VIII., in the year 1226, when 
only twelve years old. The regency was intrusted to his 
mother, Blanche of Castile, a virtuous and courageous 
princess, who, while watching with the utmost care over 
his royal, and especially his Christian education,* 
knew how to repress by force of arms the attempts made 
by restless vassals to obtain an ascendency over her, and 
to increase their power at the expense of the crown. 
When Louis took the reins of government into his own 
hands, new wars disturbed his kingdom; and it again be- 
came necessary to check the insolence of the earl of La 
Marche, a vassal who was the more dangerous, in conse- 
quence of the mighty aid he received from the king of 
England, his relative. Notwithstanding the great diffi- 
culty which Henry found in obtaining subsidies and rais- 
ing troops, he at length succeeded in both these objects; 
and, crossing the sea, landed in Guyenne, at the head of a 
considerable force. Louis, without losing a moment of 
time, marched against him, completly defeated him near 
Taillebourg; and, on the following day, gained a new vic- 

* " My son," she would often say to him, during his childhood, " God knows 
how dear you are to me ; still, I should infinitely prefer to see you fall dead 
at my feet than ever see you guilty of a mortal sin." These words, so 
worthy of a Christian mother, had such an effect on the young prince that 
he is thought never to have lost his baptismal innocence. 



330 MODERN HISTORY. 

tory under the walls of Saintes. So much vigor terrified 
the rebellious count, who surrendered unconditionally, 
and was pardoned. The English king, who fled to Bor- 
deaux, hastened likewise to conclude a treaty of peace, 
after which, to the great disappointment of his subjects, he 
returned to England without having won a single laurel 
(A.D. 1243). 

Louis IX. embarks for the Holy Land. — Louis, 
having thus conquered his enemies at home and abroad, 
and freed himself from the danger of subsequent at- 
tacks, turned his thoughts to the affairs of the East. 
The deplorable condition of Palestine, and particularly of 
Jerusalem, under the Mussulman yoke, deeply afflicted 
his generous heart. On his unexpected recovery from a 
dangerous disease, in the year 1244, he took the cross, and 
by his exhortations induced the principal dukes, counts 
and barons of his kingdom, to imitate his example. 
When all necessary preparations were made, Louis in- 
trusted the care of the government to his virtuous mother, 
and embarked, with nearly fifty thousand men, at Aigues 
Mortes, a sea port in the south of France (a. d. 1248). 

Capture of Damietta. — The fleet reached the friendly 
harbors of the island of Cyprus towards the end of Septem- 
ber, and spent there the whole winter. In the spring it sailed 
again for Egypt, which the king with his council had de- 
termined to attack first, as being the principal seat of the 
Mohammedan power. The sultan, on liis side, had taken 
all possible measures to prevent the fleet from landing ; 
and when the Crusaders arrived near Damietta, they saw 
the beach covered with a countless multitude of Moslem 
troops, who seemed to oppose a dense forest of swords and 
pikes to the assailants. This, however, was but a trifling 
obstacle to the impetuosity of the French ; Louis himself 
did not wait till the vessel in which he was sJiould reach 
the shore ; but, sword in hand, he threw himself into the 
sea, followed by his valiant knights. The infidels, 
struck with terror, were dispersed, leaving to the con- 
querors the undisturbed possession, not only of the coast, 
but even of Damietta ; measures were adopted to secure 
the important conquest ; and, after a short sojourn in the 
city and its environs, the Crusaders marched towards 
Cairo, the capital of Egypt. 

The Mussulmans assembled their forces on the oppo- 



SEVENTH CRUSADE. 331 

site side of a deep canal formed by the Nile, and pre- 
vented for one mouth the passage of the Christian army. 
At length, an Arabian peasant agreed for a large sum of 
money, to point out a ford; the river was crossed, and 
the enemy, driven from their camp, would have again suf- 
fered an entire defeat had the count of Artois, a brother 
of the king, known how to temper his valor with prudence. 
At the sight of the Moslems flying in all directions, this 
impetuous prince forgot the order which he had received, 
not to pursue the fugitives until the whole force of the 
Crusade should arrive. Rushing forward with a body of 
fifteen hundred knights, he drove before him the Mussul- 
man forces. In vain did the earl of Salisbury, with the 
grand masters of the Hospitallers and the Templars, en- 
deavor to cool his imprudent ardor; blinded by success, 
he still rushed on, and entered the city of Massoura with 
the fugitives, who at first imagined that they were pursued 
by the whole Christian army. They quickly recovered 
from their panic, and perceiving the small number of 
their pursuers, shut the gates of the town and united 
their efforts with those of the inhabitants, to crush at 
once these brave but reckless men. A terrible fight 
took place in the streets of Massoura; during five hours 
the most prodigious display of courage was made by the 
two parties; but the Christians, besides being greatly in- 
ferior in force, began to be exhausted with weariness. At 
last, valor was overcome by numbers; almost all were 
killed, and the earl of Artois fell, together with his sol- 
diers, on a heap of Moslems whom he had slain with his 
own hand. 

Louis defeated and captured. — While the Moslems 
were fighting witliin the city, another furious engagement 
took place around its walls, and along the banks of the 
canal. Although the Crusaders, and especially the king, 
fought with determined bravery, and twice repulsed the 
enemy, yet the consequences of this battle were fearfully 
fatal. The Crusaders were now considerably reduced, and 
nearly all their horses had perished. Moreover, the dead 
bodies thrown into the Nile infected its waters, and gave 
rise to a pestilence which, in a very short time, changed 
the Christian camp into a vast hospital. Finally, the in- 
fidel army having succeeded in preventing all communi- 
cation between the Crusaders and the city of Damietta 



332 MODEEN HISTOET. 

whence they drew their provisions, famine added its rav- 
ages to those of the plague, and rendered the retreat from 
Massoura, a necessary, though a difficult and perilous at- 
tempt. The king, by his superior courage and prudence 
might perhaps have conducted this retrograde march with 
some success; but, as he made it his duty to visit the 
sick, as well as to repel the attacks of the enemy he con- 
tracted the disease, and was reduced in a few days to a 
state of complete exhaustion. Being almost at the point 
of death, he halted at, a little town near the banks of the 
Nile, and there, notwithstanding the heroic bravery of 
his knights, was taken prisoner with his surviving broth- 
ers and the sad remnant of his troops (a.d. 1250). 

Louis liberated, returns finally to France.— Louis 
displayed m his prison the firmness, intrepidity and mag- 
nanimity which he had always evinced on the throne and 
at the head of armies. The very barbarians into whose 
hands he had fallen, were compelled to admire his noble 
conduct and undaunted courage; and their emirs more 
than once acknowledged that he was the bravest Chris- 
tian they had ever seen. At length, a treaty was con- 
cluded, m virtue of which Louis, by restoring Damietta 
recovered his liberty, and by giving considerable sums of 
money, provided for the ransom of the other captives. 
He then sailed for Palestine, where, after his arrival at 
Ptolemais, he spent four years in promoting the cause of 
religion, securing, as well as he was able, the welfare of 
the Christian colonies, and repairing the fortifications of 
the towns which were yet in their power. The intelli- 
gence which a message from Paris gave him of the death 
of his mother Blanche, induced him to return. He was 
received in France with universal joy; and he himself, 
notwithstanding the many sorrows that afflicted his soul' 
experienced the pleasure of a tender father just restored 
to his children, and had, moreover, the satisfaction of 
finding his kingdom in the same peaceful and prosperous 
condition m which he had left it six years before. 

ST. LOIIIS COlVTIBfUED.-CIVII. WAR IN EXG- 
LAl^D. A.D. 1254- 126§. 

_Louis, after his return from Palestine, made greater 
»|Eorts to promote the happiness of his people by meas- 



1 



ST. LOUIS CONTINUED, ETC. 333 

ures of justice, statutes well adapted to the preservation 
of public order, institutions of charity, and the assiduous 
care which he took to have his laws faithfully executed. 
So remarkable and so well known was his justice, that not 
only his subjects, but even foreigners, referred to him 
with perfect confidence the decision of their quarrels. 
This particularly appeared on the following occasion. 

Henry III. and the Oxford provisions. — At that 
time, the English barons were highly incensed against 
their king, Henry III., who had disregarded their former 
complaints of misgovernment. In a great assembly held 
at Oxford (a.d. 1258), they not only demanded the execu- 
tion of the Magna-Charta, but also endeavored to impose 
on the monarch new conditions tending evidently to 
weaken his power; conditions which he of course rejected. 
The whole subject of dispute was referred to the arbitra- 
tion of Louis. After mature discussion, the French king 
pronounced his decision: he confirmed the national privi- 
leges contained in the Magna-Charta, but annulled the 
late decrees of Oxford, as opposed to the just authority of 
the crown (a.d. 1264). 

Battle of Lewes. — This decision, however equitable, 
displeased the party of the barons. Far from abiding by 
it according to their previous promise, they openly raised 
the standard of insurrection; and, under the command of 
the earl of Leicester, marched with a numerous army 
against the royalists, who were commanded by the king 
in person and his eldest son Edward. A battle was 
fought near the town of Lewes, the issue of which proved 
as fatal, as the beginning had been favorable, to the royal 
cause. Prince Edward easily routed the enemy's wing 
opposed to him, but, as frequently happens on such occa- 
sions, instead of improving his advantage by falling on 
the rear of the confederates, he incautiously pursued the 
fugitives, and thus left the centre of his own army unde- 
fended. The earl of Leicester seized the opportunity, 
and, making a sudden and vigorous attack, gained so 
complete a victory, that the king himself fell into his 
power. 

Battle of Evesham. — The rictorious count took 
his prisoner from town to town; and, leaving him the 
name, assumed himself all the authority of a sovereign. 
His daring ambition soon provoked discontent and hatred; 



334 MODERN HISTORY. 

the yoke which Leicester laid upon the nation appeared 
too heavy; and, at the end of one year, the restoration ot 
Henry was almost universally desired. Under these cir- 
cumstances. Prince Edward easily succeeded in assembling 
new troops, marched against the usurper, and, more suc- 
cessful than before, defeated and slew him in the san- 
guinary battle of Evesham (a.d. 1265). Not content with 
this result, he continued to harass the confederates, until 
he gave the death blow to their league by the reduction 
of the island of Ely, whither its last partisans had retired. 
Thus was the sceptre again placed, more securely than 
ever, in the hands of Henry ; and England, after so many 
disturbances, began to enjoy profound peace, which per- 
mitted Edward to share in the second Crusade of St, 
Louis — the eighth and last of the Crusades. 

EIGHTH AND LAST CRUSADE. A.D. 1270-1272. 

The French monarch was not so much discouraged by 
the ill success of his first expedition, as to renounce his 
project of waging war against the Saracens for the de- 
fence of the Christian colonies in the East; he was, on 
the contrary, spurred to renew his attempt by the last 
melancholy news from Syria. The Moslems there were 
obstinately bent on depriving the Franks of their last 
possessions, and inflicted frightful cruelties on those 
whom they made prisoners, and who refused to embrace 
Mohammedanism, But lately Antioch had fallen into the 
hands of Beudocdar, the sultan of Egypt, and one hundred 
thousand inhabitants had been led away captive. Louis 
once more expressed his determination to go beyond the 
sea for the purpose of delivering Palestine from its 
oppressors; and many princes, lords, knights, and other 
warriors, again flocked to his standard. Having provided 
for the security of his kingdom during his absence, he 
embarked with sixty thousand chosen troops in the begin- 
ning of July (A.D. 1270), and landed at Tunis in Africa, 
near the ruins of Carthage. 

Louis IX. lands at Tunis.— The chief reason which 
prompted St. Louis to give this direction to the Crusade 
was that the king of Tunis had given hopes of becom- 
ing a convert to the true faith, if, in taking so important 
a step, he could be protected from the displeasure of his 



EIGHTH AND LAST CRUSADE. 335 

subjects. This conversion, were it to take place, seemed 
likely to facilitate the Tecovery of the Holy Land, by 
depriving the Egyptian sultan of his most powerful ally. 
But these hopes quickly vanished. When the Christian 
host arrived at Tunis, the Mussulman prince, far from 
asking for instruction and baptism, prepared to make 
resistance, and in every way openly acted as an enemy. 
Louis, perceiving that the town was strongly fortified, 
and was defended by a numerous garrison, did not think 
proper to commence the attack before the arrival of rein- 
forcements daily expected from Sicily. In the interim, 
he contented himself with protecting his camp by in- 
trenchments and ditches, and repelling the frequent skir- 
mishes of the Moors. 

Louis IX. 's death. — The measures taken by the king 
against a foreign foe were perfectly successful: but all his 
precaution did not suffice to avert the attacks of enemies 
of another sort. Malignant fevers and dysenteries, caused 
by bad water and the heat of the climate, began to rage 
throughout the camp with such violence, that nearly half 
of the army was carried off in a few days. The king him- 
self was attacked by the disease, and saw the end of his 
life rapidly approaching. Never did he appear greater 
than at this critical juncture. Although he suffered 
acute pains, he continued to give his orders, and to con- 
sole every one around him, with his usual tranquillity and 
presence of mind. At last, his constitution yielded to the 
violence of the malady; having given his last instructions 
and blessing to his son Philip and received the last sacra- 
ments of the Church with the most edifying piety, raising 
his eyes towards heaven, he calmly expired, whilst pro- 
nouncing these words of the Royal Prophet : 1 loill come 
into thy house; I will worship toivards thy holy temple 
(Psalm V. 8). He had lived fifty-six years, and reigned 
forty-four. 

Louis IX. 's character. — In St. Louis, there was a 
rare combination of personal accomplishments, and even 
of apparently opposite qualities, which made him not 
only superior to his age, but confessedly one of the most 
extraordinary men that ever wore a crown. His love of 
religious exercises was never an obstacle to the fulfilment 
of his public duties. His uncommon piety, his sim- 
plicity of manners, and meekness in private life never 



336 MODERN HISTORY. 

prevented him from being a faithful dispenser of justice, 
a wise legislator, an intrepid warrior, and a dignified 
monarch. Not only France, but all Europe, and also 
popes, kings and emperors, entertained for him the high- 
est respect. He won the admiration even of that Asiatic 
prince, called Le vieux de la montagne, from whom the 
other crowned heads had so much to fear for their lives; 
and of those terrible Mamelukes of Egypt whose prisoner 
he was, and who once, as is commonly believed, deliber- 
ated whether they should appoint him their sovereign. 
In a word; Louis IX., by practising every royal, military, 
and Christian virtue, was at the same time a great king, 
a great hero, and a great saint. Innumerable witnesses 
bore testimony to his unblemished morals and piety; and 
no later than the year 1297, the 27th after his death, he 
was solemnly canonized by Pope Boniface VIII.* 

The last Crusade without result.— His death 
caused inexpressible grief among the soldiers. Grief 
however did not abate their courage; and the Mos- 
lems, especially after the arrival of the Sicilians, were 
so frequently and so signally defeated that they were 
compelled to sue for peace, which was granted on con- 
ditions both honorable and advantageous to the Chris- 
tians, most of whom then re-embarked for Europe. A 
few only, having at their head the English prince 
Edward, sailed .for Palestine, for the purpose of carrying 
on the sacred expedition. This they did during part of 
the year 1271; but their small number prevented them 
from undertaking any thing of consequence; and Edward, 
after having been exposed to the danger of losing his life 
both by sickness and by the dagger of an assassin, availed 
himself of the conclusion of a truce with the Saracens, to 
return to England, where he succeeded his father Henry 
III., who had died during his absence. 

*"Cefutu;ibeau spectacle que celui de I'instruction canonique dans 
Jaquelle le pere commun des fideles interrogea les contemporains de Louis 
IX. sur les vertus de sa vie et les bienfaits de son regne. Des Francais de 
toutes les classes vinrent attester sur I'Evangile que le monarque dont ils 
pleuraient la mort, etait digne de toutes les recompenses du ciel. Parmi 
eux on remarquait les vieux compagnons d'armes de Louis, qui avaient 
partage ses fers en Egypte, qui I'avaient vu mourant sur la cendre devant 
lunis. L Europe entiere confirma leur religieux te:moignage, et repeta 
ces paroles du chef de I'eglise : Maison de France, rejouis-toi d'avoir 
donn£ aumonde un si grand prince ; rejouis-toi peuple de France, d'avoir 
eu un si bon roil"— Michaud, Histoire des Croisades, vol. Y,pj>. 114r-115, 



EIGHTH AND LAST CRUSADE. 337 

The Mamelukes take Ptolemais by storm.— 

Thus terminated the eighth and last crusade, in 1273. 
Two years after. Pope Gregory X. who had seen with 
his own eyes the sorrows of Palestine, endeavored to 
promote a new expedition in its favor; but his premature 
death, together with a variety of other obstacles, pre- 
vented the execution of that design. Hence everything 
now tended to the utter expulsion of the Franks from 
Syria, and the more so, as they incessantly provoked the 
justice of Grod by quarrels among themselves and by the 
depravity of their lives. Many of the places which they 
had hitherto preserved, were successively and rapidly 
conquered by the sultan Bendocdar and his successors. 
Ptolemais, then the capital of the Christian colonies, saw 
the storm approaching its walls, and could not avert it; 
in the beginning of April (1291), it was invested on the 
land side by sixty thousand horse and one hundred and 
sixty thousand infantry, who were commanded by the 
sultan Khalil in person and supplied with three hundred 
enormous machines, destined to batter and overthrow the 
ramparts. The city, although populous, did not contain 
more than twenty thousand effective men, who were soon 
reduced to twelve thousand. Still, they at first offered, 
at every point, a vigorous and successful resistance, and 
during six weeks repelled all the attacks of their number- 
less foes, causing such slaughter among them, that in 
one of those furious assaults, seven Moslems were said to 
have fallen for one Christian. But the losses of the 
infidels could be easily repaired, whilst those of the 
besieged were irreparable, their numbers diminishing 
every day, until there were but one thousand warriors 
left. In this frightful distress, even the heroic intre- 
pidity of the Knights Hospitallers and Templars could 
uphold only a few hours longer the tottering fortune of 
Acre; they resisted to the last; and it was only when 
the city had lost its defenders, that it was carried 
by storm on the eighteenth of May of the same year 1291. 
The merciless conquerors destroyed everything with 
fire and sword in that unfortunate city, slaughtering even 
a multitude of harmless prisoners who had implored their 
compassion. The town was utterly devastated. Of the 
inhabitants who had time to make their escape by sea, 
some fled to the island of Cyprus, others landed on the 



338 MODERN HISTORY. 

shores of Italy, where they wandered from place to place, 
begging their bread, and relating with tears, the sad 
story of the fate of the Christians in the East. 

reharks on the crusades. 

The ill success of the last Crusades entirely extinguished 
that spirit of zeal for tlie deliverance of Jerusalem which 
had animated the first Crusaders. Succeeding attempts 
to renew those expeditions proved fruitless; and the wars 
carried on in subsequent centuries between the Christians 
and the Turks were like those which powerful, neighbor- 
ing and rival nations wage against each other. 

Like other events of the Middle Ages, the Crusades 
have been for very many modern writers an object of 
scorn and a favorite topic for abusive and insulting lan- 
guage. In the opinion of these men, the Crusades were 
prompted by unjust and absurd motives; were carried on 
without judgment and were disastrous in their conse- 
quences. It is our duty here to examine these charges, 
and see whether they rest on a solid foundation. 

Motives and Objects of the Crusades. — With re- 
gard to the motives which prompted the nations of Eu- 
rope to undertake the Crusades, they were certainly as 
just and reasonable as any that ever occasioned wars 
among men. It was for the purpose of putting a stop to 
the barbarous oppression to which both the Latin pilgrims 
and the eastern Christians were exposed, that our Euro- 
pean ancestors everywhere took up arms, and rushed to 
the field, urged by motives of honor, humanity and re- 
ligion. Their ardor and readiness to enlist in tliis gener- 
ous enterprise was moreover powerfully excited by the 
earnest entreaties of the Greek emperor Alexius, who 
called for assistance against these same barbarians then in 
possession of Jerusalem. The desire of rescuing the Holy 
Sepulchre from. the oppressive yoke of those infidels may 
have been the most general feeling that actuated many of 
the Crusaders, but that was not the only object of the Cru- 
sades; and this desire, very just in itself, as it led to the 
attack of cruel usurpers, covered a still more important 
design, namely, that of saving the countries of Europe it- 
self from the invasion with which they were threatened. 

Indeed, what was not to be feared from those Mussul- 



KEMAEKS ON THE CRUSADES. 339 

man hordes, who had already made such progress, and 
seemed to conquer for no other end than to destroy Chris- 
tianity and civilization! How alarming was their restless 
and warlike spirit, always inflamed and fostered by fanati- 
cism and the desire for pillage! Were our forefathers then 
patiently to wait for the yoke of servitude to be laid upon 
them? Did it become the Christian nations to suffer 
themselves to be successively subdued and oppressed, ra- 
ther than to oppose a powerful barrier to the progress of 
the common enemy? We admire and praise Hannibal for 
having crossed seas and rivers and mountains, that he 
might carry war into the centre of Italy, and conquer the 
Eomans upon the very territory of Eome — and shall we 
blame the European princes for having done the like in 
much more difficult and trying circumstances, by going 
to attack the Turks and Saracens in the provinces of Asia, 
the very bulwark of their power? Finally, was it not 
better for the Latin lords to turn against these implacable 
enemies the weapons which, especially during those tur- 
bulent ages of the feudal system, they had so often used 
against the property and lives of one another? 

Now, who can doubt that these considerations were 
perfectly known to the leaders of the Christian states; 
since, from the very beginning of the First Crusade, Pope 
Urban II. in the council of Clermont expressly mentioned 
them, and presented them in a strain of animated elo- 
quence: "Warriors, who listen to me," said he, ''rejoice; 
the time has come for you to show your courage in the 
best of causes; the time has come for you to expiate, by 
your generous exertions in a lawful war, the many acts of 
violence and injustice which you have committed even 
during the time of peace. After being so long the terror 
of your own countrymen and fellow-Christians, go now,, 
and, taking the sword of the Macbabees, protect the peo- 
ple of God and defend your persecuted brethren against 

the implacable enemies of the Christian name 

Mussiilman impiety has overspread the fairest regions of 
Asia; Ephesus, Nice, Antioch, have become Mahometan 
cities; the barbarous hordes of the Turks have planted 
their colors on the very shores of the Hellespont, whence 
they threaten war to all the states of Christendom. Un- 
less you oppose a mighty barrier to their triumphant 
course, how can Europe be saved from invasion? how can 



340 MODERN HISTORY. 

the stonn be averted, which has so long threatened to 
burst upon our countries?" * 

Such were the motives, such the objects of the Crusades ; 
can any be conceived more pure, more noble than these ? 
and, consequently, were not the Crusades as just as any 
other wars of that or any period ? They cost, it is true, 
the lives of nearly two* millions of Crusaders ; but the loss, 
although lamentable in itself, was far from being as ex- 
traordinary and dreadful as might at first sight appear. 
1°. It was not greater than that occasioned by wars much 
less impoi'tant and justifiable and of much shorter du- 
ration. The conquests of Genghis Khan alone destroyed 
five or six, some say, eighteen millions of individuals. 
The war for the Spanish, succession which did not last 
more than twelve years (1701-1713), carried off two mil- 
lions of persons. — Napoleon Bonaparte, in the course of 
twenty years (1795-1815), is supposed to have occasioned 
the death of no fewer than seven or eight millions of men, 
mostly to gratify his ambition and desire for military 
fame; yet, this man is admired and extolled as the great- 
est hero of modern times, and the promoters and leaders 
of the Crusades, whose views were so upright, so grand, 
and so generous, are bitterly and mercilessly censured! 
2°. The number of those who perished in consequence of 
the holy wars, ought rather to appear comparatively small, 
if we consider that it must be divided among almost all 
the nations of Europe, and that, too, during the long in- 
terval of nearly two hundred years. 3°. The loss of so 
many individuals was compensated by the invaluable ben- 
efits which resulted from the Crusades, and which will be 
mentioned in the course of these remarks. Let a single 
observation suffice "here: two millions of Christians may 
have perished in those distant expeditions; but, in thus 
perishing, they saved European civilization, secured the 
independence of Christian states, and laid the foundation 
of the happiness of future generations; do they deserve 
censure for all this? and does it become those who now 
enjoy the benefits resulting from their generous devot- 
edness, to complain of their conduct? 

Again, if our European ancestors were not allowed to 

* From contemporary authors, apud 'Micha.ud. vol. i. pp. 104 anci 106 
See also Collect. Concil. vol. x. col. 511-516. 



REMARKS ON THE CRUSADES. 34i: 

feel a deep concern in the most sacred monuments of their 
faith, and to defend the cause of God against savage bar- 
barians ; if they had no right to assist and relieve a 
cruelly oppressed people, and to deliver them and their 
country from cruel usurpers ; if they committed an in- 
justice in repelling from defenceless frontiers a restless 
and rapacious foe, whose object was pillage, bloodshed 
and destruction — then, indeed, we might with truth as- 
sert that they were awfully mistaken in thus laying down 
their lives for religion, their country, and their fellow^ 
men ; and that we alone, with our degenerate senti- 
ments, are wise, enlightened and praiseworthy ! But 
who would make the odious assertion? — who, on the con- 
trary, is so insensible to all that is noble, grand, and gen- 
erous in human actions, as to withhold from the religious 
and social heroism which prompted our forefathers to un- 
dertake the Crusades, the merited homage of sincere ad- 
miration ? 

Let us now view the manner in which these expeditions 
were conducted. It is true that, notwithstanding the 
wise laws repeatedly enacted by popes and princes, 
many disorders and excesses were committed by the Cru- 
saders ; but this is no reason to impeach the lawfulness 
and justice of the Crusades themselves, since similar dis- 
orders and excesses have occurred in other wars, even the 
most just and necessary. This then is not the fault of 
the military enterprise itself, but of the individuals who 
have a share in it; and merely proves, that man is always 
accompanied by his passions, and that there is no object, 
how good and excellent soever, which may not be abused, 
and become, through his instrumentality, an occasion of 
evil. 

Moreover, if many of those who called themselves the 
soldiers of the Cross, committed depredations, cruelties 
and other excesses, how many also, especially among the 
leaders, acted with a moderation and dignity worthy of 
the cause which they defended I How often, whilst con- 
tending with the treachery f)f the G-reeks or the ferocity 
of the Turks, did they content themselves with display- 
ing a magnanimous courage, and a chivalric adherence to 
their promises! How many examples did they exhibit 
of energetic resolution, generous feelings, invincible pa- 
tience and noble fortitude? Let the facts speak for 



342 MODERN HISTORY. 

themselves; the history of the Crusades presents so many 
acts of virtue and glorious feats of arms that it will, 
notwithstanding the prejudices of the day, forever remain 
the most interesting portion of the history of the Middle 
Ages. 

Results of the Crusades. — As to the result of these 
grand and noble expeditions, there were numerous obsta- 
cles to their full success, and the conquest and lasting 
possession of Palestine, viz., the remoteness of the coun- 
tries, the differences in climate; the excessive heat; the 
scarcity or bad quality of the provisions, which occasioned 
malignant fevers, dysenteries and pestilential diseases; the 
mingling and jealousies of different nations; the opposing 
views and interests of their leaders; etc., etc. Still, 
although the Crusades did not fully attain their imme- 
diate object, the entire recovery and the preservation of 
the Holy Land, great and invaluable were the advantages 
which they otherwise produced. 

The first was as we have already observed, the remark- 
able diminution of the power of both the Saracens and 
the Seljukiau Turks, who were thus prevented from pen- 
etrating into the heart of Christendom. 

Another happy effect which the Crusades very naturally 
had was to procure the absence of a multitude of petty 
princes and chieftains, who were almost constantly quar- 
relling among themselves or with their sovereigns, and 
whose restlessness had, until then, brought so many evils 
upon the fairest portion of Europe. The oppressions, 
and other evil consequences of the feudal system, grad- 
ually disappeared; travelling became easier and more se- 
cure; towns and boroughs obtained their enfranchise- 
ment; etc. 

In the third place, the necessity of transporting the 
Crusading armies to Egypt and Palestine naturally im- 
proved the art of navigation. The mariner's compass, in- 
vented some time before, began to be used during the 
Seventh Crusade, and led to the discovery of the Cape 
of Good Hope, and the still ftiore important discovery of 
America. 

Fourthly. — Commerce, the profits of which were un- 
doubtedly a powerful motive for some of the Crusaders, 
was also vastly enlarged by the constant ^ intercourse 
of the European nations with their colonies in Asia. 



REMARKS ON THE CRUSADES. 343 

Venice, Oenoa, Pisa, and other maritime towns rapidly 
increased in wealth, power and glory. New and valuable 
plants were imported from the East into the "West, and, 
succeeding well upon this new soil, resulted in the forma- 
tion of several important branches of trade. With the 
sugar-cane and its products the Crusaders became ac- 
quainted in 1099; the manufacture of silk was begun in 
Italy towards 1309; and many useful medicines, etc, were 
also introduced. 

Furthermore, the daily communication of our ancestors 
with Greece and Syria was one of the most powerful 
helps towards the complete revival of literature, arts and 
sciences. Thus we see that the principal universities of 
Europe were founded in the twelfth or in the thirteenth 
century, during or immediately after the Crusades; e. g., 
those of Padua and Paris about the year 1180; — ^that of 
Naples, in 1230; — Vienna, in 1238; — Salamanca, in 1240, 
— Cambridge, in 1280; — Lisbon, in 1290: etc. Decrees 
were issued by popes and councils to establish in Rome, 
Oxford, Paris, Bologna and Salamanca classes and mas- 
ters of Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldaic; the masters being 
morever bound to translate into Latin the best works 
originally written in these languages. From that time 
also geography began to be much better known; chem- 
istry, or rather alchymy, opened its laboratories; and, be- 
sides a multitude of eminent scholars and divines, the 
age of the Crusades produced many excellent historians, 
William of Tyre, Roger Hoveden, Villehardouin, Join- 
ville, and others.* 

Such were the immense and lasting advantages pro- 
duced by those expeditions against which so much spleen 
has been vented within the three last centuries; advan- 



* The truth of these remarks has not escaped the learned authors of 
the English Universal History. "The result of the Crusades," they 
say, " although fatal to some particular nations, was extremely advanta- 
geous to Christendom at large, they stopped the progress of the Mahom- 
etan power, at the time of its greatest efforts ; they taught the princes of 
Europe the value of a navy ; and, by making them better acquainted with 
the situation, productions and political state of the vast countries of Asia, 
they opened the way for those discoveries and conquests which have been 
in after times an inexhaustible source of gain. These advantages, it is 
true, were not reaped but at a long interval after the Crusades, and this is 
the reason why so few authors have viewed them under a proper aspect ; 
but the fact itself is not less evidently demonstrated. Even, at the re- 
mote period when those expeditions took place, a Venetian (Sanudo, in a 



344 MODERN HISTORY. 

tages far greater than i'he partial and transitory -'EYILS to 
which the same enterprises accidentally gave occasion, and 
well calculated to remove from the minds of the most 
prejudiced any impression unfavorable to the Crusades. 

work entitled: Secreta fidelium Crucis) wrote a learned and judicious 
treatise on this subject, which, though it had then little effect, furnishes 
us, at least with an incontestible proof that these happy consequences of 
the Crusades had been foreseen long before they happened and could be 
generally understood." Univ. Hist., vol. lv, p. 279. See also Histoire du 
Bas Empire (A.M. S.S. C. G., Paris. 1838), vol. i. pp. 434-440 ;—Be'rault, 
Bercastel, Descours siir le troisieme age de I'JEglise ; — Bergier, Diction, 
Theolog.,aTt. Croisades; — Nonnote, Erreurs de Voltaire, vol, i.ch. xvin. 



I 



PART VI. 

FBOM THE END OF THE CRUSADES (A.D. 1272), TO THE DISCOVERY 
OF AMERICA (A.D, 1492), 

EWOLABfD, WALES, A^fD SCOTLAND, UNDER 
KINGS EDWARD I. AND II.— A.D. 127»-1314. 

Edward I., 1272-1307. — Prince Edward, after his 
return from Palestine, ascended without opposition the 
throne of his ancestors, and occupied it, during thirty- 
four years, with great, though not unblemished glory. 
His government was vigorous, but frequently despotic; 
his exploits were remarkable, but often accompanied with 
an excessive rigor bordering on cruelty; on the whole, 
Edward I, deserved the reputation of an able rather than 
of a good monarch. Naturally ambitious, he resolved 
to restore to the English crown, by his conquests, its 
former dignity which had been considerably diminished 
by the misfortunes and weakness of the last two kings, 
and he aspired to the sovereignty of the whole island of 
Great Britain; nor was he entirely disappointed in his 
endeavors. 

Conquest of Wales. — Great Britain, not including 
Ireland, contained three separate states, viz,, the two 
kingdoms of England and Scotland, and the principality 
of Wales, This last was at that time under the sway of 
Llewellyn, a prince who had inherited from his family a 
deep hatred of the English, and in preceding wars 
had defeated them in many battles. Contrary to the 
custom of several of his preaecessors, he sternly refused, 
at the accession of Edward, to do him homage for his 
dominions, Edward, thus provoked, seized the oppor- 
tunity offered him of attacking the Welsh; and, declaring 
war, invaded their country with superior forces. It 
was in vain that Llewellyn took refuge among the 
mountains which had, for many ages, defended his an- 
cestors against all the attempts of Eoman and Saxon 

345 



346 MODERN HISTORY. 

conquerors; Edward, not less active than vigilant, pene< 
trated into the very heart of the country. Llewellyn, 
seeing himself destitute of all resources, consented to 
make his submission. He soon, however, took up arms 
once more, but was slain in a decisive engagement near 
the river Wye, and with him expired the independence 
of Wales (a. d. 1283). This principality was thenceforth 
united to the English crown, and given, as a portion, to 
the eldest sons of the English monarchs. 

Scotland revolts successfully under Robert 
Bruce. — Shortly after the subjugation of Wales, the 
affairs of Scotland engaged Edward's attention, and gave 
him hopes of adding that kingdom also to his dominions. 
There were several competitors for the crown; the Eng- 
lish monarch, to whom the controversy was referred 
(a.d. 1390), acted first as mediator; but, as new difficul- 
ties daily arose among the Scottish lords, he soon began 
to act the part of a conqueror. Yet, notwithstanding 
his great exertions and many victories, the conquest 
never was complete nor secure. During the remainder 
of his life, the Scots frequently shook off the yoke, and, 
after his death, which happened in 1307, entirely recov- 
ered their national freedom, under the weak reign of his 
son Edward II. In this protracted war, the most famous 
champions of Scottish liberty, were William Wallace, 
who for some time proved a match for all the efforts of 
the English; and Eobert Bruce, who fought the cele- 
brated battle of Bannockburn against King Edward II., 
and, by a signal victory,- secured the independence of 
Scotland (a.d. 1314). 

GERmAXY IJXDER THE EltlPEROR RUDOLPH 
OF HAPSBURO. — COHmEXCEMENT OF THE 
HELVETIAN CONFEDERATION. — A. D., 1273- 
1315. 

The " Interregnum " in Germany. — Ever since 
the death of Frederic II. in 1250, Germany had been 
in a state of confusion and disorder. The people were 
oppressed; robberies, and other excesses were daily com- 
mitted with impunitv; public and private wars continued 
without interruption. In this deplorable crisis, a man of 
uncommon prudence, courage and firmness, was indis- 



GERMANY, ETC. 347 

pensably required to check so many evils; such a man 
was found in Eudolph, count of Hapsburg, from whom 
sprang the iUustrious family of Austria. Being chosen 
emperor in 1373, by the unanimous votes of the German 
princes, he immediately directed all his efforts to the 
restoration of order. Success attended his exertions; and 
Germany, recovering from her calamities, enjoyed under 
him a peace to which she had long been a stranger. 

Rudolph of Hapsburg-, 1273-1291. — Still, it was not 
in the power of Rudolph to bring back the empire to its 
former extent and splendor. During the interregnum 
that preceded his reign, the state had been stripped of 
important provinces, two of which, Sicily and Naples, 
being first subdued and occupied by the French under 
Charles of Anjou, the brother of St. Louis, successively 
passed into the hands of the Arragonian kings, the 
former in 1282, by the slaughter of the French, an event 
well known under the name of The Sicilian Vespei's, and 
the latter by conquest, at a subsequent period. Another 
revolution took place under Albert, the son of Rudolph, 
in 1308, when Switzerland began to form itself into an 
independent republic. 

Origin of the Swiss Confederacy. — Until then, 
Switzerland, formerly called Helvetia, had been a portion 
of the German empire. Its inhabitants, great lovers of 
their country and of liberty, considered themselves rather 
under the protection than the authority of the em- 
peror, and valued their privileges more than life itself. 
The emperor Albert had the imprudence to provoke their 
indignation, by summoning them to become vassals to 
him as duke of Austria; and he moreover excited theii 
resentment by appointing as governors over the Helve- 
tian districts three men commonly represented as capable 
of the most tyrannical excesses. To the summons the 
spirited natives returned a peremptory refusal, and to the 
oppression which, it is said, soon began to weigh heavily 
upon them, they prepared to oppose an undaunted resist- 
ance, under the direction of brave and undaunted peasant 
leaders of their countrymen, remarkable for their inde- 
pendent and intrepid character. Legend only, not his- 
tory, says how William Tell had been goaded on to ven- 
geance by the tyrannical command of one of the three 
governors to shoot an apple from the head of his own son 



348 MODERN HISTORT. 

at a distance of a hundred feet; which he did without 
hurting a hair of tlie youth. But, whatever may be said 
of this circumstance, which is now by all called in ques- 
tion, and which really wears a romantic appearance, the 
conspiracy of the Helvetians against a foreign domination 
was vigorously conducted. They took and destroyed the 
castles that had been the seats of tyranny, and either put 
their oppressors to death or obliged them with their 
satellites to evacuate the country. 

Albert I., 1298-1308.— The battle of Morgarten.— 
All hope of reconciliation between the emperor and the 
Helvetians was now destroyed. At the first intelligence 
of the insurrection, Albert prepared to check it by march- 
ing in person against those whom he regarded as rebels; 
but he was murdered at that very time, on the banks of 
the river Eeuss. The districts of XJri, IJnderwalden, and 
Schwytz availed themselves of the disturbances which 
followed his death, to strengthen their coalition. It was 
not long, however, before they were attacked by a 
formidable army of Austrians under the command of 
Duke Leopold, a son of the emperor Albert. Fully 
confident of victory, this prince ventured to pene- 
trate into the heart of Switzerland through a narrow 
defile called Morgarten, while thirteen hundred men of 
the district of Schweitz took upon themselves the charge 
of defending it against the multitude of Germans, as 
formerly three hundred Spartans attempted to stop the 
Persians in the pass of Thermopylae. The Helvetians 
posted themselves on the summits of the surrounding 
mountains, and, as soon as the Austrians had entered the 
narrow pass, cast upon them enormous fragments of rocks, 
which destroyed the cavalry and threw the infantry in 
disorder; then, rushing down with resistless fury, they 
cut nearly all the enemy to pieces, while they themselves 
lost only fourteen men. 

A little before the battle, fifty men, who had been 
lately banished for misconduct, came and offered to atone 
for their former delinquencies by shedding their blood in 
defence of their country. However useful their assist- 
ance might be to the small army of the Helvetians, it 
was looked upon as disgraceful, and consequently 
rejected. JSTo refusal could be more mortifying nor more 
disparaging than this to the exiles; but patriotism made 



GERMANY, ETC. 349 

them superior to every consideration. When the fight 
commenced in the valley of Morgarten, this little band 
attacked the Anstrians with undaunted valor, spread ter- 
ror and destruction wherever they went, and greatly con- 
tributed to the victory of their countrymen. What they 
had just done, inspired them with greater confidence 
than before; after the battle, they did not hesitate to 
make their appearance in the camp of the conquerors, 
and were received by them with every possible mark of 
gratitude and exultation. 

The Swiss Cantons recognized in 1309 by Henry 
VII. — The battle of Morgarten was a fatal blow given 
to the Austrian power in Helvetia, whose inhabitants 
could now Justly hope that their liberty was secure. 
From that time they formed themselves into a regular 
confederacy, founded on a few plain and simple princi- 
ples. As the struggle for independence had taken place 
mainly in the territory of 8chwytz, and the victory hud 
been gained chiefly by the exertions of its natives, the 
other districts adoped that name for themselves. At first, 
they were only three in number ; but, in the course of 
time the neighboring districts and towns joined tlie 
confederacy, and by this union formed the nation of the 
Swiss ; a nation greatly celebrated for its uprightness and 
loyalty. The former confederated cantons now form an 
almost ideal democratic federal republic, in which the 
people can always check corrupt legislation. 

PROSECUTION AND ABOLITION OP THE 
KNIGHTS TEMPI.ARS.— A.D. 1307-1312. 

The Knights Templars, whose institution we mentioned 
before, had now been in existence for nearly two hundred 
years. During that time their devotion to the cause 
of Christendom, their heroic valor and exploits against 
the Moslems, had acquired for their order an extraordinary 
reputation and immense riches. But wealth and power 
generated among them a spirit of arrogance and independ- 
ence, which exasperated both the civil and ecclesiastical 
authorities. They became proud, intemperate, insolent, 
and were daily falling into ill repute, when some of their 
discontented members informed the French king, Philip 



350 MODEKN HISTORY. 

the Fair, of still more shocking and heinous crimes com' 
mitted in the order. 
Corruption acknowledged in the order. — The 

charges were of such a nature, that they at first served 
only to excite indignation against their authors. It was 
however thought advisable to make further inquiries, the 
result of which induced Philip to have all the Templars 
of his kingdom arrested on the same day, the thirteenth 
of October (a.d. 1307). A committee which he appointed 
in Paris, tried one hundred and forty knights, all of whom 
except three, acknowledged the justice of the accusation 
against them; and not only they, but even the grand- 
master and chief commanders of the Templars twice con- 
firmed the same by their own free and express acknowl- 
edgment. Moreover, seventy-two others, were exam- 
ined at Poitiers, and all confessed themselves guilty of 
the principal crimes laid to their charge. 

Pope Clement V. interferes in the affairs of the 
order. — As the persons thus accused belonged to an order 
which was religious as well as military. Pope Clement V. 
took cognizance of the affair, and conducted an investiga- 
tion with the most assiduous attention and scrupulous im- 
partiality. Struck at the unanimity in the accusations, 
testimony and voluntary confessions of so many persons, 
several of whom he himself had examined, he wrote to all 
the Christian princes in Europe, that they also might take 
proper measures against the evil. Everywhere, the Tem- 
plars were put under arrest, and courts of inquiry were 
appointed according to the pope's command, to examine 
the accusations brought against them. The prisoners 
were strictly interrogated, especially with regard to the 
charges of profligacy, apostasy, and impiety. Several of 
them pleaded guilty, and threw themselves on the clem- 
ency of their judges, while many others declared them- 
selves innocent, and could not be convicted of any crime. 

It appears, in fact, that the order was not equally 
corrupt in all places; which accounts for the diiferent 
treatment its members received in diiferent countries. 
Many were acquitted, particularly in Germany and 
Spain; others were condemned to perpetual or temporary 
confinement ; others, finally, who were convicted of enor- 
mous crimes, and still obstinately asserted their innocence 
or even retracted their previous free avowal of their guilt. 



PROSECUTION, ETC. 351 

were delivered to the secular power, to be punished ac- 
cording to the rigor of the law. Fifty-nine were burned 
at the stake in Paris, nine at Senlis, and several others in 
the south of France. 

Fate of Jacques de Molay. — As for the grand-mas- 
ter, Jacques de Molay, and the chief commanders, who 
were kept with him in safe custody at Paris, the pope had 
reserved to himself the decision of their fate. In virtue 
of the sentence passed against them by the papal commis- 
sioners, they were to be punished only by confinement, 
on condition that they would repeat, in the presence of 
the people, their former acknowledgment of their guilt. 
Two of them obeyed and were treated with mildness; but 
Jacques de Molay and another Templar, contrary to public 
expectation, suddenly declared that their order was in- 
nocent and had been calumniated. The papal legates, 
greatly astonished and perplexed, sent them back to 
prison, and prepared to deliberate on the strange inci- 
dent. But the king, highly incensed by the unaccount- 
able conduct of the knights, would not wait any longer. 
He directly took the advice of his lay-counsellors, and, 
on the evening of the same day, ordered the two prisoners 
to be transported to a small island formed by the river 
Seine, and there to be thrown into the flames. The 
grand-master displayed, in that awful moment, his char- 
acteristic courage, which made a deep impression on the 
spectators. He is even reported to have, a short time be- 
fore expiring, summoned Pope Clement to appear within 
forty days, and King Philip within the space of one year, 
before the tribunal of their common and sovereign Judge. 
But this story seems devoid of proof, being omitted by all 
the historians of that time, and contradicted by the best 
critics of more recent date, particularly by Mariana,* 
F. Brumoy,f Natalis Alexander, J etc. 

Dissolution of the order in 1312, by the council 
of Vienne. — As to the order itself, whether it should be 
abolished or maintained, this was a question to be decided 
by the pope. For this purpose, and for other important 
affairs, he convoked a general council to be held at Vienne 



* Be Rebus Hispanix, lib. xv, c. xi. 

t Hist, de I'Eql. Gallicane, vol. xii, ;, xxxvi, ad ann. 1312. 

X Id Hist. Eccles. Ssec. xiv, Dissert, x. qusest. 11, art. i. n. xix 



353 MODERN HISTORY., 

in France, towards the close of the year 1311. The in« 
quiries about the Templars, and their different trials 
having now occupied nearly five years, the whole result 
Avas laid before the pontiff, who communicated it to the 
prelates of the assembly. That many individuals had 
been guilty of enormous crimes, could not be doubted; 
but there was not sufficient evidence to implicate the whole 
order; it was clear, however, that it had greatly degener- 
ated and that far from being now of any utility, it was 
rather an object of scandal to the Church. When these 
considerations had been weighed for several months, 
Clement V. came to the conclusion that the order of the 
Knights Templars could no longer be tolerated with any 
sort of propriety. Accordingly, on the third of April 
(a. d. 1312), he published, in presence of and with the 
approbation of the council, a bull suppressing the order 
not as of a judicial sentence but as a measure of prudence 
and expediency ; and, in order that the riches and prop- 
erty of the Templars might be still preserved for the 
purposes to which they had been originally devoted they 
were transferred to the Knights Hospitallers of St. John, 
who, more faithful to the original rules of their noble 
vocation, were still fighting the battles of Christendom 
against the infidels, from whose hands they had just 
rescued the island of Ehodes. From this general grant 
were excepted the estates lying within the kingdoms of 
Arragon, Castile, and Portugal; these were reserved for 
the defence of those countries against the Moors, who 
still occupied a considerable part of the Spanish penin- 
sular.* 



PROGRESS OF THE CHRISTIANS OF SPAIN, 
AND SIONAL VICTORIES OVER THE MOORS. 
— A.D. 1312-1344. 

The Prince of Morocco resists Christian as- 
cendancy. — The Christians of Spain were gaining 

* The affair of the Knights Templars being very differently represented 
by various modern authors, we have been careful to consult and follow 
guides who, from their learning and impartiality, could not lead us astray, 
and above all, the original documents themselves, so well calculated to 
repel unjust attacks, and correct inaccurate ideas on this important sub- 
ject. See note J. 



CHRISTIANS OF SPAIN, ETC. 353 

ground almost continually on their enemies; but the 
Moorish nation by receiving assistance and supplies from 
their African brethren, resembled the hydra, whose 
heads reappeared as fast as they were cut off, and nearly 
as dangerous as before; their frequent defeats appeared 
to rouse them to new exertions. Extraordinary efforts 
were made from time to time, to avenge and repair all 
their losses, particularly in the year 1340, under the 
command of Alboacen, king of Morocco, a prince much 
renowned for his exploits and conquests among the 
African tribes. His forces, gathered from every part of 
Africa, consisted of four hundred thousand infantry, 
and seventy thousand cavalry, with three hundred and 
twenty large vessels or galleys to transport them from one 
shore to the other. Five months were employed in 
effecting the passage. 

At the approach of that immense multitude of Moslems, 
who were joined by a hundred thousand more from the 
kingdom of Granada, not only Spain, but all Christen- 
dom trembled. Never had so numerous an army been 
raised by any Mohammedan prince, not even by those an- 
cient caliphs whose power extended over so many coun- 
tries of Asia and Africa. The general consternation was 
increased by the news that the two admirals of Arragon 
and Castile had been defeated and slain by the Moors, 
whilst endeavoring to oppose their invasion. 

Alfonso XI. of Castile. — In this imminent danger, 
nothing but prodigies of energy, activity, and courage 
could save the invaded country; this was effected by the 
king of Castile, Alfonso XI. Not to leave any possible 
means untried, he sent deputies to various courts of Eu- 
rope, in order to obtain vessels, money, and troops. He 
could not, it is true, obtain much, owing chiefly to the ob- 
stinate war which had broken out between France and 
England; still, the king of Portugal, Alfonso IV., 
marched in person to the proposed expedition with his 
choicest troops, who, with those of Castile, formed an 
army of about forty thousand foot and eighteen or twenty 
thousand horse. Still the contending forces were left in 
the proportion of 07ie Spaniard to fe7i infidels ; but such 
was the courage, the noble confidence — nay, the cheer- 
fulness — displayed by the Castilian monarch at the ap- 
proach of tne battle that the utmost ardor pervaded 



354 MODERN HISTORY. 

the whole Christian army, and fully made up for the in- 
feriority of numbers. 

Battle of Tarifa. — When the two kings advanced to 
meet their formidable foe, Alboacen was besieging the 
city of Tarifa, from which the battle has taken its name. 
He abandoned the siege, and posted his innumerable 
squadrons near a little river called Salado, where he 
waited the intended attack. On the twenty-eighth of 
October, the Christians, after having all participated in 
the sacred mysteries, crossed the stream, and, in battle 
array, marched against the Moors. History has recorded 
few particulars of the battle; but, how extraordinary 
must have been the courage displayed by the Portuguese 
and Castilians, may be Judged from the result, which 
would really be incredible, were it not corroborated by the 
most exact historians of Spain, and had not a similar 
event already happened in the famous battles of Tours 
(a.d. 732), and Murandal (1312). Here again, in the 
battle of Tarifa, whilst the Christians hardly suffered any 
loss (not more than twenty or twenty-five men), from two 
hundred thousand to two hundred and fifty thousand 
Moors perished on the field of battle, besides a vast mul- 
titude of others who were taken prisoners with the family 
of Alboacen. This prince escaped by a precipitate flight 
from that field so fatal to his glory and power, and the 
next night recrossed the strait in a small boat; thus strik- 
ingly resembling Xerxes, and presenting another instance 
of the same haughty pride followed by a complete over- 
throw, which has rendered the Persian monarch so famous 
in history. 

The two victorious kings returned, loaded with laurels, 
to their respective states. So great was the quantity of 
coin and other booty collected in the Mohammedan camp 
and distributed among the troops, that gold suddenly 
lost one-sixth of its value. Shortly after this, the* 
naval forces of the king of Morocco were destroyed by 
the combined fleets of Castile, Arragon and Portugal, 
under the command of the Genoese admiral, Boccanegra; 
Alfonso himself gained another victory, in which forty 
thousand Moslems were slain, and the important city of 
Algesiras surrendered to that prince in 1344. These losses 
greatly contributed towards the downfall of the Moors in 
Spain; and it might probably have been effected at that 



EDWARD III. AND PHILIP VI. 355 

time, had not a long series of dissensions arisen between 
the Christian sovereigns of the peninsula, which pro- 
longed the tottering existence of their enemies for one 
hundred and fifty years more. 

IVAR BET WE E]^ FRAXCE AMD EXGEAWD. 

Fkom this period we may date the commencement of 
that obstinate struggle between France and England, 
which lasted nearly one hundred and twenty years (from 
1339 to 1453), and, having twice brought the French 
monarchy to the brink of destruction, twice also, by un- 
expected changes, finally turned to her advantage, and 
deprived the English of almost all their continental pos- 
sessions. The importance as well as long continuance 
of this war, even during its first period induces us to 
describe it under separate titles and sections. 

§1. EDWARD III. OF ENGLAND AND PHILIP 
VI. OF FRANCE.— A.D. 1328-1350. 

Claimants to the succession in France.— The 

French king Philip IV. (the Fair), at his death in 1314, 
left three sons, Louis, Philip, and Charles, all of whom, 
in the short space of fourteen years, successively ascended 
the throne, and died without male issue. At the death 
of Charles IV., the youngest of the three brothers, two 
competitors, Edward of England, and Philip of Valois, 
claimed the succession ; the former as grandson by his 
mother Isabella, of Philip IV., and the latter as grand- 
son, by his father Charles de Valois, of Philip III., the 
immediate predecessor of Philip IV. It had indeed been 
decided, in 1316, at the death of Louis X., who left a 
daughter, that females were, by the fundamental law of 
* the kingdom, the so-called " Salic law," excluded from the 
French throne; but Edward contended that, although the 
sex of his mother might be a disqualification for herself, 
it could not affect the succession of her son; Philip, on the 
contrary, maintained that a mother could not transmit to 
her issue a right which she never possessed. This impor- 
tant case was brought before the peers and barons of 
France^ who were unanimous in rejecting the claims 



356 MODERN HISTORY. 

of Edward.* Philip obtained the crown, and securing its 
possession by a signal victory over the Flemish, sum- 
moned the king of England to do him homage for the 
Duchy of Guyenne. 

Philip VI., of Valois, 1328-1350, and Edward III., 
1327-1377. — This homage was a painful task for the 
English kings; and the high-minded Edward in partic- 
ular, most reluctantly submitted to the humiliating 
ceremony. He moreover still saw with a jealous eye 
the French crown in the hands of another, and was well 
disposed to maintain his pretensions to ijb by an appeal 
to arms. Accordingly, as soon as the accession of the 
Flemish to his cause rendered his forces adequate to 
such a design, he declared war against Philip, towards 
the beginning of the year 1338. 

Battle of Sluys. — Fortune was at first favorable to the 
French in their struggle against Edward; but the naval 
battle of Sluys, in 1340, gave the English a decided 
superiority. A powerful fleet of one hundred and twenty 
large vessels, carrying forty thousand men, had been 
raised by Philip, to intercept the British monarch on his 
passage from England to Flanders. Edward determined 
to force the passage, and man(Euvred his ships for the com- 
bat with such prudence and skill, as to win the admira- 
tion of the ablest seamen. The battle was obstinate 
and bloody, and the king himself received a wound, 
which, however, rather served to increase his natural in- 
trepidity; he skilfully took advantage of the wind and 
tide, and vigorously attacked the enemy's line, until the 
timely arrival of the Flemish, his allies, decided the 
victory in his favor. Nearly all the French vessels 
were captured, and about twenty-eight thousand men 

* That the claims of Edward III. to the French throne were unfounded 
pretensions, can now hardly be denied, and the same has been acknowl- 
edged by many Eng:lish historians, e. g. the authors of Univers. Hist, 
(vol. cvui. pp. 403-404) ; J. Reeve in his History of the Church (vol. ii, 
pp. 144-145) ; the authoress of a well written History of Great Britain and 
Ireland, printed at Cork in 1815, (vol. i, p. 149) ; etc. Dr. Lingard con- 
tents himself with saying (vol. iv, p. 30, note) that Edward, in order to 
prove his claim, was obliged to maintain three principles, which he enu- 
merates ; but, by not adding a word in his favor, nor saying that the mon- 
arch proved any of the assertions favorable to his cause, he naturally 
leads the reader to conclude that the claim itself was groundless, and gen- 
erally considered as such ; whereas Philip de Valois, having on his side the 
authority of the law, the judgment of the peers, and the practice of preced- 
ing times, saw his right plainly and unequivocally acknowledged. 



EDWARD III. AND PHILIP VI. 357 

slain or drowned; the loss of the English was, compara- 
tively, inconsiderable. 

Battle of Crecy. — The battle of Sluys did not, how- 
ever, end the dispute between the two monarchs. The 
following years beheld a series of new and more or less 
insignificant expeditions, which only lessened the re- 
sources of both parties, without ending the war. At 
length, the English king resolved to make an extraor- 
dinary effort, and crush his opponent by attacking him 
at different points at once. Whilst an army, led by the 
earl of Derby, engaged the attention of the French in 
Guienne, Edward himself, with other troops, landed on 
the coast of Normandy, and rapidly advanced towards 
Paris, burning or plundering all the towns in his way. 
The approach of Philip at the head of an army far supe- 
rior in numbers to his own, induced liim to retrace his 
steps towards the north; this he did successfully, though 
with great difficulty and danger. He then posted his 
troops upon a hill near the village of Crecy in Ponthieu, 
and waited in good order for the arrival of the enemy 
(a.d. 1346). 

Shortly after, the French appeared, and, hurried on by 
their usual impetuosity, immediately commenced the 
battle, without allowing themselves any time to rest and 
to draw up their army properly. On the other hand the 
English had been taught discipline; so that, being well 
drilled, and well commanded, they easily defeated the 
first two lines of the assailants. King Philip repeatedly 
strove, but in vain, to rally his forces; at each new charge 
he lost the bravest of his attendants, and was finally com- 
pelled to abandon the field of battle, which, on the fol- 
lowing day, was found covered with more than thirty 
thousand slain, among whom were eleven princes and 
twelve hundred knights. The conquerors lost but one 
esquire, three knights and a few persons of inferior rank. 

First use of cannons. — The young prince of "Wales, 
Edward's eldest son, first in this battle displayed that 
courage and ability which afterwards made him so illus- 
trious and successful a general. It was also at Crecy 
that artillery was for the first time made use of by the 
English; they had four, some say six, pieces of cannon, 
which greatly contributed to their victory, by the surprise 
and the terror they spread among the French troops. 



358 MODERN HISTORY. 

Siege of Calais. — The victorious monarch lost no 
time in improving his advantage. With the view of se- 
curing for the future an easy entrance into France, he 
laid siege to the town of Calais, which was defended by 
John of Vienne, an experienced commander, and supplied 
with everything necessary for a long resistance. The 
operations of Edward were indeed slow in the beginning, 
but they at length obtained full success; and Calais, after 
sustaining a siege of twelve months and enduring a 
dreadful famine, was obliged to surrender. It was, or 
seemed to be the conqueror's intention to punish the 
obstinacy of the townsmen by putting some of them 
to death. He therefore insisted that six of the chief 
citizens should come, bare-headed and bare-foot, with 
ropes about their necks, to present him the keys of 
the town and castle. This spread consternation among 
the inhabitants, but the gloom was dispelled by a gene- 
rous patriot, named Eustace of St. Pierre, who offered 
himself as a victim to appease the anger of the British 
monarch, and whose example was soon followed by five 
others. They approached the English camp, and, after 
delivering the keys, the governor presented his sword 
to Edward, begging mercy for the citizens. The king 
appeared inflexible, rejected the intercession of his 
barons, and even sent for the executioner, when Queen 
Philippa, who had just arrived from England, threw her- 
self on her knees before her husband, and, by tears and 
entreaties obtained the deliverance of the unfortunate 
townsmen. Edward then took possession of Calais, 
which, after expelling the majority of the natives, he 
re-peopled with a colony of his own subjects. It soon be- 
came the continental mart for British merchandise, and 
remained in possession of the English for more than two 
centuries. 

Battle of Nevil's Cross against the Scots. — 
"While the English monarch was gaining victories upon the 
continent, the Scots, taking advantage of his absence, 
crossed the frontiers with a numerous army headed by 
David Bruce, their king. Queen Philippa, who had not yet 
set out from England, seeing the danger, prepared to 
repel it by a sudden and vigorous effort. She mustered 
all the forces that circumstances had left at her disposal, 
and sent them against the Scottish army, which they met 



EDWARD III. AND PHILIP VI. 359 

at a place called Nevil's Cross, near Durham. A sharp 
contest ensued, which soon ended in the total defeat of the 
Scots. Fifteen thousand of them were cut to pieces; the 
others were routed, and driven from the field; the king 
himself was made prisoner, and taken with many of 
his nobles and knights to the tower of London. 

Truce concluded. — Thus were the arms of Edward 
everywhere successful; but these advantages had been 
purchased at enormous expense, and with the loss, it is 
said of fifty thousand Englishmen. This consideration in- 
duced him to consent to a truce with Philip, who, owing 
to the embarrassed state of his affairs, had still greater 
need of a respite than the English monarch. Through 
the mediation of Pope Clement VI. the truce was con- 
cluded between the two kings, at first for a few months, 
but afterwards for six years. 

The Black Death ravages England and France. 
— No step could have been taken more useful and neces- 
sary than this to both nations. Almost immediately 
after the conclusion of peace France and England were 
visited by a pestilence as general and destructive as any 
recorded in history. It had broken out in the centre of 
Asia, whence it gradually travelled westward and spread 
through the different countries of Europe. Of the vic- 
tims of the plague, many expired in the course of six 
hours, and few lingered more than two or three days. 
Although it can scarcely be credited, as some have 
asserted, that the mortality carried off one-half or one- 
third of the human race, we may, however, judge of its 
frightful ravages, from the fact that all the cemeteries in 
London were soon filled, and the number of the dead in 
the great hospital of Paris amounted to the daily average 
of five hundred. This awful calamity was generally 
regarded as a punishment from heaven, and had the 
happy effect of bringing multitudes of sinners to a sense 
of their duty. At the same time the whole continent, 
from Calabria to the north of Poland, was shaken by a 
succession of earthquakes. 

The French crown prince called "Dauphin." 
— During these occurrences, King Philip died on the 
twenty-second of April, 1350, leaving behind him the 
reputation of a brave, but imprudent, a tolerably good, 
but not very talented prince. It was his misfortune to 



360 MODERN HISTORY. 

have to contend with so able a monarch as Edward III. 
Yet, notwithstanding his disasters and losses, France 
made under his reign the important acquisition of the 
province of Dauphine, which was ceded by Humbert II., 
its last sovereign, under the easy condition that the eldest 
son of every French king should have the title and name 
of Dauphin; a condition which was faithfully adhered t© 
duriug five centuries. 

§ II. Edward III. and Jobn II.— A.D. 1350-1364. 

John II., 1350-1364. — Philip was succeeded on the 
throne by his son, John II., formerly called duke of Nor- 
mandy. The success which this prince had obtained in 
the previous war of Guienne, his experience, and the 
maturity of his age which was about forty years, seemed 
to promise a much happier reign than that of his father; 
on the contrary, however, a valor not guided by prudence, 
plunged the new monarch and his kingdom into an abyss 
of misfortunes, and prepared new triumphs for England. 

Renewal of hostilities between France and 
England. — The truce concluded between Edward and 
Philip being now ended, hostilities recommenced. The 
prince of Wales, Edward, also called the Black Prince 
(from the color of his armor), opened the campaign. He 
set out with his troops from Bordeaux, and laid waste all 
the surrounding country. The year following (1356) he 
did the same, and advanced into the very heart of France, 
destroying the crops, slaughtering the. cattle, reducing 
to ashes the farm-houses, towns, and villages, and subject- 
ing the natives to all the horrors of war,* until the sud- 
den approach of King John with an army of sixty thou- 
sand men admonished him to retire. But it was now too 
late; he was overtaken at Maupertuis, near Poitiers, and 
all he conld do was to occupy a strong position upon an 
eminence in the midst of vineyards. 

Battle of Poitiers, 1356. — Could the remembrance 
of Crecy have checked the presumptuous precipitation of 
the French, the English prince would not have been able 

* Seem Dr. Lingard {vol. iy., pp. 136-137) another dreadful instance of 
the same inhumanity, and the just criticism of the historian of this cruel 
manner of waging war, which has left a blot on the memory of the prince 
of Wales. 



EDWARD III. AND JOHN II. 361 

to escape an entire overthrow. Ilis troops were six or 
seven times less numerous than those of his opponent; 
they had scarcely provisions for one day more; nor could 
they attempt to leave their camp, without manifest dan- 
ger of being immediately surrounded. Well aware of the 
perplexing circumstance, young Edward had recourse to 
negotiations. He offered to restore his conquests, his 
booty and his captives, promising moreover, not to bear 
arms against France for the space of seven years. His 
offers were rejected; and the French, instead of letting 
famine force the English to surrender, rushed upon them 
as an assured prey, with their usual imprudence and 
tumultuous hurry. 

The event could not have been more disgraceful for 
the assailants and disastrous for France. The cavalry, 
having entangled themselves among the vineyards and 
hedges with which the spot was covered, were easily over- 
thrown by the English archers: the second line began 
also to waver, and soon fled precipitately, thus permitting 
the Black Prince to advance at the head of his cavalry, 
and charge with immense advantage the division of in- 
fantry commanded by the French king in person. Here 
the combat grew fierce and obstinate. John, animated 
by despair, maintained for a while the unequal contest, 
and, by the terrible strokes of his battle-axe, slew or 
wounded those who ventured within his reach. But his 
strength soon failed him. He was wounded in the face, 
beaten to the ground, and finally taken prisoner with his 
youngest son Philip, who, during the engagement, had 
fought like the most hardy warrior to save his father's 
life. 

Victory of the Black Prince. — Such was the ever 
memorable battle of Poitiers, in which a handful of Eng- 
lishmen defeated the whole chivalry of France, and, 
besides'covering the field of battle with five or six thou- 
sand slain, took fifteen thousand prisoners. The moder- 
ation of young Edward, after so splendid a victory, in- 
creased the admiration which his conduct in battle had 
inspired. He soothed his royal captive, waited on him at 
table, and in every particular behaved towards him with 
all possible courtesy and respect. The next morning he 
continued his march with his army and his prisoners to 
Bordeaux; and, having concluded a truce for two years 



362 MODEKN HISTOEY. 

with the dauphin Charles, regent of France during the 
captivity of the king, returned from Guienne to England. 
He was received in London with extraordinary magnifi- 
cence, which, though apparently intended to honor the 
French monarch, was easily referred by all to the con- 
queror of Poitiers. 

To have taken two kings prisoners at the same time, 
was certainly a glorious achievement; but mere glory did 
not satisfy Edward III., who used every means in his 
power to turn his victories to the best advantage. A con- 
siderable tribute to be paid for a certain number of years, 
was the condition on which the Scottish king obtained 
his liberty. The adjustment of the rival claims of Eng- 
land and France was infinitely more difficult, the preten- 
sions of Edward being so high and so excessive, as to be 
unanimously and indignantly rejected by the French gov- 
ernment. This refusal, however, appeared little in ac- 
cordance with the existing state of affairs, as nothing can 
be conceived more distressing and deplorable than the 
condition to which that kingdom was now reduced. The 
mourning, humiliation, and losses occasioned by the de- 
feats at Sluys, Crecy and Poitiers; the dauphin left with- 
out resources; his authority disregarded; factions and 
dissensions springing up in several provinces; civil wars 
raging between the nobles and the peasants, who threw 
on each other the blame of the national calamities; 
troops of marauders destroying what had been spared by 
war and pestilence: everything contributed to spread des- 
olation over France, In order, as it were, to give the 
final blow to the tottering monarchy, just at this junct- 
ure, the English king resolved to renew the war, and, 
landing in the north, recommenced hostilities with the 
most numerous and best appointed army that had been 
raised in England for more than a hundred years. 

The Dauphin's policy against Edward HI. — To 
meet this emergency, the dauphin wisely deviated from 
the course hitherto followed by the French monarchs. 
Knowing, from experience, the danger of general engage- 
ments with soldiers so intrepid and hardy as the English, 
he commanded the leaders of his troops to avoid every 
kind of battle, and rather to shut themselves up in towns 
and fortresses, with their supplies of provisions. These 
measures were perfectly successful. Edward^ as he ad- 



EDWARD III. JOHN II. 363 

vanced, found a country in which his army could hardly 
subsist. Unable to fight in the open field, he attacked 
the cities of Rheims and Paris; but he failed in both at- 
tempts, and was compelled, in a short time, by the scar- 
city of provisions and the severity of the weather, to 
retire towards Bretagne. 

Peace of Bretigny. — The retreat of the English was 
like that of vanquished troops endeavoring to escape the 
pursuit of a victorious enemy. In the neighborhood of 
Chartres, a frightful storm burst upon their camp. The 
tents were carried away by the violence of the wind ; and 
the clouds poured down showers of rain mingled with 
hailstones of a prodigious size, which crushed to death 
men and horses. At the sight of the evils occasioned by 
his obstinacy and ambition, the king in a moment of 
remorse, made a vow not to reject any longer honorable 
conditions of peace. Accordingly the negotiations for a 
treaty were resumed, and it was concluded at Bretigny on 
terms somewhat less hard for France than had been pro- 
posed before. Edward consented to renounce his preten- 
sions to the French crown, and to restore a part of his 
conquests ; still, he kept full possession of several prov- 
inces, and demanded a ransom of three million crowns of 
gold to be paid for the French monarch within the space 
of six years. These conditions were ratified by both 
parties, and John was at length liberated (a.d. 1360). 

John II. 's death. — He did not long enjoy his liberty. 
Notwithstanding his perfect sincerity, which no man ever 
questioned, he found it an easier matter to promise than 
to perform, being unable to raise the stipulated sums at 
the time appointed for each instalment. On this ac- 
count, and in consequence of other difficulties arising 
from the treaty of Bretigny, John determined to give 
himself up again to his conqueror, saying that, "If 
honor were banished from every other place, it should 
find an asylum in the breasts of kings/* He actually 
returned to London, where he died after a few weeks, 
in 1364. 



364 MODERN HISTORY. 



§ III. EDU^ARD III. AND CHARI^§ Y. 
— A.D. 1364-1380. 

Hostilities in Spain. — The death of John at first 
made no change in the existing relations between France 
and England; and the dauphin, now King Charles V., 
had sufficient time to restore perfect tranquillity in his 
kingdom. His best measure was first the delivery of his 
people from a large body of military adventurers, who 
after having followed the standard of Edward III. during 
the war, subsisted, in time of peace, by plundering the 
French territories. Many fruitless attempts had been 
made to get rid of those companies of formidable ban- 
ditti ; at length Charles succeeded, through the means of 
his celebrated general Du Guesclin, in inducing them to 
undertake an expedition into Spain, on the ground that 
their exertions might be extremely useful to that country 
and to themselves. 

The kingdom of Castile was then groaning under the 
tyrannical rule of Don Pedro, son and successor of 
Alfonso XI. That prince, justly surnamed the cruel, on 
account of his vindictive and ferocious spirit, ascended 
the throne in 1350, at the age of fifteen, and marked 
each succeeding year by dreadful executions, prompted 
by his ambition, caprice, or barbarous profligacy. The 
most illustrious of his victims was his virtuous queen, 
Blanche de Bourbon, a French princess, who is believed 
to have perished by poison. Don Henry, earl of Transta- 
mare, and half-brother to Don Pedro, threatened with a 
similar fate, fled to Paris, where he entered into a confed- 
eracy with the French court to punish the murderer of 
Blanche. 

Don Pedro gains an ally in Edward III. — Accord- 
ingly the bands of adventurers just mentioned with other 
bodies of troops under the conduct of Du Guesclin, 
entered Spain in 1366, and rapidly marching through the 
kingdom of Arragon, placed Don Henry on the throne of 
Castile without fighting a battle. It was in vain that 
Pedro summoned his vassals, they rejoiced at his distress; 
and he had no other resource than to take refuge on 
board a vessel, which carried him safely to Bayonne, 
whence he proceeded to Bordeaux, the capital of the 



EDWAED III. AND CHARLES V. 365 

British possessions in France, and the residence of the 
prince of Wales. The heart of this young prince was 
moved by the astonishing, though merited, misfortune of 
Don Pedro. He readily espoused his cause, and, in order 
to replace him on the throne, led into Castile a gallant 
army, with which he attacked the enemy near Navarrete, 
After a sharp contest, Don Henry was put to flight, Du 
Guesclin was taken prisoner, and Pedro, without further 
obstacle, again assumed the sceptre. 

Unfortunately for the Castilian monarch, adversity, 
instead of improving, had rather exasperated his temper. 
He soon returned to his former cruel coarse; and for the 
benefits bestowed upon him by young Edward, returned 
nothing but ingratitude, delaying, under various pre- 
tences, to reimburse him for the expenses of the war. In 
the meantime, the victorious troops of his allies began to 
suffer greatly from want of provisions and the heat of the 
climate; and the constitution of the British prince him- 
self was considerably impaired. Equally indignant and 
alarmed, Edward abandoned the ungrateful monarch, and 
returned with his army through the kingdom of Navarre 
to his own territories. 

Pedro killed by his brother in personal com- 
bat. — This permitted Don Henry and Du Guesclin, who 
had recovered his liberty, to re-enter Spain with fresh 
troops, in 1368. They defeated Don Pedro in several 
battles, in one of which he lost fifty thousand Moors, 
who had enlisted in his service; and they soon closely 
besieged him in the castle of Montiel. He endeavored to 
make his escape during the night, but was arrested and 
brought to the tent of a French officer, where, either 
through accident or design, he was met by his brother 
and rival. '' They immediately grappled with each 
other; Pedro threw Henry on the floor, and Henry, in 
the struggle, despatched his adversary with a poniard." 

War between France and England — Re-con- 
quest of the English possessions. — Being thus once 
more seated on the throne, the new king of Castile 
showed his gratitude to his benefactor and faithful ally, 
Charles V., by concluding with him an alliance offensive- 
and defensive, and promising him assistance in vessels 
and troops, in case of a new war against Edward III. 
This war occurred very soon. The subjects of complaint 



366 MODEKN HISTOKT. 

between the two rival nations had been, since the death 
of John II,, continually increasing, and his successor was 
at length induced to answer the lofty demands of his 
opponents by a declaration of war. The British posses- 
sions in France were entered by hostile armies, whose 
rapid progress was aided by the disaffection of the natives 
against a foreign government. Careful to avoid a gen- 
eral battle, the French extended their conquests by cap- 
turing towns, and securing them with strong fortresses 
and garrisons. They had, it is true, to contend against 
the powerful reinforcements continually sent from Eng- 
land for the defence of her transmarine dominions; but 
circumstances were now totally changed. While the 
English monarch, now in an advanced age, was leading 
an indolent life, and the prince of Wales lingering under 
a disease which he had contracted in Spain, the wisdom 
of Charles and the activity of Du Gruesclin constantly 
improved their former success. The troops of Sir Eobert 
Knolles, stationed on the borders of Bretagne, were put 
to flight. A fresh and numerous army, commanded by 
the duke of Lancaster, was almost entirely destroyed, 
either by continual skirmishes, or by the fatigues of the 
march and the weather. In one place, the famous Eng- 
lish general Chandos lost his life; in another, the Captal 
de Buch, one of the best officers in the service of Edward, 
was taken prisoner; and in 1372, the British vessels, car- 
rying supplies to the continent, were all sunk or captured 
near La Eochelle, by a Spanish fleet which King Henry 
had, according to his promise, sent to the assistance of 
the French. 

Death of the Black Prince in 1376, and of Ed- 
ward III. in 1377. — By this series of disasters and 
losses, the English found themselves compelled to ask for 
a truce, which was granted, and, at short intervals by 
renewals prolonged for some years. They were now de- 
prived of nearly all their ancient possessions in France, 
and of all their late conquests except the town of Calais. 
In 1376, they sustained an irreparable loss in the death of 
Edward, prince of Wales, and one year later, the king, 
his father, followed him to the grave, at the age of sixty- 
five years, during fifty of which he had occupied the 
throne. 

*'In personal accomplishments," says Dr. Lingard, 



EDWARD III. AND CHARLES VI. 30? 

" Edward III. is said to have been superior, in mental 
powers, to have been equal, to any of his predecessors. 
More than usual care had been bestowed on his educa- 
tion : and he could not only speak the English and 
French, but also understand the German and Latin 
languages. His elocution was graceful ; his conversation 
entertaining ; his behavior dignified, but also attractive. 
To the fashionable amusements of hunting and hawking 
he was much addicted : but to these he preferred the 
more warlike exercises of tournament : and his subjects, 
at the conclusion of the exhibition, often burst into 
transports of applause, when they found that the 
unknown knight, whose prowess they had admired, 
proved to be their own sovereign. Of his courage as a 
combatant, and his abilities as a general, the reader will 
have formed a competent opinion from the preceding 
pages. The astonishing victories, which cast so much 
glory on one period of his reign, appear to have dazzled 
the eyes both of his subjects and of foreigners, who 
placed him in the first rank of conquerors : but the 
disasters which clouded the evening of his life, have 
furnished a proof that his ambition was greater than his 
Judgment. He was at last convinced that the crowns of 
France and Scotland were beyond his reach ; but not till 
he had exhausted the strength of the nation by a series of 
gigantic but fruitless efforts. Before his death, all his 
conquests, with the exception of Calais, had slipped from 
his grasp : the greater part of his hereditary dominions 
on the continent, had been torn from him by a rival, 
whom he formerly despised : and a succession of short 
and precarious truces was sought and accepted as a boon 
by the monarch, who in his more fortunate days, had 
dictated the peace of Bretigni." * 

Death of Charles V. in 1380. — Three years after the 
death of Edward, Charles V., king of France, also died, 
leaving his kingdom as prosperous and happy, as he had 
found it distressed and miserable. In the space of six- 
teen years, he had by his consummate prudence, repaired 
the evils of the two preceding reigns. Instead of rashly 
exposing his own person in battle, as his father and 
grandfather had done, he confided the command of his 

* Lingard's History of England, iv, pp. 147-149. 



368 MODEKN HISTOKY. 

armies to generals equally brave and cautious, and 
through them waged war with uninterrupted success, he 
himself directing from his cabinet the chief operations of 
their campaigns. Nor was his prudence less admirable in 
his civil, than in his military administration. Good 
order was re-established in the different branches of 
government ; peace was restored to the capital and the 
provinces ; offices of trust were filled by men of well 
known merit and integrity ; the king himself gave to all 
the example of sincere piety, purity of morals, charity to 
the poor, and fidelity to the laws of God and of the 
Church. At his accession to the throne, having found 
the coffers of the exchequer empty, he replenished them, 
not by increasing the taxes, which he on the contrary 
diminished, but by a wise administration of the public 
revenues. It was thus that Charles was enabled to de- 
liver France from powerful invaders ; to assist his allies ; 
to make his people happy ; to foster the arts, sciences 
and commerce ; to lay the foundation of the famous royal 
library in Paris ; in a word, constantly to exemplify the 
truth of his own maxim : " That kings are happy, only 
because they have the power of doing good." His sub- 
jects bestowed on him the flattering epithet of "The 
Wise," and posterity has always pronounced him one of 
the greatest kings that ever sat on the throne of France. 
He was succeeded by his son Charles VI. Kichard II., 
son of the Black Prince, began to reign about the same 
time, in the place of his grandfather Edward III. 

RISE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE, AND ITS 
PROGRESS TILL THE BATTLE OF NICOP- 
OLIS.— A.». 1300-1396. 

Supremacy of the Ottoman Turks. — We must 
now turn our attention to the east of Europe, where a 
new and formidable enemy began to make his appearance. 
The fourteenth century beheld the rise and progress of 
the savage and warlike nation of the Ottomans, who were 
destined to sweep from the face of the earth the last ves- 
tiges of Eoman power. Fresh hordes of Turks, eager to 
walk in the footsteps of their ancestors, were continually 
pouring from Tartary over the fairest provinces of Asia — 
restless and uncivilized tribes, who hardly knew how to 



OTTOMAN EMPIRE. 369 

procure the necessaries of life e ccept by war and pillage. 
After the fall of the Seljukiau Turks of Iconium, these 
barbarians occupied their possessions in Asia Minor, 
under the rule of seven independent chieftains commonly 
called emirs. 

Othman I. and Urchan. — The most skilful and 
powerful of these chieftains was Othman, from whom the 
Turks have derived the name of Ottomans. His valor 
and activity soon enabled him to prevail over the petty 
princes by whom he was surrounded ; he made himself 
master of a great part of Bithynia ; and continued his 
victorious career for the space of twenty-seven years (a.d. 
1300-1326). His plan of aggrandizement was success- 
fully followed by Urchan, his son and successor. While 
the degenerate Greeks were continually weakening them- 
selves by civil dissensions and wars, the well combined 
forces of the Turks daily increased the extent and 
strength of their empire. They captured, in a short 
time, the cities of Prusa, Nicomedia, and Nice, and, 
crossing the strait of Dardanelles, began to carry their 
victorious arms into Europe. Man}'' important places of 
Thrace, and even the city of Adrianople, had already 
fallen into their power when Urchan died, in 1360. 

Murad I. — Murad, who was the third sultan (sovereign) 
of the Turks, strengthened the throne his two predecessors 
had reared, by organizing the intrepid band of the 
Janizaries, whose number amounted, in different times, 
from ten to forty thousand; a body resembling, in almost 
every respect, that of the Prsetorians at Eome under the 
emperors, and of the Mamelukes in Egypt since the time 
of Saladin. A regular and gallant troop of cavalry, called 
Spahis, had already been established by Urchan; it was 
subsequently improved by Murad. This monarch, having 
chosen Adrianople for the seat of his government, kept, 
from that city, a watchful eye on the conduct of the 
neighboring states, in order to turn all their proceedings 
to his own advantage; for, although he was, we are told, 
a great admirer of virtue and lover of justice, yet he lost 
no opportunity to gratify his ambition. Hence his reign, 
which lasted twenty-nine years (a.d. 1360-1389), was little 
else than a continual warfare, and was rendered famous 
by thirty-seven victories, the last of which, however, 
proved more fatal to himself than to his numerous 



370 MODERN HISTORY. 

enemies, the Hungarians, Servians, and other nations of 
eastern Europe, who had united their forces to oppose 
his progress. After the battle, as he was visiting the 
plain covered with the dead and dying, a Servian soldier, 
who lay among the rest, suddenly arose, and with a 
dagger stabbed the sultan, who expired in two hours, in 
the midst of his officers. 

Bajazet I. — The next sultan, Bajazet I. is well known 
in history under the surname of Ilderim (lightning); an 
epithet which he fully deserved by the rapidity of his 
conquests, and the uncommon celerity with which he 
again and again marched from Europe to Asia, and from 
Asia to Europe. He assembled and marshalled his forces, 
separated and re-united them with incredible activity; he 
would disappear for a time, and suddenly appear again 
when he was thought to be at a distance. Still Bajazet 
sometimes met with enemies no less brave and skilful 
than himself; and his life presented a constant alterna- 
tion of brilliant victories and overwhelming defeats. 

Conquest of Moldavia, by Bajazet I. after a 
first defeat. — His efforts were at first directed against 
several petty sovereigns of Armenia and Asia Minor, 
who were all easily subdued. He then turned his atten- 
tion to a more powerful and warlike opponent, Stephen, 
prince of Moldavia, who had, two years before, defeated 
in a great battle the generals of Murad, the father of 
Bajazet. Anxious to restore the honor of the Turkish 
name, Bajazet marched rapidly through the province of 
Thrace, crossed the Danube and entered the territory of 
his enemy, a warrior as eager as himself for the meeting. 
After a fierce conflict, the Moldavians were routed; and 
their leader, who was the last to quit the field of battle, 
fled towards Nols, a fortified town, where he had left his 
mother and children. He found the gates closed against 
him by his mother's command. From the top of the 
ramparts, this courageous woman upbraided him for his 
fiight, and bade him return, renew the fight, and, if he 
could not conquer, rather die than survive his defeat. 
This revived at once the courage and hopes of Stephen; 
he immediately returned, rallied about twelve thousand 
men, and rushed upon the Turks, who were then engaged 
in pillaging, with such impetuosity and vigor, that nearly 
all were cut to pieces; the imperial tent, with a consider- 



OTTOMAN EMPIRE. 371 

able booty, fell into the power of the Moldavians; and the 
proud sultan precipitately retired to the extremities of 
his dominions. 

He soon reappeared, more fierce and formidable than 
ever. Thrace, Greece, and other provinces were overrun 
and laid waste by his armies ; and if, for reasons of policy 
and prudence, he did not yet attack Constantinople, he 
at least made the suburbs of that city the limits of the 
Greek empire. The reigning imperial family was treated 
by him with the utmost contempt. New fortifications 
having been added to the capital by the emperor John 
Paleologus, Bajazet was displeased, and sent an order for 
their demolition, which order Paleologus obeyed. The 
next emperor Manuel, received from the haughty sultan 
a command to remain in Constantinople: he complied 
with the injunction, leaving the city but once, in order 
to appear at the court of Bajazet, which he did at the 
risk of his life; for his preservation he was indebted to 
the generous commiseration of a Turkish officer. He 
then wrote pressing letters to the Christian sovereigns of 
Europe, imploring their assistance against the incessant 
encroachments of the Turks; and his example was imi- 
tated by Sigismond, king of Hungary, who was not less 
anxious to avert the impending storm from his frontiers. 

France and Hungary assist the Eastern Em- 
pire. — These letters and solicitations had little effect, 
except in France, which furnished a large number of sol- 
diers and knights under the command of the earl of 
Nevers, a prince of the royal family. They marched 
through Bavaria, and joined, near the Danube, the Hun- 
garians commanded by Sigismond, whose forces then 
amounted to upwards of a hundred thousand men. 
When he reviewed them, he is said to have exclaimed, in 
a transport of confidence and joy, that "if the firmament 
itself should fall, they might support it with their 
lances." His hopes, however, were grounded more on 
appearances than on reality; for, if bravery was the distin- 
guishing characteristic of his followers, discord, jealousy, 
presumption and licentiousness also reigned among them; 
and Bajazet showed greater foresight than Sigismond, 
when on being informed of these disorders, he said that 
his enemies would surely provoke the just wrath of their 
God. 



'373 MODERN HISTORY. 



Battle of Nicopolis. — After some minor engage 
ments, in which the Christians prevailed over the Turks, 
they commenced a general battle near the city of Nicop- 
olis in Bulgaria (a.d. 1396). When the two armies ap- 
proached, Sigismond entreated the French to unite pru- 
dence with valor against an enemy with whose mode of 
warfare they were not suflBciently acquainted. The 
advice was good, but given to no purpose, the earl of 
Nevers and other young lords imagining that it was the 
intention of Sigismond to deprive them of the honor of 
beginning the battle. They therefore, without waiting 
for the Hungarians, rushed upon the first squadrons of 
the Turks with intrepidity, but in disorder. The enemy 
pretended to be terrified, and fled; the French pursued 
them, with full confidence of an easy victory, when, on a 
sudden, they found themselves not only surrounded by 
numerous bands of Spahis and Janizaries, whom Bajazet 
had placed in ambuscade, but also entangled amidst an 
incredible number of stakes which had been purposely 
planted in order to throw them into confusion so that the 
Christian cavalry could neither advance nor retire. 
Eesolved at least to sell their lives as dearly as possible, 
they continued fighting with undaunted valor, and for 
several hours spread terror and death among the thickest 
battalions of the Turks. At length, overcome by fatigue, 
and overpowered by the multitudes of their opponents, 
they fell, almost all, under the Ottoman sword; the 
remaining few were taken prisoners. 

Bajazet immediately led all his forces against the main 
body of the confederates, put them to flight, and entered 
their camp, where his soldiers found invaluable riches. 
Sigismond seeing everything lost^ threw himself into a 
boat, and following the course of the Danube, and then 
the coasts of the Euxine sea, succeeded, after many 
adventures, in reaching the imperial city of Constantino- 
ple, where his arrival as a fugitive announced his defeat 
and spread consternation. All trembled at the approach 
of the victorious sultan; the Greek capital was more than 
ever in danger of an attack, and would probably have 
become an easy prey to the Turks, had not its downfall 
been delayed by the sudden appearance of another con- 
queror far superior to Bajazet himself. 



1 



TAMERLANE AND THE MONGOLS. 373 



TAIttERLANE AND THE I«09fOOES. 
— A.D. 1369-1405. 

BATTLE OF ANGORA. — 1402. 

'Ytmur, better known by the name of Tamerlane, had 
been raised, amidst the confusion of civil wars, from the 
station of a petty sovereign to the throne of the Mongols 
and Tartars, in the year 1369. He soon re-established, 
by his indefatigable activity and courage, the vast empire 
of Gengliis Khan in Asia. History can scarcely follow 
him through his gigantic expeditions; and the imagina- 
tion itself is astounded at the rapidity with which he 
carried his destructive sword from the centre of Tartary 
to the borders of Egypt, and from the river Indus to the 
frozen deserts of Siberia. Such was the man whom 
Providence destined to crush the pride, and overthrow 
the power of Bajazet. 

Historians are not unanimous in explaining the motives 
which induced these two mighty princes to turn their arms 
against each other. It is generally supposed that the 
complaints of the Greek emperor and of the Mussulman 
princes of Asia, against the encroachments of Bajazet, 
were the chief motive of Tamerlane's conduct on this 
occasion; but it might also be sufficiently accounted for 
by the character of the two rivals. In the opinion of the 
Tartar monarch, it was neither proper nor possible that 
the world should be governed by two sovereigns of equal 
power ; nor was the Turkish sultan less ambitious. 

Tamerlane set out from the East at the head of his 
intrepid Tartars ; and, as if he had resolved to give 
Bajazet an idea of the ravages that everywhere accom- 

ganied his armies, he marched them across Armenia and 
yria, and these unfortunate countries, so often before 
the theatre of disastrous warfare, were again laid waste, 
their riches seized, their cities destroyed, their inhabitants 
slaughtered; streams of blood, and towers built with 
human bodies and skulls, everywhere marked the passage 
of the Mogul conqueror. 

The battle of Angora 1402. — At length, the Tartars 
directed their course towards the Turkish dominions. 
Tamerlane marched through Anatolia with eight hundred 



374 MODERN HISTORY. 

thousand men, while Bajazet, on his side, fearlessly 
advanced to meet him, at the head of four hundred 
thousand brave soldiers. These formidable armies came 
in sight near Angora (July 1402), and there, through the 
whole extent of a vast plain, engaged in a conflict more 
furious and frightful than even imagination can picture. 
It lasted three days, and cost the lives, according to the 
lowest calculation, of one hundred and eighty thousand, 
according to others, of three hundred and forty, or even 
four hundred thousand of the combatants. Victory at 
last declared in favor of the Tartars. The remaining 
Turks were dispersed; and the sultan, after he had 
fought till the last moment with desperate valor, was 
surrounded by a host of enemies eager to secure so impor- 
tant a prize, and, in spite of all his efforts, became their 
prisoner. 

Bajazet captured by Tamerlane. — Not only dif- 
ferent, but even contradictory, are the accounts given 
of the manner in which Bajazet was treated by Tamerlane. 
The more probable, as being founded on the testimony of 
most of the historians who wrote near that time, is that 
the Mongol prince received his captive into his own 
tent with great kindness and regard, and, making him 
sit by his side on the same carpet, spoke to him in the 
most consoling terms ; but that Bajazet, far from being 
grateful for this noble and generous reception, showed 
only ferocious haughtiness and impotent rage, which 
deeply offended his conqueror. To the question put 
by Tamerlane, ''what he would have done, if fortune 
had been favorable to him?" he answered, "I would 
have confined you in an iron cage." — " Let such, then, 
be your own mansion," replied Tamerlane. The sentence 
was enforced, and Bajazet, unable to bear his great mis- 
fortune, died one or two years after, some say, of grief 
and despair, others, of apoplexy. His sons were per- 
mitted to divide, or rather to dispute among them- 
selves the wrecks of his empire, and the Mongol con- 
queror returned to his own dominions. 

Tamerlane's character. — It may not be amiss to 
describe here more fully the character of this extraordinary 
prince. By the oriental nations, Tamerlane is compared 
to Alexander the Great; and the renowned biographer 
Feller, in his Historical Dictionary (article Tamerlane), 



TAMERLANE AND THE MONGOLS. 375 

seems to approve of that idea, which he even endeavors 
to confirm by some examples. The comparison may be 
true with respect to exploits and military abilities; but, 
in many other particulars, it is certainly false. Alexander 
was ambitious, without being naturally cruel; while, 
on the contrary, nothiug can be conceived more bar- 
barous than the manner in which Tamerlane carried on 
his wars, and treated those who presumed to resist. By 
his orders, seventy thousand persons were inhumanly 
slaughtered in the capture of Ispahan; one hundred 
and twenty thousand in that of Sebaste; ninety thousand 
in that of Bagdad, which city was utterly destroyed; and 
so, proportionally, in other places. In the conquest of 
India, the natives were hunted like wild beasts, and it is 
'no exaggeration to say that millions of them were put to 
the sword, the multitude of prisoners being moreover 
so great, that each of the Tartar soldiers had many 
in his power. On one occasion, Tamerlane caused a hun- 
dred thousand of these unhappy captives to be slain 
in the space of an hour ; on another, he commanded 
multitudes of unfortunate people to be crushed under 
the feet of horses, or to be buried alive; and, besides, 
he invariably kept up the horrid custom, which we have 
already mentioned, of building towers with human skulls, 
as monuments of his victories.* Never assuredly were 
there deeds of cruelty so awful and so multiplied, per- 
petrated either by Alexander the Great, or any other con- 
queror except Tamerlane. 

It is truly astonishing that the man who could commit 
such atrocities in war, was in time of peace just, judi- 
cious, and generous. Equitable in his decisions, and 
zealous in the correction of abuses, he was kind towards 
his relations, attentive to the welfare of his troops, and 
careful to reward their services, humane towards all his 
subjects and desirous of their happiness, particularly 
towards the close of his career. ''I do not wish," he 
once said to his counsellors, "that the distressed and the 
poor should cry out for vengeance against me on the day 

* These, and other particulars respecting Tamerlane, may he seen in 
Univers. Hist. vol. xijym,pp. 220-468; — Anquetil, Precis de mist. Uni- 
vei's vol. IV, pp. 446-46(5; — M.ichsLud Hist, des Croisades, vol.\, pp. 289- 
292; — and Ameilhon (the continuator of Leheau), Hist, du Bas-Empire, 
vol. XXVI, pp. 362-367. 



376 MODERN HISTORY. 

of judgment. I do not wish that any one of my brave 
soldiers, who have so many times exposed their lives in 
my service, should have to complain of me and of my 
ingratitude. I am more sensible of their wants than 
they are themselves. None of my subjects ought to hesi- 
tate to lay his grievances before me; for my intention is 
that the world should, under my reign, become a sort of 
Paradise; and I know that, when a king is just and 
beneficent, his kingdom is blessed with prosperity and 

glory-'' 

Such was the language in which Tamerlane expressed 
the noble feelings of his soul in relation to the govern- 
ment of his people. To a sound mind, that distin- 
guished him in council as much as his extraordinary 
valor distinguished him in battle, he is said to have' 
added ja wonderful sagacity, which enabled him to 
unravel the most hidden intrigues and detect the most 
artful stratagems of his enemies, while his own secrets 
remained impenetrable. His principle in governing was 
to secure by unshaken firmness the execution of his 
orders, a.nd to attend in person to all transactions of con- 
sequence. The palaces, mosques, cities, bridges, canals, 
magnificent roads, colleges, hospitals for the infirm, for 
travellers and for the poor, and many other public build- 
ings and institutions, which owed to him their existence, 
would suffice to make illustrious the reigns and the lives 
of several monarchs. 

Tamerlane preserved, till the end of his days, a robust 
constitution, great bodily strength, and astonishing forti- 
tude. He disliked fiattery, and, instead of being offended 
by correction and advice, required that the truth, plain 
and entire, should be spoken to him; the motto on his 
seal was, " I am candid and sincere.''^ A friend to learn- 
ing, he frequently read history, and liked to converse 
with skilful men. And a very extraordinary feature in 
this mighty sovereign and conqueror, was the singular 
modesty which he evinced in the midst of his triumphs, 
not ascribing them to his own exertions and talents, but 
to the omnipotence of God, who made use of him to 
chastise nations and to recall them to the path of justice. 
He believed, as a zealous Mussulman, that he was called 
to redress grievances, and to exterminate the followers of 
all religions contrary to his own; and we have seen in 



I 



RENEWAL OF WAR, ETC. 377 

what an'awful manner he carried out this imaginary mis- 
sion. 

After the successful termination of his campaign 
against the Turks, his advanced age and protracted labors 
seemed to call for repose; yet, even at that time, he medi- 
tated new conquests. In a fresh transport of Mohamme- 
dan zeal, he determined to attack tlie Chinese, and for 
this pui'pose he set out with two hundred thousand men, 
in the dead of winter, from Samarcand, his capital city; 
but, being seized with a violent fever, he expired before 
he had reached the Chinese frontier, in the seventy-first 
year of his age, and thirty-sixth of his reign (a. d. 1405). 
His death was soon followed by the division of his vast 
empire into many principalities and kingdoms, the most 
remarkable of which was that of the Mongols in the East 
Indies, now under the sway of the British government. 

RENEWAL. OF HVAti BET^l^EEN EXOL.ABfD AKD 
FRAXCE. 

The condition of England and France was much the 
same during the latter portion of the fourteenth, but 
became quite different in the beginning of the fifteenth 
century. The two young kings, Richard II. and Charles 
VI., intended well, and, on many occasions, displayed 
great spirit and courage; but the ambition of three 
uncles (in England, the dukes of Lancaster, Gloucester, 
and York — and in France, the dukes of Berry, Anjou, 
and Burgundy) was for each of them a constant source of 
misfortunes, and occasioned many disturbances in the 
two kingdoms. 

England however suffered less, and not only was the 
first to recover from her losses, but even quickly reas- 
sumed her former ascendancy and menacing attitude, in 
consequence of the great internal strength which she 
acquired under the prosperous reign of Henry IV., first 
king of the house of Lancaster, who had, in 1399, de- 
throned and succeeded his cousin Eichard II. On the 
contrary, France's misfortunes increased; especially after 
Charles VI. became insane. Each one of the princes of 
his family wished to hold the reins of government; their 
disputes gave rise to a long train of dissensions which 
ended in the murder of several of them, and daily added 



378 MODERN HISTORY. 

to the misery of the whole nation; nor did England fail 
to turn these disturbances of France to her own advan- 
tage. 

§ I. HEXRY v.— A.D. 1413-1423 AWD CHARLES 
VI., 13S0-1422. 

Henry V., son and successor of Henry IV., is repre- 
sented by historians as a prince sagacious in council, 
skilled in military tactics, and one of the bravest knights 
of his age. He had, more seriously than any of his pred- 
ecessors, conceived and matured the design of subduing 
the French throne, which, after the example of Edward 
III., he claimed as his inheritance. Having raised a gal- 
lant army, he landed at Harfleur, on the 14th of August, 
1415, before the French were ready to oppose his inva- 
sion. The town was invested; and after a courageous 
resistance of five weeks, its garrison was obliged to sur- 
render. The siege however had cost Henry many officers 
and men, and dysentery soon reduced his forces to nearly 
half their number; in this situation, unable to adopt 
offensive measures, he determined to retire to Calais, 
whence he might safely re-embark for England. 

Battle of Agincourt, 1415. — But this was a very 
difficult task: there were no bridges over the rivers; and 
an army of one hundred thousand French soldiers, five 
times more numerous than that of their opponents, had 
been stationed between the English and Calais. At 
Agincourt, on the 24th of October, Henry found himself 
in the very same condition in which Edward III. and the 
prince of Wales had been, the former seventy, the latter 
sixty years before; and, like them, he gave the world a 
new proof how much a skilful commander and a few well 
disciplined troops can effect against a multitude of undis- 
ciplined warriors. In his camp and army, perfect order 
was observed, and ready obedience paid to the commands 
of their gallant leader; among the enemy, notwithstand- 
ing some wise precautions of the commander-in-chief, the 
constable d'Alores, all was confusion and insubordination. 
The night before the battle was spent by the English in 
religious exercises ; by the French, who did not suspect 
the possibility of a defeat, in tumultuous merriment. 
The result, as might naturally be expected, was the com- 



RENEWAL OF WAR, ETC. 379 

plete triumph of the former, and the entire overthrow of 
the latter, twenty-four thousand of whom, including the 
chief leaders and twelve princes^ paid with death or cap- 
tivity, the forfeit of their rash and presumptuous courage. 
The conquerors gratefully attributed to Almighty God 
the honor of so signal and astonishing a victory; the 
113th psalm was sung in thanksgiving after the battle; 
and it was an edifying spectacle to behold the king and 
the whole army prostrate themselves at these words of the 
Koyal Prophet, " Not to us, Lord, not to us ; but to thy 
name give glory." 

Second Invasion of France and Death of Henry 
V. and Charles VI. — The defeat of Agincourt was 
still more fatal to France than the disastrous battles of 
Crecy and Poitiers. The road was now opened into the 
heart of that kingdom; and Henry V. was both too ambi- 
tious and too skilful, not to follow up his advantage with 
great spirit. This was his chief and almost exclusive 
object during the subsequent years, and success crowned 
his new efforts even beyond expectation. Within a short 
time, Normandy and the neighboring provinces were sub- 
dued; town after town surrendered; Paris itself, always 
the theatre of turbulent factions, opened its gates to the 
conqueror; and King Charles VI., whose mental powers 
were almost totally prostrated, was induced to take the 
English monarch for his son-in-law, and, contrary to the 
fundamental laws of inheritance in France, to name him 
his successor. The dauphin Charles, who was heir appar- 
ent to the crown, appealed from this illegal disinheri- 
tance to God and to the sword. After the death of his 
unfortunate and cruelly misled father, in 1422, he caused 
himself to be acknowledged sovereign in all the provinces 
situated on the south of the river Loire, the others being 
occupied by the English and their partisans, who called 
him, through mockery. King of Bourges. The same year 
saw also the premature death of his formidable rival, 
Henry V., who had not reached his thirty-fifth year. 
This great prince expired on the last day of August, leav- 
ing an infant son, Henry VL, who was crowned king of 
England and France, under the regency of his two uncles, 
the dukes of Gloucester and Bedford. 



380 MODERN HISTORY. 



§11. HE]VRY TI.-1422-I461 AND CHARLES VIl. 
—1422-1461. 

Third invasion of France. — The important events 
just mentioned, and the change of the principal leaders 
in each party, though ultimately advantageous to France, 
did not present at first a favorable prospect for that king- 
dom. The duke of Bedford, a courageous and skilful 
prince, was determined to effect its entire subjection, and 
for a time was so successful, that Charles VIL, after several 
defeats, found himself destitute of money, troops, and 
assistance, having but a few knights who remained true to 
his cause. His situation became still more embarrassed, 
when the English, always advancing in their course of 
conquest, laid siege to Orleans, the only town that pre- 
vented them from crossing with safety the river Loire, 
and invading the southern provinces (a.d. 1429). 

Siege of Orleans. — On both sides the siege gave rise 
to innumerable and wonderful examples of ability and 
vigor, the resistance being, on all occasions, as spirited 
as the attack. As, however, the English received fresh 
supplies of provisions and troops with greater facility 
than the garrison of the place, its fall was confidently 
anticipated by them, and the most gloomy apprehensions 
began to prevail in the councils of the French monarch. 
Charles himself meditated a retreat into the distant 
county of Provence; when he unexpectedly, and from an 
extraordinary source, received assistance which revived 
his hopes, filled his enemies with dismay, and turned for- 
ever the tide of success. 

Joan of Arc. — In a village on the borders of Lorraine, 
lived a country girl named Joan, about seventeen years 
of age, and of irreproachable character. When the hope 
of saving Orleans was almost abandoned, she presented 
herself before the governor of Vaucouleurs, and main- 
tained, with extraordinary confidence, that she was com- 
missioned by heaven to raise the siege of that place, and 
to procure the coronation of the king in the city of 
Rheims. Her confident tone and her repeated assurances 
prevailed upon the governor to send her well guarded to 
Charles; siie met the French court at Chinon in Touraine. 
There, whatever may be said by several recent authors in 




JOAN OF ARC. 



HENRY VI. AND CHARLES VII. 381 

opposition to the multitude of more ancient documents, 
every precaution was taken to avoid even the possibility 
of illusion or imposture.* Joan underwent a most rigid 
examination before a committee of persons eminent for 
their prudence and learning, and also before the courtiers, 
and tlie king ^himself; and she constantly gave such 
proofs of sagacity, wisdom, and more than human knowl- 
edge, as to cause her claims to a supernatural mission to 
be very generally admitted. She consequently received 
the complete armor of a knight, and the liberation of 
Orleans was intrusted to her charge. 

The first exploit of Joan was her successful entrance 
into the besieged city, and with a plentiful and much 
needed supply of provisions to the garrison, at the head 
of which she then successively attacked and carried the 
strongest posts of the English. The enemy, dispirited 
by so many losses, hastily abandoned the siege; but, being 
pursued by the heroine, and driven from the towns into 
which they had retired, they were completely defeated at 
Patay, with the loss of nearly five thousand men, while 
the French had only one man of their number killed. 

Coronation of Charles VII., at Rheims. — Joan 
had always declared that the object of her mission was 
twofold, the liberation of Orleans, and the coronation of 
the king at Rheims. The first of these objects being 
accomplished, she now urged the execution of the second; 
and, though the attempt was a dangerous one, the inter- 
mediate country being in possession of the English or of 
the Burgundians, their allies, she prevailed upon Charles 
to place full confidence in her promises; nor was he in 
any way deceived. As soon as he began his march with 
twelve thousand men, all obstacles disappeared, or were 
easily overcome; and the citizens of Rheims, having 
expelled the Burgundian garrison, received him with the 
most flattering demonstrations of joy. 

Joan of Arc falls at Compiegne into the hands of 
the enemy. — The coronation was performed in the usual 



* See Hist, de Jeanne d' Arc, 12mo ; — Hist, de VEf/l. Berault-Bercastel 
vol. VIII, pp. 31-35; — Hist, de VEgl. Gall., d^iscours sur la Pxicvlle 
d' Orleans, at the end of the IGth vol., where the learned author, F. 
Berthier, adduces innumerable proofs, and upwards of twenty contempo- 
rary or almost contemporary authors, French, Italian, German, etc., in 
favor of Joan of Arc and of her claim to a divine mission. 
25 



382 .MODEKN HISTORY. 

manner. During the ceremony, Joan, in her warlike 
dress, and with her banner unfurled stood filled with 
grateful emotions near the altar; when it was over, she 
threw herself on her knees, declared her mission accom- 
plished, and with tears solicited leave to return to her 
country-life; but the king being unwilling to lose her 
services so soon, she, at his request, consented to remain 
with the army. Her courage indeed was always undaunted, 
but success did not follow her exertions so constantly as 
before. Having undertaken to defend Compiegne as she 
had done Orleans, and making a sally at the head of some 
troops, she fell, notwithstanding her heroic efforts, into 
the hands of the enemy. The shouts of the English and 
Burgundians announced her fate to the besieged, whom 
this melancholy news threw into deep affliction; the 
place however continued to defy the power of the assail- 
ants, and the siege was raised by the approach of a French 
army (a.d. 1430). 

Trial and execution of Joan of Arc, 1431.-— The 
unfortunate maid was treated with neglect by her friends, 
with cruelty by her enemies. Charles, who owed so 
much to her, does not seem to have made any efforts to 
rescue her from captivity; but whether he acted thus, 
because he thought his endeavors would be unavailing, or 
because he yielded to the jealousy of some of the cour- 
tiers and generals towards Joan, is uncertain. The Eng- 
lish, exasperated by the repeated defeats and losses she 
had caused them, resolved to gratify their revenge. For 
this purpose, nothing, not even the most iniquitous pro- 
ceeding, was left untried; and, to the eternal disgrace of 
the duke of Bedford and of the committee which he had 
appointed, the awful crimes of sacrilege, blasphemy, and 
sorcery were imputed to the heroine who had given con- 
stant and undeniable proofs of her piety, as well as of her 
innocence and purity of life. Her death was desired; 
she was executed at the stake as a sorceress, in the mar- 
ket-place of Eouen, before an immense concourse of spec- 
tators, who could not restrain their tears. Twenty-five 
years later, her condemnation was reversed by the arch- 
bishop of Kheims and the bishops of Paris and Coutances, 
whom Pope Calixtus III., had designated to revise the 
mock trial. After the most assiduous and minute inqui- 
ries, after hearing one hundred and twelve persons of 



HENRY VI. AND CHARLES VII. 383 

unexceptionable character, dukes, counts, magistrates, 
etc., who had been witnesses of the superhuman virtues 
and exploits of Joan of Arc; they pronounced the first 
sentence passed against her unjust, wicked, and slander- 
ous; and she was solemnly declared innocent of all the 
crimes with which she had been charged by her enemies.* 

England loses its possessions in France. — The 
English had cherished a hope that the death of Joan 
would incline the balance in their favor; in this they were 
disappointed. Such was the impulse just given by her 
heroism to the course of events, that England could no 
longer arrest the progress of France. Charles took 
Paris with most of the other places conquered by Henry 
v., and the British retained the rest, only through a truce 
which the two nations concluded in 1444. Thus did 
Henry VI, lose one of the two crowns he had inherited 
from his father; while the other trembled on his head, 
owing to the rise of strong and hostile parties in his own 
kingdom. 

Establishment of standing armies in France. — 
During this season of calamity for Great Britain, the 
state of the French monarchy was considerably improved 
by the wise administration of Charles VII. The better 
to repair past evils and prevent their recurrence, he 
established several bodies of regular and standing troops, 
from whose cooperation both he and his successors 
derived the greatest advantages in upholding the dignity 
of their crown, repelling foreign invaders, and restoring 
tranquillity in the provinces. Stability and peace every 
where took the place of disturbances and commotions. 
The former strength of the nation was restored; and 



* Several writers, and Dr. Lingard himself, who upon this matter seems 
not to have been sufficiently acquainted with the best sources of informa- 
tion, have endeavored to explain the marvellous actions of the Maid of 
Orleans by mere natural causes ; ascribing them to enthusiastic excite- 
ment, to a deluded imagination, which the French court was careful to 
put to profit. If, however, we attentively consider that Joan of Arc, a 
timid girl, not more than seventeen years of age, and hitherto employed, 
not in a city, but in the peaceful and modest occupations of a country-life, 
from the moment she appeared at court and at the head of armies, evinced 
in everything a surprising wisdom and energy of soul ; that she became, 
on a sudden, an intrepid warrior and an accomplished commander, while 
she always remained a perfect model of innocence, piety, and all Christian 
virtues ; that her claim to a supernatural mission was, after the severest 
trials, admitted by persons of every description, by her countrymen and 



384 MODEEN HISTORY. 

everything now conduced to the final overthrow of the 
English on the continent. 

The English lose all possessions except Ca- 
lais. — In the year 1449, Francis Surienne, a British 
commander, having been guilty of an infraction of the 
existing truce, by capturing and plundering the town of 
Fougeres, the French king availed himself of the oppor- 
tunity to renew the war with immense advantage. Eng- 
land was involved in domestic dissensions; and her power 
abroad had been much weakened by the recent loss of two 
battles against the Scots. In one year Charles recovered 
Normandy with its hundred fortresses. A like success 
attended his arms in the invasion of Guienne; the decisive 
victories of Fourmigny and Chatillon, the former in the 
north, the latter in the south of France, secured his con- 
quests ; and the English were driven from every inch of 
ground they had possessed in that kingdom, with the 
exception of the town of Calais (a.d. 14531 

Rise of Poland and of Austria. — About this time, 
Poland, until then comparatively little known, rose in 
point of civilization, glory, and power, to a conspicuous 
rank among the European states. For this elevation, she 
was indebted to the government of the Jagellos, who 
occupied the Polish throne nearly two hundred years, 
from 1386 to 1572. Germany also flourished at this 
period under the emperor Sigismond, who reigned from 
1410 to 1437. Though unsuccessful in war, this prince 
governed with honor and ability in time of peace, and 
was enabled to transmit his three crowns of Germany, 
Bohemia and Hungary to Albert of Austria, his son-in- 
law; thus laying the foundation of that great power 



by foreigners, by friends and foes, and even by the greatest enemies of 
France, whose desire it was to have her conduct attributed to an evil 
principle ; that all she said was fouiid true ; that all she foretold exactly 
happened in the time, place, and other circumstances predicted; if we 
attentively consider all this, we will surely find it diiftcult, nay, abso- 
lutely impossible, not to acknowledge in the authentic story of Joan 
of Arc something above the ordinary laws of nature ; not to believe that 
phe really was under the special guidance of heaven, and admit in her 
public career a display of the power and wisdom of God, who chooses the 
weak things of the ivorld that He may confound the strong (1 Cor. i, 27), 
and who, after having humbled France, wished to raise it again by the 
hands of a woman, as He formerly saved His chosen people through the 
instrumentality of Deborah, Judith, and Esther. 



FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 385 

and influence which the house of Austria so long enjoyed 
in Europe. 

FALL, OF CONSTAXTINOPLE.— A.D. 1453. 

Ascendancy of Ottoman power and decay of 
Eastern Empire. — The Greek empire, in the mean- 
time, was approaching dissolution. The defeat of Bajazet 
Ilderim by Tamerlane had, it is true, delivered Constan- 
tinople from that terrible sultan of th» Turks, but not 
from the Turks themselves, who, in a short time, 
reappeared on the field of battle, as undaunted and pow- 
erful as ever. After the pacific reign of Mahomet I. 
Avho died in 1421, Amurat II., his son and successor, 
renewed hostilities against the Greeks, the Hungarians, 
and other Christian nations upon his frontiers. Notwith- 
standing the losses and defeats which he occasionally 
sustained, he continued to gain ground, and at last 
gave tlie death blow to the league of his opponents in 
tlie famous battle of Varna, in 1444. This battle was 
more fatal to the cause of Christendom than that of 
Nicopolis had been, inasmuch as it opened a wide field 
to the enterprising spirit of the Turks, and deprived Con- 
stantinople of its last resources. 

Mahomet II. — Thus, Mahomet II. appeared, the most 
terrible of all the Turkish sultans. No sooner had he 
grasped the sceptre left by his father Amurat, than he 
resolved to snatch the Greek capital from the hands 
of the reigning emperor, Constantine Paleologus or Dra- 
gazes, a prince worthy of better times, but whose heroic 
exertions could postpone only for a short period the fall 
of Constantinople. This was the last struggle between 
a power recently founded, but already the most for- 
midable in the world, and an ancient monarchy, the 
glory of which had filled the whole earth, but which 
was now degenerate and doomed. 

There was not less difference in the character of the 
two monarchs than in the respective strength and fate 
of their empires. All admired the virtue and moderation 
of Paleologus, his prudence in council, his intrepidity 
on the field of battle, and his unshaken firmness in 
adversity. Mahomet displayed on every occasion a bold 
and haughty spirit, and a boundless ambition. He was 



386 MODERN HISTORY. 

we are told, a lover of the arts and sciences, and could 
speak several languages; but those pacific studies had 
not curbed his ferocious temper; in war, he spared neither 
his enemies nor his own soldiers, and frequently peace 
itself was rendered bloody by the violence of his passions. 
— The last successor of Constantine the Great possessed 
all the virtues of a Christian and magnanimous prince; 
the son of Amurat was characterized by all the vices of a 
Mussulman and lawless conqueror. 

Siege of Constantinople. — As the siege of Con- 
stantinople was to be commenced in the spring of 1453, 
the preceding winter was actively spent by both parties 
in making the necessary preparations. Towards the first 
days of April, the imperial city was surrounded by a 
fleet of three hundred and twenty vessels, and by a land 
army of three hundred thousand men, one third of whom 
were cavalry. To these formidable forces Constantine 
Paleologus could oppose only a few ships and galleys, 
and eight or nine thousand warriors, partly Greeks and 
partly Italians, with whom he had to defend a territory 
of about twelve miles in circumference. He appointed 
for their commander-in-chief Giustiniani, a Genoese of- 
ficer of great experience, who distributed them as well as 
he possibly could along the ramparts, and reserved for 
himself one of the points most exposed to the assaults of 
the enemy. 

Use of siege-guns. — The Turks employed in that 
siege all the resources of the destructive art of warfare, 
such as mines dug beneath the walls of the city, rolling 
towers, battering :rams, and a multitude of machines des- 
tined to cast stones, darts, and arrows. Above all, the 
use of artillery having now become general, Mahomet did 
not fail to supply his troops with this powerful means of 
attack and prepared fourteen batteries of enormous can- 
non, and balls of proportionate size. Some of these 
pieces of ordnance could send balls of two hundred 
pounds weight ; and one of them in particular, called 
hasilica, sent a ball weighing upwards of six quintals, to 
the distance of more than a mile. It required two 
thousand men and about one hundred and fifty oxen, to 
remove it from the spot where it was made, to its 
intended battery. Its interior circumference was nine 
feet, and its weight thirty or forty thousand pounds. 



J 



FALL OF CONSTAXTINOPLE. 387 

But experience proved that such enormous guns were 
cumbersome and actually disadvantageous ; this was the 
case particularly with the famous Basilica, which soon 
burst with a frightful explosion, and killed, among other 
persons, its very maker, who was a Hungarian apostate. 

The " Greek Fire." — The Greeks too were abundantly 
provided with military engines, cannon, and Grecian fire, 
which they used with dreadful effect against the Turks, 
day and night repelling their assaults, ruining their 
works, and burning their engines. These heroic exertions 
were owing chiefly to the emperor and his general Gius- 
tiniani, whose indefatigable activity seemed to multiply 
them and make them present in every place where succor 
was required. It seemed as if they had communicated 
their energy and courage to all the soldiers of the garri- 
son. 

When Mahomet perceived that the exterior fortifica- 
tions of the town had been almost entirely destroyed by 
the continuous fire of his artillery, he commanded his 
troops to prepare for an assault. His hope of success 
rested principally on a wooden tower many stories high 
and full of combatants, which he caused, with all possible 
precaution, to advance towards the wall. Here a fierce 
conflict took place, which was continued two days with the 
greatest spirit and prodigious efforts on both sides. At 
length, victory declared in favor of the Greeks; the 
Turks were repelled, and had the mortification of seeing 
their wooden tower overthrown and soon reduced to 
ashes. This unexpected result highly exasperated Ma- 
homet, who could not forbear saying that, had thirty 
thousand prophets foretold so extraordinary a disaster, he 
would not have believed the prediction. 

Christian valor during the siege. — A few weeks 
after this event, a similar disgrace which befell his fleet 
and which he himself witnessed, threw him into a parox- 
ysm of rage. Four Christian vessels appeared in sight 
of Constantinople, and, in spite of the great number of 
the Ottoman ships, fearlessly advanced towards the har- 
bor. The enemy went to obstruct their passage, with 
full confidence of an easy victory ; but the four frigates 
opened upon them so terrible and so well-timed a fire, 
that many of the Turkish vessels were sunk, and others 
greatly damaged. Mahomet who had observed the com- 



388 MODERN HISTORY. 

bat from a neighboring hill, descended, foaming with 
rage, and spurring his horse into the sea, even at the risk 
of his life, loaded the commanders of his galleys with the 
most bitter reproaches, and was carried so far by his 
passion as brutally to strike the admiral with a golden rod 
which he held in his hand. But all his fury and threats 
were idle ; the four ships steadily pursued their course; 
and, continuing to disperse bis navy, opened for them- 
selves a free passage to the harbor, which they entered in 
triumph amidst the acclamations of the Greeks, who, 
from the top of their ramparts, had also been spectators 
of the combat. It is supposed that the Turks had sent 
about two hundred vessels against this intrepid flotilla, 
and, without killing one single Christian, lost no fewer 
than twelve thousand men.* 

The besieged had a very great advantage, as long as 
they kept possession of their excellent harbor; nor could 
the Ottoman fleet force its entrance, which was ob- 
structed by a line of strong galleys and an enormous 
chain of iron reaching from shore to shore. To deprive 
them of this advantage, Mahomet conceived the bold 
design of taking overland seventy or eighty of his vessels 
from the sea into the port. This fact, though it may 
seem incredible, is related in substance by all the contem- 
porary historians. By the aid of men and machinery the 
vessels were rolled a distance of three or four miles over 
planks thickly covered with grease. As all was done 
during the night with great celerity, the garrison and in- 
habitants of Constantinople did not suspect the fatal 
scheme, until it was too late to prevent its execution. 
They were surprised and alarmed at seeing the enemy 
now near their ramparts and their homes, and they 
attempted, but in vain, to destroy the Turkish vessels, by 

* This event and other similar incidents plainly show the great superi- 
ority of the Christians over the Ottomans, in discipline, military science 
and valor. If the latter were at length successful in overthrowing the 
Greek empire, this was evidently owing to their vast multitude, and to the 
continual arrival of re-enforcements, rather than to real and well-directed 
bravery. How great the difference between the warriors of the fifth cru- 
sade and those of Mahomet II.! Here we see three hundred thousand 
Turks, supplied with a formidable artillery, scarcely able, after a siege of 
eight iveeks, to take Constantinople, whose garrison did not amount to 
more than eight or nine thousand soldiers; whereas tiventy thousand cru- 
saders, in three days, carried it by storm, in spite of the efforts of more 
than two hundred thousand men, by whom it was defended. 



FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 389 

means of the Grecian fire, which had so often before 
saved Constantinople. Forty of their most intrepid war- 
riors, who had undertaken this hazardous enterprise^ 
were basely betrayed, fell into the hands of the Turks, 
and paid with their lives for their generous self-devotion. 

The garrison, however, continued the defence with 
admirable vigor, following the example of the emperor, 
whose exertions seemed to be the effect of almost super- 
human energy. This excellent prince was acting, at the 
same time, the part of a father, a sovereign, a soldier, 
and a general ; scarcely allowing himself any repose, but 
continually occupied in encouraging by word and example 
a pusillanimous and ill-disposed people, or sharing with 
his brave garrison in the fatigues of the siege and the 
dangers of unceasing combats. During the day, he was 
foremost in fighting and repelling the enemy; during the 
night, his chief occupation was to reconcile, to soothe and 
to relieve by every means in his power, his discontented, 
distressed, and ungrateful subjects. Thus, without ever 
deviating from the path of virtue, Paleologus displayed a 
valor and magnanimity which made him not only equal, 
but even superior to the perils which surrounded him ; 
and, while he stood almost alone upon the ruins of his 
falling empire, he still seemed to bid defiance to his im- 
placable foe. 

Failure of negotiations. — As the virtuous emperor 
could not banish from his mind the sad apprehension that 
the day of woe was approaching, he resolved to make an 
additional sacrifice of his personal feelings for the preser- 
vation of his people. He offered the sultan the payment 
of any tribute that might be exacted, provided the pos- 
session of the imperial city should be secured to the 
Greeks; but as Mahomet absolutely required the surren- 
der of Constantinople in exchange for some principality, 
Constantine nobly rejected the degrading j^roposal, and 
preferred a glorious death. 

Mahomet himself was not free from uneasiness with 
regard to the final result of the war ; and he had reason 
to fear that it might eventually turn against himself, as 
his troops, dispirited by their losses and by the obstinate 
resistance of the Greeks, loudly called for the raising of 
so bloody and perilous a siege. But the undaunted 
sultan revived their spirits by promising them all the 



390 MODEKN HISTORY. 

treasures of Constantinople, should a ne^y attack upon 
that city prove successful. The assault was to take place 
on the twenty-ninth of May. At dusk, on the eve of the 
day appointed, the soldiers were commanded to assemble, 
each with a lighted torch at the extremity of his lance or 
scimitar ; Mahomet appeared in the midst of them, re- 
newed his promise, and to render it more sacred, swore 
by the eternity of God, iy the four thousand prophets, hy 
the soul of his father Amurat, his ow7i children, and his 
sword; upon which all exclaimed: '* God is God, and 
Mohammed is his prophet," When this warlike ceremony 
was over, the sultan ordered a profound silence to be 
observed throughout the camp ; and nothing then was 
heard round Constantinople but the low murmurs of an 
army silently preparing for a terrible and decisive assault. 

Paleologus' heroism. — In the imperial city, the gar- 
rison was attentively watching from the ramparts all the 
movements of the Turks. Their repeated shouts had 
been heard with anxiety and alarm ; the terror was 
increased by the sudden silence which ensued, and the 
light of innumerable torches in the camp being reflected 
by the tops of the towers and by the steeples of churches 
in the town, rendered still more gloomy, from the con- 
trast, the darkness which covered the other parts of Con- 
stantinople. Paleologus assembled his chief warriors, 
and addressed them in a moving speech, exhorting them 
to encounter fearlessly the approaching peril. He rec- 
ommended presence of mind to the officers, obedience 
to the soldiers, intrepidity to all, and spoke so feelingly 
as to draw tears from every one of his hearers : they 
embraced each other as if for the last time ; and, after 
they had separated, the emperor went to pray and 
receive communion in the church of St. Sophia. He 
afterwards visited the imperial palace, gave his orders, 
and asked pardon of all persons there present for the 
faults which he might have committed in the govern- 
ment of his people ; every one answered only by sighs 
and tears. He then went out in great distress, but still 
intrepid, and mounting on horseback, visited all the 
ramparts, examined the different posts of the garrison, 
and finally resumed his own station, the most perilous of 
all. 

Final assault and fall of Constantinople. — The 



FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 391 

last day of the Greek empire had now arrived. At one 
o'clock in the morning, the clarions resounded in the 
Turkish camp ; Mahomet gave the signal for the assault, 
and no fewer than two hundred and sixty thousand 
soldiers began to storm the city of Constantine : at day- 
break, all the troops on each side were engaged in the 
conflict. The Turks, animated by their usual wild fanat- 
icism, by the exhortations of Mahomet, by the hope of 
victory, and the expectation of pillage, forced their way 
with frenzy through guns and pikes ; nor were they 
deterred either by the perils of the assault at t"he breach 
in the wall, or by the sight of their companions falling 
dead around them while endeavoring to scale the wall 
with ladders. Reckless of life, they sought only to reach 
their opponents, and to strike them down with their 
murderous weapons, while destructive missiles were 
incessantly thrown from their engines. But, if the 
shock was furious, the resistance at all points was not 
less vigorous and obstinate ; if the assailants dealt de- 
struction among the besieged their own numbers were 
thinned by death in its most terrible forms. Besides 
repeated and successful volleys of musketry, the soldiers 
of the garrison poured upon the thick battalions of the 
Turks streams of boiling oil, melted wax, and Grecian 
fire, and from the top of the wall threw rocks and mill- 
stones, which crushed all that came in their way. A 
considerable portion of the battlements and several 
towers having been demolished by the battering rams 
and artillery, the noble defenders of Constantinople pre- 
sented themselves as a new rampart, much more difficult 
to be overthrown than that built of inanimate materials. 
The emperor fought at their head, and set every one an 
example of the most intrepid courage : numbers of bar- 
barians were mowed down by the edge of his sword ; the 
very sight of the imperial banner struck terror into the 
enemy. 

After a tremendous contest of two hours, Mahomet 
advanced with the choicest of his troops and a body of 
ten thousand Janizaries. He appeared in the midst of 
them with a club in his hand, animating his troops by 
his fierce countenance, and pointing out to them the 
parts of the wall which they were to attack. Behind 
this band stood other bodies of troops detailed to support 



392 MODEKN HISTORY. 

the assailants, to stop those who might be tempted to fly, 
and force them to return to the charge. The sound of 
the clarions, the clashing of the swords and scimitars, 
the discharges of the artillery, the crash of the falling 
ramparts, all contributed to render the assault a scene of 
horror more easily imagined than described. In this 
awful tumult, the Janizaries themselves showed signs 
of disorder ; and Paleologus, who had perceived the cir- 
cumstance, was exhorting his brave attendants to make 
a last and decisive effort, when a fatal accident suddenly 
changed the aspect of the battle. General Giustiuiani, 
having received a wound, retired, in order to have it 
dressed. The Genoese and other auxiliary troops, de- 
prived of the presence of their commander-in-chief began 
to waver, and, imitating his example, withdrew from the 
conflict. In vain did Constantine endeavor to rally 
them. Finding it impossible to save his empire, he 
determined to fall with it, and to die as became an 
emperor. For somB moments more, he maintained the 
unequal contest, saw his last companions perish by his 
side, and at length overpowed by numbers, fell among 
the foremost of the slain. 

Constantinople was now irretrievably left a prey to 
wild and barbarous conquerors. The weak remnant of 
its garrison was dispersed; Giustiniani had retired to a 
distant spot, where he shortly after expired. Amidst the 
inconceivable tumult and desolation that reigned every- 
where, the Turks rushed into the city, and, in virtue of 
the sultan's promise, plundered it during three days. 
About forty thousand of its unfortunate inhabitants were 
put to the sword, and sixty thousand detained as captives. 
Of those who had the happiness to escape, many fled to 
the western parts of Europe, where, having established 
their residence, they greatly aided in reviving the fine 
arts, polite literature, and a taste for the study of oriental 
languages. 

End of the Eastern Empire. — Thus, as the Western 
empire, which had been founded by Augustus, expired un- 
der Augustulus; so the Eastern emjjire, which had been 
founded by a Constantine, fell under another Constantine, 
eleven hundred and twenty-three years after the building 
of Constantinople. Gradually stripped of its extensive 
possessions, it had long continued to stand, at least with- 



MAHOMET II. AND JOHN HUNYADI. 393 

in the precincts of its capital, like a majestic pillar which 
supports the last arch of a decaying edifice. It at length 
disappeared under the repeated attacks of the barbarians, 
and its downfall afforded to the world a new evidence of 
this truth, that nothing is unchangeable which has been 
established by men, and that the works of God alone 
remain forever. 

mAHOHET II. COMTII^UED. 

As soon as order and tranquillity began to succeed the 
awful scenes of bloodshed, plunder, and destruction, 
which attended the capture of Constantinople, Mahomet 
left his camp and took solemn possession of this unhappy 
city which his efforts had finally subdued. By modera- 
tion towards the vanquished, and other measures of 
policy, he succeeded in retainitig within the town the sad 
remnants of its inhabitants, and in replacing those who 
had perished; and from that time the former capital of 
the Greek empire became the chief city of the Turkish 
dominions. The sultan then considered what country 
he should next add to his vast monarchy, his ambition 
being boundless. Unfortunately for the neighboring 
princes, the long duration of his reign enabled him to 
attack them all in succession. Either by fraud and strat- 
agem, or by violence and open war, he succeeded so far 
in his mighty schemes of conquest, as to destroy another 
empire (Trebizond), subdue twelve kingdoms, and cap- 
ture more than two hundred cities. 

Mahomet failed however in his attempt to establish a 
universal empire, which was the great aim of his ambi- 
tion. At the time when he assumed the most threaten- 
ing attitude, Divine Providence had already raised up 
three great men to check his progress, and save Europe 
from his destructive sway. 

§ I. MAHOMET II. AXD JOHX HVXYAM. 

John HUiSrYADi, prince of Transylvania and governor 
of Hungary during Ladislaus' minority had previously 
distinguished himself by his many exploits against Am- 
urat II. Although he lost the battle of Varna in 1444, 
his name continued to be so formidable to the infidels. 



394 MODERN HISTORY. 

that the Turkish women made use of it to frighten their 
little children, and the mere rumor of his approach at 
the head of an army, almost raised the siege of Constanti- 
nople. After the fall of that capital, the hopes of Chris- 
tian Europe chiefly rested upon him, and his sword was in 
reality its principal defence against the attacks of Ma- 
homet. 

Hunyadi's victory at Belgrade. — Belgrade, a con- 
siderable and well fortified town at the confluence of the 
Danube and the Save, had been for some time an ob- 
ject of particular envy to the Ottomans. In June (a. d. 
1456), it was invested by an army of one hundred and 
fifty thousand men, whom the sultan led in person, and 
by a fleet so numerous that the vessels covered the two 
rivers. The soldiers of the garrison bravely maintained 
their position, and, until the middle of July withstood 
with indomitable valor all the efforts of the assailants; 
still, the place, thus closely besieged and battered day 
and night by formidable artillery, was in imminent dan- 
ger of being reduced by famine or by storm, when the 
banners of Hunyadi, who was hastening to its assistance, 
were seen waving upon the summits of the surrounding 
mountains, and his fleet at the same time appeared sail- 
ing down the Danube. This great man did not hesitate, 
with raw and half disciplined troops, to attack the whole 
Turkish fleet, which opposed his passage. The shock 
was so furious, the resistance so obstinate, and the 
slaughter so great, that the waters of the Danube seemed 
changed into blood. At length, the line of the Turks 
being broken, several of their galleys were captured; the 
others withdrew; and the conquerors entered the town, 
amidst the loud acclamations of the inhabitants, who 
hailed the arrival of Hunyadi among them as a sure sign 
of their approaching deliverance. 

Still, the danger was not yet past. The sultan far from 
being discouraged, with redoubled energy caused the 
walls of Belgrade to be so furiously and so incessantly 
battered, as to prevent their being repaired. No sooner 
was the breach sufficiently wide, than the Turks rushed 
to the assault, and in order to divide the forces of the 
besieged, raised ladders at many places at once. They how- 
ever advanced but little on that day. After having re- 
posed during the night, the attack was renewed with still 



MAHOMET II. AND JOHN HUNYADI. 395 

greater fury than before. In a few moments, so fierce 
was the conflict, that the combatants were mingled to- 
gether sometimes at the breach, sometimes within the 
town itself, the Christians and the Turks alternately 
obtaining the advantage. During this long period of 
awful suspense, Hunyadi proved himself both a general 
and a soldier; throwing himself into the thickest part of 
the battle, he slew, or wounded and dispersed all within 
his reach; while on the side of the Turks, Mahomet was 
seen in the midst of the Janizaries, animating his troops, 
and exposing himself to the greatest dangers. 

Hungarian valor. — It was thus that boldness and the 
hope of victory, well regulated valor and desperate cour- 
age, exhibited the whole day a frightful scene of carnage, 
and produced a variety of exploits which it would be im- 
possible to enumerate. It will suffice here to mention 
one of them, which really deserves particular notice. A 
Hungarian soldier, of common rank, but of heroic senti- 
ments, saw a Turk ascend to the top of a tower, where he 
began to raise his banner with the view of driving the 
Christians to despair, by making them believe that the 
city was already taken. Without losing an instant, he 
hastened after the Turk, and strove to wrest the banner 
from him; finding himself unable to effect his purpose, 
he seized the Turk, and, with the strength of despair, 
dragged him from the top of the tower, and falling with 
him, thus, by his own death averted impending ruin from 
the Christians. 

At this moment, Kasan, the bravest of the Turks, was 
struck dead near Mahomet, and the Janizaries began to 
waver and retire from the bloody conflict. The sultan, 
by threats and promises, endeavored but in vain to rally 
his dispirited soldiers; being himself wounded by an ar- 
row, and having lost the use of his senses, he was carried 
away from the field of battle, where the slaughter of the 
Turks continued until the rest of their army escaped by 
flight. There were found in the camp which they hastily 
abandoned, about two hundred pieces of heavy artillery, 
forty colors, and an incredible quantity of amnmnition, 
baggage, splendid tents, and other valuable articles. 
The battle had lasted, it is said, twenty hours, and was 
the severest check that the Ottomans received during the 
long reign of Mahomet. When the sultan, after having 



396 MODERN HISTOEY. 

recovered his senses, was informed of the extent of his 
disaster, he was with difficulty prevented from killing 
himself in despair. Nor was this a transient or momen- 
tary impression; as long as he lived, he could not think of 
Belgrade, without falling into a paroxysm of madness. 

Hunyadi's death. — He did not long survive this glori- 
ous event; only five weeks later, a violent fever, occasioned 
by the fatigues of the last campaign and by disease in the 
Turkish camp, carried him off on the tenth of Septem- 
ber, of the same year 1456. Being attended in his last 
moments by St. John Capistran, his faithful admirer and 
friend, whose eloquent exhortations had greatly contrib- 
uted to the victory of Belgrade, he died, as he had lived, 
with the pious and noble sentiments of a Christian hero, 
after having had himself carried to the church for the pur- 
pose of receiving the Holy Viaticum, " it being proper," he 
said, " that the servant should go to his Lord, rather than 
that the Lord should come to His servant." The death 
of this great man, the news of which was rapidly dissemi- 
nated, again spread over Europe that gloom which his 
victory had dispelled. Pope Calixtus III., on being ap- 
prized of the sad event, shed an abundance of tears; and 
Mahomet himself is said to have exclaimed in a melan- 
choly tone: "Never was there a greater general in the 
world; and now that he is dead, there is none whose over- 
throw could be a sufficient compensation for my defeat." 
This, however, was not strictly true; and Mahomet de- 
ceived himself, if, besides Matthias Corvinus, who, as had 
his father, inflicted severe defeats on the Turks, he did 
not look upon Scanderbeg as an opponent worthy of him, 
and at least equal to Hunyadi. 

§ II. MAHOHET II. AND SCAXDERBEO. 
— A.D. 1443-1467. 

ScAXDERBEG, as history calls George Castriot, was 
prince of Albania, a rough and mountainous district sit- 
uated on the eastern coast of the Adriatic sea. In the 
beginning of his reign (a.d. 1443) he shook off the yoke 
laid by the Ottomans on his father and country, and, 
with a handful of warriors, maintained his position 
against their innumerable armies during the space of 
twenty-four years. 



MAHOMET 11. AND SCANDERBEG. 397 

Amiirat II., who attacked him first, soon felt the effects 
of his undaunted valor ; and having presumed to besiege 
Croja, the capital city of Albania, met there, in Scander- 
beg who defended it, an invincible opponent, no armor 
however strong, no warrior how brave soever, being able 
to resist this hero. During the whole siege, the Turks 
were continually harassed by sallies and skirmishes con- 
ducted with equal vigor and ability. Their loss, both be- 
fore the walls of Croja and during their retreat, was so 
great, and their defeat so signal and so ignominious, that 
the grief of Amurat on this account is thought to have 
accelerated his death. 

The war continued under Mahomet II., who contented 
himself in the beginning with sending many of his gen- 
erals against the Albanians; but Scanderbeg knew so well 
how to avail himself of his perfect knowledge of the coun- 
try, of its mountains and defiles, that he repeatedly routed 
the Turks, notwithstanding their superior forces. On 
several of these occasions, they lost from twenty to thirty 
thousand men. At length (towards the year 1464), the 
sultan determined to go and avenge in person so many de- 
feats: having raised one of those formidable armies with 
which he had so often visited the neighboring states, he in 
vaded the Albanian territory at the head of two hundred 
thousand men. Scanderbeg had not more than a hand- 
ful of soldiers with him; still, the Turks were again re- 
peatedly defeated, Croja was once more saved from their 
yoke, and Mahomet was compelled to retire disappointed 
and ashamed. 

Scanderbeg's death. — The time was now come for 
Scanderbeg to exchange earthly laurels for a heavenly 
crown, the reward of his piety and of the valor which he 
displayed in the defence of religion. He was taken dan- 
gerously ill in the city of Lissa; and, aware that his last 
hour was approaching, he prepared for it, with his usual 
magnanimity and fortitude, in the most edifying manner. 
The last spark of life was about to be extinguished, when 
information was brought that fifteen thousand Turks had 
re-entered his territory, and were at a short distance; at 
this news, he seemed to recover his former strength and 
warlike ardor, looked for his sword, and giving his orders 
to the little army which always accompanied him, waited 
for the result of the battle, until, hearing the glad 



398 MODERN HISTORY. 

sounds of victory, he fell back upon his bed and calmly 
expired, at the age of sixty-three, on the seventeenth of 
January, 1467. His death proved an irreparable misfort- 
une for his faithful subjects, who, deprived of their in- 
vincible leader, could no longer resist the overwhelming 
forces of the Ottomans. Hence nothing could be more 
just and proper than the deep and general affliction 
caused by the loss of this hero; even his charger is said to 
have shed tears over him, and, by refusing to take his 
food, to have died of grief three days after his noble and 
justly lamented master. The Turks themselves, to 
whom he had been so formidable an enemy during life, 
were not the least zealous in honoring his memory. 
They not only touched his coffin with a kind of religious 
veneration, but having obtained some of his bones, had 
them enshrined in silver or gold, to be carried in battles, 
as a sure pledge, they imagined, of safety and victory. 

There indeed appeared in Scanderbeg something 
almost above human nature; and it is certain that very 
few generals have been equal to him in firmness of mind, 
strength of body, heroic valor and brilliant success. He 
gained twenty-two victories over the Ottomans, while 
they were in the height of thpir power and under the 
most terrible of their sultans; and having with his own 
sword, slain about two thousand of them in different 
engagements, he was but once slightly wounded. Ma- 
homet, imagining that there was perhaps something mar- 
vellous in his scimitar, desired to see it; but not having 
found the famous weapon what he thought it to be, he re- 
turned it with contempt. " I sent my scimitar to the 
sultan,^' said the Albanian prince, ^* but not the hand 
which knows how to wield it in battle." 

Nearly the whole life of Scanderbeg was a series of 
wonderful actions, the offspring of the noblest feelings. 
He not only displayed the intrepidity of a warrior, and 
the talents of a consummate general, but was also per- 
fectly virtuous. Most historians represent him as the 
mildest of men; and yet, such was the struggle within 
him, whenever he met with great opposition, that his 
lower lip would split and bleed; whence we may conclude 
that, as he was naturally much inclined to anger, his great 
mildness must have been acquired by an extraordinary 
and most commendable struggle with his natural pas- 



MA.HOMET AND PETER D'AUBUSSOK 399 

sions. This self-control, united with the highest degree 
of military heroism, ought to excite universal admiration 
for Scanderbeg, and moreover convince every one that 
the spirit of the true religion, instead of debasing the 
soul and weakening its energy, as some impious men 
falsely assert, is, on the contrary, the source of the purest 
sentiments and noblest actions of which man is capable. 
Besides the striking examples of Scanderbeg and 
Hunyadi, another evidence of this truth will be found in 
the illustrious Peter d'Aubusson, who was also raised up 
by the Almighty as a rampart to his people, against the 
invading power of Mahomet. 

§ III. HAHOMET AXD peter D'AIJBIJSSON.— 
A.D. 1476-14§l. 

Siege of Rhodes. — The sultan was incensed against 
the Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem, for 
the severe losses which they daily inflicted on his com- 
merce, his navy, and his maritime provinces. The storm 
was now preparing to burst upon them; and the Grand- 
Master, Peter d^Aubusson, had scarcely completed his 
preparations to offer a vigorous resistance, when, in the 
spring of the year 1480, the island of Ehodes, the prin- 
cipal residence of the order, was attacked by a fleet of 
one hundred and sixty vessels, and one hundred thou- 
sand men for service on land. This powerful armament 
at once directed all its efforts against the capital city 
of the island, whose walls were, during three months, 
battered by pieces of ordnance similar to those which 
had destroyed the ramparts of Constantinople. But all 
this proved no match for Peter d'Aubusson and his 
intrepid knights; besides their cannon, they used against 
the Ottoman artillery a formidable engine, which by vio- 
lently hurling enormous stones and fragments of rocks, 
caused frightful loss in the camp of the besiegers. 
Scarcely a day passed without an assault from the Turks 
or a sally from the garrison; and in every engagement 
advantage, although without a decisive result, was on the 
side of the Rhodians. 

Peter d'Aubusson's courage and character. — As 
the wall, however, had been, in many parts, thrown 
-3own by the continual firing of the cannon, the com- 



400 MODERIS^ HISTORY. 

mander of the Turkish army. Bashaw Misach Paleologus, 
a Greek renegade, led his troops to a general assault. 
He indeed conducted it with great ability and bravery; 
but to his great disappointment, the defence was not less 
vigorous than the attack. The Grand- Master displayed 
on this occasion a presence of mind and courage seldom 
equalled, never surpassed. Neither the combined efforts 
of twelve Janizaries who fell desperately upon him dur- 
ing the conflict, nor excess of fatigue, nor five large 
wounds which he received, could induce him to with- 
draw for a single moment from the perilous post which 
his valor had selected. So noble an example inspired his 
knights with fresh ardor; all seemed transformed into so 
many undaunted heroes, anxious to save their magnani- 
mous prince, or to perish with him on the field of battle. 
After a tremendous fight, the assailants were repulsed at 
all points from the breach, and leaving several thousand 
slain around the walls of the city, they fled to their ves- 
sels and re-embarked in terror and despair. 

The Grand-Master, covered with his own blood and 
with that of his enemies, was conveyed to his palace, 
where his wounds were dressed. He happily recovered 
in a short time; and as soon as he was able to walk, 
repaired to the church to give solemn thanks to the God 
of hosts for the splendid victory which he had gained. 
His next care was to bestow rewards on those of his sol- 
diers and knights who had evinced the greatest courage 
in the time of danger; and, in order to give proper relief 
to the poor inhabitants of the country, whose property 
had been laid waste by the Turks, he maintained them 
until the following harvest, and relieved them for many 
years from the taxes which they paid before the invasion. 
It was in those and in the like laudable occupations that 
P. d'Aubusson spent the remainder of his life. When at 
last attacked by a mortal disease, he was not in the least 
disturbed at the sight of approaching death, but encoun- 
tered it on the bed of sickness with the same tranquillity 
with which he had so often faced it amid the greatest 
perils of war. He died at the age of eighty, justly vener- 
ated and esteemed throughout the whole world as one of 
the most illustiious Grand-Masters of the order of St. 
John, one of the ablest generals of his age, the delight 
ami pattern of his fellow-knights, the father of the poor. 



CONTEST, ETC. 4q^ 

the deliverer of Ehodes, the sword and shield of Christen- 
dom, a model as well of sincere piety as of intrepid valor. 
Mahomet II.'s death.— Far different was the sultan 
of the Turks. This haughty monarch had been exasper- 
ated by the disaster of his army in the island of Ehodes, 
and in his fury he swore vengeance against the Chris- 
tians. The city of Otranto, on the shore of the Adriatic, 
being already^ occupied by his troops, who had taken and 
plundered it m August, 1480, extraordinary preparations 
were commenced for fresh invasions, and new calamities 
threatened Italy, Ehodes, and other states, when a violent 
disease suddenly put an end to both the life and the 
projects of the Mussulman Attila (a.d. 1481). He had 
reigned thirty, and lived about fifty-two years. The 
Turks, on account of his talents and extensive conquests, 
place him in the first rank of their sovereigns; Gibbon 
and Voltaire praise him as a magnanimous prince: but all 
who know that there is no true greatness without virtue, 
and are aware of the many acts of insatiable ambition, 
perfidiousness and barbarity with which the Avhole of 
Mahomet's life was sullied, cannot but consider him as a 
scourge of humanity and a very monster. Dissensions 
which^ arose between his sons, and engaged all their 
attention, left the greater part of Europe in peace for 
many years. 

CONTEST OF THE HOUSES OF I.A1VCASTER 
AKD YORK IN ENGLAND.— A.D. 1455-1485. 

England, although not attacked by foreign ejiemies, 
still continued in a state of great disturbance, the causes 
and progress of which will now be more fully related. 
King Henry VI. was a prince of virtuous disposition and 
inoffensive character, but had always exhibited great 
weakness of mind in his government, and such a want of 
resolution as encouraged some of his relatives to endeavor 
to deprive him of his crown. At their head was Eichard, 
duke of York, the first prince of the blood, Avho, by his 
mother, stood one degree nearer to the throne than the 
house of Lancaster; he possessed those talents which 
render the leader of a party extremely dangerous, and 
exercised great influence over the chief nobles of Eng- 
land. 



402 MODERN HISTORY. 

Battle of St. Albans. — Unfortunately, at this time, 
there existed great discontent against the court, on 
account of the ill success of the last war in France for 
the recovery of Guienne. The artful duke was careful to 
encourage the public opinion, at first secretly, afterwards 
more openly, as soon as circumstances permitted him to 
do so without peril. At length, he raised troops, for the 
purpose, he said, of reforming the government, and 
boldly taking the field, defeated the royalists at St. 
Albans, and took the king prisoner (a.d. 1455). This 
important prize, still more than the victory itself, served 
admirably well the ambitious views of Eichard, and 
enabled him, in leaving to his royal captive the insignia 
of royalty, to assume with impunity the government of 
the realm. 

The battle of St. Albans was the first in that awful and 
unnatural struggle, which armed the rival houses of 
Lancaster and York against each other, made Great, 
Britain one extensive theatre of atrocities, was signalized 
by twelve pitched battles, cost the lives of more than a 
hundred thousand men with eighty princes of the blood, 
and almost completely annihilated the ancient nobility of 
England. It was prolonged by the obstinate valor of 
both parties, and by the great ability of their leaders. 
Besides Duke Eichard, the chief commanders of the 
Yorkists were his son Edward, whose military skill was 
superior even to that of his father, and, during some 
time, the intrepid earl of Warwick, surnamed tlie maker 
and destroyer of kings. The real head of the Lancas- 
trians was queen Margaret, a princess of masculine cour- 
age and wonderful constancy, which she displayed in the 
most distressing circumstances that can perhaps ever 
befall a queen, a wife, and a mother. 

War of the Red Rose and the White Rose. — 
This fatal and sanguinary contest is well known as the 
war of the roses, from the luMte rose, the distinctive 
badge of the house of York, and the red rose, that of the 
Lancastrian family. Many were the alternations of suc- 
cess; and King Henry VI. frequently passed from the 
state of a sovereign to that of a captive, and again 
changed his prison for the throne. His followers seemed 
to prevail in 1460, when, being strongly upheld by the 
queen, they gained at Wakefield a signal victory against 



CONTEST, ETC. 403 

the duke of York, who, with many of his followers, lost 
his life in the conflict. But this success of the royal 
cause was not of long duration. Prince Edward not only 
retrieved the losses and fully repaired the defeat of his 
party, but even marched to London and had himself pro- 
claimed king without further delay. Returning to the 
northern counties, he overtook the Lancastrians near 
Towton, and completely defeated them, after a most 
furious and obstinate conflict, which cost the lives ot 
thirty-eight thousand combatants (a.d. 1461). 

This battle was decisive against the royalists. The un- 
fortunate Henry fled to Scotland for refuge; but his 
queen and his son had to encounter very strange adven- 
tures. On one occasion, as the young prince and his 
mother were crossing a mountainous district, they were sur- 
prised by a troop of banditti, who stripped them of their 
money, jewels and other articles of value. It is probable 
that they concealed their quality; otherwise, such distin- 
guished captives would have been more carefully guarded. 
The ruffians began to quarrel about the division of the 
booty; threats were uttered, and swords drawn; when 
Margaret, watching her opportunity, grasped her son by 
the arm, and plunged into the thickest part of the wood. 
She had not proceeded far, when another robber made his 
appearance. The queen, with the intrepidity of despair, 
advanced to meet him, and taking young Edward by the 
hand, "Friend," she said, "I intrust to you the son of 
your king." These words so moved the robber, that he 
took them both under his protection, and conducted 
them to a place of safety. 

Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury. — How desper- 
ate soever the cause of the red rose might now appear, the 
courage and spirit of Margaret were not yet subdued. 
Indefatigable in her exertions, she frequently crossed the 
sea, in order to obtain foreign assistance, and often re- 
appeared at the head of her partisans in England. Her 
hopes were cheered by a temporary gleam of success, par- 
ticularly in the year 1470, when, by the secession of the 
earl of Warwick from the Yorkist to the Lancastrian 
side, and by the sudden, though temporary flight of 
King Edward, Henry VI. was once more replaced upon 
the British throne. But no later than the following year 
1471, the fatal battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury forever 



404 MODERN HISTORY. 

blasted the fruit of so many efforts. The unfortunate 
monarch again fell into the hands of his implacable ene- 
mies, was again recommitted to the tower, and shortly 
after deprived of life. His royal consort, and his son, 
then eighteen years of age, being now destitute of all re- 
sources, were also taken prisoners. The young prince 
was immediately led to the conqueror's tent; and, having 
been asked the reason of his appearance at the head of 
an army, replied with equal boldness and candor: *'To 
preserve my father's crown and my own inheritance." 
Edward, enraged at this answer, brutally struck him on 
the face with his gauntlet; and the bystanders imitating 
his barbarity despatched him with their swords. As to 
Margaret, after having supported to the end the cause of 
the Lancastrian family, and having outlived her fortune, 
her friends, her husband and her son, she was ransomed 
for fifty thousand crowns, and died in France a few years 
after. 

Battle of Bosworth — End of the war. — Edward 
IV. remained in undisturbed possession of the English 
crown: but, after his death, which happened in the year 
1483, dissensions again disturbed the peace of the royal 
family. Of his two next successors, Edward V., his son, 
and Richard III., his brother, the former was dethroned, 
imprisoned, and put to death by the latter, a faithless and 
ferocious prince, who did not long enjoy the fruit of his 
detestable ambition. Notwithstanding all the precau- 
tions of his artful and tyrannical policy, a strong party 
was formed in favor of another rival, Henry Tudor, earl 
of Richmond, member of the house of Lancaster by a 
collateral and female line. A single battle fought at 
Bosworth in the year 1485, decided the important quar- 
rel; Richard lost his life, and the victorious army pres- 
ently proclaimed his rival king of England under the 
name of Henry VII. The title of this prince was after- 
wards confirmed by an act of parliament; and his mar- 
riage with Elizabeth, the heiress of the house of York, 
uniting together the claims of both families, put an end 
to the protracted feuds of the Plantagenets, and to the 
civil war which had deluged England with blood during 
the space of thirty years. 



FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. 405 



FERDIIVAND A»fD ISABELLA.— FIXAL OVER- 
THROW OF THE inOORS lUi SPAIN.— A.D. 
1479-1492. 

Consolidation of Castile and Arragon. — At this 
period, Isabella, princess of Castile, who succeeded her 
brother Henry IV. on the throne in 1474, married Ferdi- 
nand of Arragon, who inherited tlie crown of his father 
Juan II., in 1479. This marriage permanently cemented 
the chief states of Christian Spain in one extensive em- 
pire. The Spanish monarchy became thus, almost in a 
moment, more respectable and powerful than it had been 
ever since the flourishing times of the Visigoths. This 
however was owing less perhaps to the fortunate union 
of the two crowns in one family, than to the uncommon 
ability and perfect accord with which Ferdinand and 
Isabella governed their dominions. By strict laws and 
their vigorous enforcement, they checked the torrent of 
disorders and crimes to which the preceding civil wars 
had given rise; destroyed the castles and fortresses from 
which restless lords issued forth to overrun all the 
country round; revoked the grant of gratuities, that ex- 
hausted the public treasury; rescued the people from the 
oppression of the nobles; and subjected the nobles them- 
selves to the control of the royal authority. It was at 
this epoch (a.d. 1480) that they established in Spain the 
famous, and, we may add, the so much and yet so little 
known tribunal of the Inquisition.* 

Gradual conquest of the Moorish kingdom. — In 
the meantime, the Moors having, notwithstanding the 
existing truce, imprudently recommenced hostilities, Isa- 
bella and Ferdinand conceived the just and glorious de- 
sign of annihilating their power in the peninsula. Hith- 
erto, these sworn enemies of the Christian name had 
maintained themselves in the southern provinces, and, 
though they had gradually lost an immense portion of 
their territory, they still remained masters of the flour- 
ishing kingdom of Granada, which contained a great 
number of fortified places and three millions of inhab- 

• See note K. 



406 MODERN HISTORY. 

itants. But the time had now come, when, after a strug- 
gle of nearly eight centuries against the Christians, they 
were to be stripped of their last possession in Spain. The 
two sovereigns skilfully took advantage of the imprudent 
step of the Mussulmans and of the bloody feuds which 
began to prevail among their princes; they declared war 
against them, and prosecuted it with vigor. During the 
space of eight years (1483-1490), the diiferent towns and 
fortresses of the kingdom of Granada fell successively 
into the hands of the Castilians, and there remained, in 
1491, only its capital to be subdued. 

Siege and fall of Granada. — This was, it is true, a 
very difficult and perilous attempt. Two mighty for- 
tresses, a thousand towers, walls of prodigious size, and 
thirty thousand warriors defended that superb capital. 
But all these obstacles did not deter Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella from pursuing their favorite plan with wonderful 
activity; and Granada was invested by a gallant army of 
fifty thousand men, whom the presence of their sover- 
eigns stimulated with unconquerable ardor, patience, and 
constancy. In that siege, the Spaniards neither made 
use of artillery, nor attempted an assault, their only 
object being to reduce the city by famine, and repel the 
sallies of the garrison. During six months, the spot be- 
tween Granada and the Spanish camp was a theatre of 
almost continual skirmishes, and innumerable exploits 
were performed by the knights of both parties; but never 
could the Moors bring their opponents to a general en- 
gagement. Ferdinand was too prudent to expose the issue 
of an expedition in which he was nearly certain of suc- 
cess, to the hazard of a battle: he contented himself with 
protecting his troops by solid entrenchments; and then, 
to let the Moors fully understand his fixed determination 
to conquer Granada, he built, at the suggestion of Isa- 
bella, in the place of the encampment, a regular city with 
its houses and streets, under the name of Santa Fe, a 
name which it still retains. 

The inhabitants of Granada, and Boabdil, their king, 
were driven to despair, when they beheld the unshaken 
resolution of an enemy who spared neither time nor ex- 
pense, nor fatigue, to attain his object. The first pangs 
of starvation, and the fear of still greater evils in future^ 
induced them to enter into negotiations with the besieg- 



FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. 407 

ers. Having obtained a truce for two months, during 
which no opportunity presented itself of averting their 
impending ruin, they finally consented under the condi- 
tion of mild and honorable treatment, to surrender into 
the hands of the Castilian sovereigns. 

Isabella and Ferdinand took possession of Granada in 
the beginning of the year 1492, after having granted to 
Boabdil extensive estates and an annual income of fifty 
thousand ducats in exchange for his kingdom. Notwith- 
standing these advantages, the unhappy monarch could 
not leave his capital without shedding a flood of tears; 
and when he gazed at it for the last time from the sum- 
mit of a neighboring hill, he repeatedly exclaimed: '' 
splendid city! Lord God of hosts! What misfortunes 
have ever been equal to mine! " Upon which, his mother 
ironically said to him: *'You do well to lament like a 
woman, the loss of a kingdom which you did not know 
how to defend like a man." Being soon disgusted with 
his new situation, he, after the example of his uncle El 
Zagal, who had long contended with him for the crown, 
sold his estates to Ferdinand, and passed over to Africa, 
where, having lived twenty years longer, he was at last 
killed in a battle fought by the king of Fez against the 
sovereign of Morocco. 

The Moors in Spain and their fate. — The other 
Moors, besides the king and his attendants, had also in 
due proportion, obtained valuable privileges from their 
new sovereigns. By the treaty of peace, they were 
allowed either to retire to the African continent with 
their families and riches, or to stay in the peninsula, 
with privileges scarcely inferior to those enjoyed by the 
Spaniards, and such as induced great numbers to remain. 
Unhappily, the course of time showed their submission 
not to be very sincere and constant; and experience 
taught the Spanish government the necessity of adopt- 
ing severer measures to check their present, and hinder 
their future rebellions. Finally, towards the year 1609, 
some proofs having been obtained that they were planning 
a general insurrection, they were expelled from the Span- 
ish territories by an edict of King Philip III. those only 
being excepted who had become sincere Christians, and 
whose descendants still exist in the southern districts of 
Spain. 



408 MODERN HISTORY. 

Ascendency of the Spanish Monarchy. — The 

wonderful abilities of Isabella and Ferdinand had 
founded on a permanent basis the greatness of the Spanish 
monarchy; by the conquest of Granada, it was raised to 
an eminent degree of splendor; and, within a few years, 
a variety of other successful events gave it that mighty 
preponderance, which it enjoyed in Europe during this 
and the two following reigns. 

REinARK§ ON THE DISCOVERIES HADE 
DIJRIXG THE SIXTH PERIOD OF HODERBf 
HISTORY. 

Before we leave this period, we will make some re- 
marks on the important discoveries in which it abounds. 

Gunpowder — The celebrated Roger Bacon, an Eng- 
lishman, who flourished towards the end of the thirteenth 
century, is said to have prepared the way for the inven- 
tion of gunpowder; but the invention itself is more gen- 
erally ascribed to Berthold Schwarz, a monk who died at 
Freiburg about 1354. The use of that composition pro- 
duced a material change in military tactics, cannon and 
musketry gradually taking the place of bows, catapults, 
balisters, battering rams, and other warlike engines. 
During the course of the fifteenth century, the applica- 
tion of artillery to the different branches of warfare, 
sieges, naval combats, etc., became general among civil- 
ized nations; and it is a remarkable fact that, from that 
time, battles have been less cruel and bloody than they 
were during the foregoing ages.* 

* We do not read or hear of any combat having been, ever since the 
universal adoption of gunpowder, half so bloody as many were before, 
e.g. the battles of Ancyra (a.d., 1402), Tarifa (IMO), Murandal (1212), 
Tours (732), Chalons (451), all which have been mentioned in this history; 
and, in more remote ages, the battles of Arbela (b.c. 331) andPlatea 
(B.C. 479), said to have cost the lives of nearly three hundred 
thousand Persians ; and particularly the awful fight of the kings of Juda 
and Israel, Abia and Jeroboam (b.c. 958), in which according to the unex- 
ceptionable account of the sacred writer, there fell, on the part of the 
Israelites alone, five hundred thousand men slain or wounded (II. Paral. 
xiii. 17); whereas, in the most terrible battles of latter times, e. g. Aus- 
terlitz, Jena, Leipzic, Waterloo, the actual loss of the vanquished 
hardly exceeded thirty or forty thousand. 

Reason itself, if we reflect ever so little, confirms our assertion concern- 
ing the great difference to be remarked between recent and ancient bat- 
tles. It is manifest, all other circumstances being equal, that armies fight- 
ing at a distance with cannon and musketry, are not exposed to so shock- 
ing a mode of spilling blood, nor to such cruel animosity, nor to such ter- 



REMARKS ON THE DISCOVERIES, ETC. 409 

Printing. — A still more important invention was that 
of the art of printing, the authors of which, according 
to the more common oj^inion of learned men, were Faust, 
Schoeffer and Guttemberg at Mentz, about the year 1440.* 
It was soon followed by engraving and. etching on copper, 
and the improvement made about the same time in the 
manufacture of paper from rags. 

The Magnetic Needle. — It was probably discovered 
by the Chinese, already in the thirteenth century; and ap- 
plied to navigation in the East; it was introduced in the 
West in the fourteenth century by Flavio Gioja. 

rible destruction, as when fighting hand to hand with swords, spears, and 
battle-axes. For, in tlie first ease, besides tlie lengtli of time required to 
fix tlie batteries, and the vast number of shots which miss their object, if 
either of the two armies begins to suffer too severely, it may, generally 
speaking, avoid further destruction by retiring beyond the reach of the 
enemy's guns. — In the second case, the hostile troops being frequently 
within the reach of the sword, and, as it were, mingled together, a 
dreadful slaughter must imavoidably follow, both during the regular fight, 
and also after it, owing to the closeness of the pursuit. 

To these facts and reflections we cannot reasonably oppose the frightful 
disaster of the French army in Russia (a.d. 1812), because it was the 
effect of a whole campaign, not of a single battle, and of intense cold, 
want of food, and the crossing of difficult rivers, more than of the 
Russian cannon. The only plausible objection perhaps that can be made 
against our view of the subject is, that gunpowder being a powerful 
means of destruction added to those which already existed, must con- 
sequently be reckoned a real and very great evil — but it should also be re- 
marked, that it is rather a means which has superseded others that were 
more cruel, more bloody and moi-e dreadfully murderous both in public 
wars and private quarrels ; and since there have always been, and un- 
fortunately always will be quarrels among individuals, and wars among 
nations, we are authorized to conclude that the invention of gunpowder, 
instead of being a great misfortune, as is commonly imagined, has been, 
on the contrary, a real and valuable service rendered to humanity. 

* The first printers carried their types about in bags, and printed small 
pamphlets, letters, etc., in noblemen's houses. The first entire book 
issued from their press, was the Psalter in Latin, printed at Mentz (a.d. 
1457), of which there are yet two copies extant, one in the imperial 
library at Vienna in Austria ; the other was bought by King Louis XVIII. 
for the sum of 12,000 francs. A complete edition of the Bible in Latin, a 
copy of which was purchased by the same king for 20,000 francs, came 
out in two folio vols., also at Mentz (a.d. 1462). From that epoch, the 
progress of typography was so rapid, that even before the close of the 
fifteenth century^ a variety of editions of the Bible, and an incredible 
number of other useful books, were published in the different parts of 
Europe. 

It is certain that the art of printing, by removing forever the evil of the 
scarcity of books, has been highly conducive to the greater diffusion of 
religious truth and literary instruction ; but, alas! it has also become a 
powerful vehicle of error, incredulity, sophisms immorality, infamous 
and slanderous tales, etc. ; so apt are men to abuse the very best things 
which lie within their reach. Indeed, what can be more deplorable than 
to see the vast number of irreligious, impious and scandalous productions 



410 MODERN HISTORY. 

Finally, the last years oi this age were signalized by 
the discovery of America, and that of the passage of the 
cape of Good Hope to the East Indies; two events of par- 
amount importance, an account of which belongs to the 
seventh part of Modern History. 

of every kind and every size, with which the world is deluged ? However, 
since the abuse of any good art or object does not detract from its intrinsic 
value, the application of the art of printing to matters of this description 
cannot be a sufficient motive to inveigh against the art itself, and we 
ought rather gratefully to consider it as a gift of Divine Providence, in- 
tended to be, as it really has been, one of the chief instruments towards 
completing tlie revival of science and letters, and securing the triumph of 
th« true religion over error and infidelity. 



II 






PAET VII. 

FROM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA (A.D. 1492) TO THE TREATY OF 
VERSAILLES OR PARIS, IN WHICH THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE 
UNITED STATES WAS SOLEMNLY AND UNIVERSALLY ACKNOWL- 
EDGED (a.d. 1783). 

PRELIMIBiARY OBSERVATIONS ON AMERICA. 

It is a well founded opinion that America was known 
to some among the nations of antiquity, particularly the 
Egyptians and Carthaginians. Besides the mention 
made by Plato, in his dialogues, and the description 
ascribed to Solon, of the great island Atlantis, whose 
existence and identity with the American continent may 
be called in question ; there is in Seneca's Medea a pas- 
sage showing that the ancients had truly the notion of an 
extensive portion of the world, which though separated 
from them by the ocean, might be discovered in after- 
times.* Above all, a very ancient author, who is com- 
monly supposed to be Aristotle, expressly affirms that the 
Carthaginians, in one of their maritime excursions, dis- 
covered a vast and beautiful land, far beyond the straits 
of Hercules (Gribraltar), but that the senate, for fear of 
depopulating the republic, forbade other ships to go 
thither, and endeavored to suppress the notice of the dis- 
covery, f 

Whatever may be said on this point, the population of 
America itself and its descent from the inhabitants of the 

* Venient annis secula seris, 
Quibus oceanus vincula rerum 
Laxet, et ingens pateat tellus, 
Tethysque novos detegat orbes, 
Nee erit terris ultima Thule. — Medea, Act n. 
t See, on this interesting subject, Univers. Hist. vol. xxx. pp. 142-186. 
and vol. cxiv. p. 5 of the Introdvct. to the History of America ; — also Bibts 
Veng^e de Duclot, vol. i, Observations prdiminaires; — Dr. Wiseman, Lec- 
tures on the Connection Between Science and Bevealed Eeligion, pp. 82-86. 

411 



413 MODERN HISTORY. 

Old World, form no longer a difficulty among learned men, 
and are satisfactorily accounted for in many different ways. 
The first is that of a regular and bold voyage either west' 
ward from the coasts of Africa through the Atlantic, 
like that of the Carthaginians, several of whom, according 
to the ancient author just quoted, remained in the fertile 
and extensive country which they had discovered — or 
from the northwest of Europe, through Greenland — or 
from the eastern shores of Asia, viz. Japan, by the long 
and almost uninterrupted series of islands in the Pacific 
Ocean. This seems particularly to have been the course , 
followed by the ancestors of the Peruvians and Mexicans ; 
for, besides the wise conjectures of Hornius in his work 
de Origine Gent. American., d^n^ the solid proofs adduced 
by Mr. de Guisgnes in the History of the Huns 
and Researches on Chinese Navigation, there exists so 
striking a coincidence of monuments, hieroglyphic 
figures, strange customs, and arbitrary signs for the com- 
putation of time, between the Peruvians and Mexicans on 
one side, and the Egyptians, Thibetans and Moguls on 
the other, as to leave no doubt with regard to the identi- 
cal origin of the nations of both continents, and the 
direction taken by the migratory colonies in their pas- 
sage from one country to the other. 

A still easier means of communication between the two 
continents, was by boats in summer, and upon the ice in 
winter, the narrow strait of Behring, which separates 
North America from the north-east of Asia. That this 
means was really resorted to, must appear evident to every 
one from the innumerable marks of resemblance in color, 
size, constitution, manners, etc., between the inhabitants 
of the opposite shores of North America and Asia. Not 
long since, two learned travellers, Steller and Krachenin- 
nikow, proved this truth to a high degree of certainty in 
the first volume of the History of Kamtschatka. 

Moreover, strong winds and tempests have been also 
justly reckoned among the very probable causes of the 
early settlement of America, particularly of the eastern 
parts of South America. How often, during the course 
of ages, may not ships have been surprised by storms, and 
driven from the coasts of Europe or Africa to the Ameri- 
can shores ? Nor is this gratuitously supposed ; it seems 
rather to rest on well authenticated facts. When 



PEELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 413 

Alvarez Cabral, the Portuguese admiral, was going from 
Portugal to the East Indies, in the year 1500, his fleet 
was hurried b}' a furious tempest, across the Atlantic, to 
the coasts of Brazil, of which he took possession in the 
name of his sovereign ; so that the New World would 
have become known in consequence of this accident, had 
it not been discovered eight years before by the genius of 
Columbus. In 1731, a boat carrying six men was driven 
in the same direction from the Canary islands to the 
mouth of the river Orinoco ; the men were still alive, 
although nearly starved. Is it not reasonable to believe 
that similar causes may have occasionally produced simi- 
lar effects in preceding ages ? 

Thus is the population of America in its close connec- 
tion with the inhabitants of the old world, easily and in 
many ways explained. But, like many ancient nations 
shortly after the Deluge, most of the American tribes 
were, at the time .of their discovery, totally uncivilized, 
the only exception found by the Europeans being that of 
the empires of Mexico and Peru ; and even this Mexican 
and Peruvian civilization was, in several respects, very 
imperfect; nor can it be traced farther back than three or 
four centuries. Yet they had preserved the remem- 
brance of some religious truths, e.g. of the immortality 
of the soul, and of a deluge which destroyed all mankind, 
except one family who repeopled the earth. This is a 
new evidence of the identity of origin that links together 
all the branches of the human family, and of their 
descent from one common stock, as the Scripture asserts 
(Acts, xvii. 26; — Eom. v 12, etc.). 

DISCOVERY OF AITIERICA— CHRISTOPHER 
COEUMBUS.— A.D. 1492-1506. 

Christopher Columbus. — The great man, Christopher 
Columbus, whose life connects the history of the ancient 
continent with that of the new, was born of a wool- 
comber, at or near Genoa, probably between 1435 and 
1446. From his childhood, he manifested a strong incli- 
nation for the sea, and, as soon as he was able, indulged 
it by taking part in the maritime expeditions of the 
Genoese his countrymen. In this employment, his 
natural genius acquired that practical knowledge and 



414 MODERN HISTORY. 

fertility of resource, that undaunted resolution and vigi- 
lant self-command for which he was afterwards so remark- 
able. Success increased his inclination for a nautical 
career, and existing circumstances gave it a peculiar 
direction, which finally led to the discovery of America. 

About this time the Portuguese endeavored to find out 
a passage to the East Indies by coasting along the 
shores of Africa. Though they advanced but slowly, 
their attempts and their discoveries suggested to the 
mind of Columbus a still bolder idea: the study of both 
the ancient and recent geographical maps, together with 
the knowledge of the sphericity of the earth, led him to 
believe that, by steering directly to the west, across the 
Atlantic, one might easily reach the Asiatic continent. 
This theory included indeed a partial mistake, in as 
much as Columbus had not formed a correct estimate of 
the size of our globe, nor of the distance of the eastfern 
extremity of Asia from the west of Europe ; but the prin- 
cipal idea was not, on that account, less worthy of a great 
and mighty genius. 

A variety of circumstances concurred to impress his 
theory more and more upon his mind. Reeds of an extra- 
ordinary size, and such as were said to grow only in India, 
floated to the Azores islands from the west; pieces of wood 
carved in an unusual manner, and trees of an unknown 
species had been lately found drifting from the same 
quarter; above all, a canoe, driven by westerly winds, had 
been seen carrying the dead bodies of two men, whose 
features differed from those of any known race of people. 
These, and other facts of a like nature, confirmed Colum- 
bus in his belief in the existence of undiscovered lands in 
the west. 

Having thus formed his theory, he determined to carry 
it himself into effect; but this required the co-operation 
of some princely power, and Columbus had the moFtifica- 
tion of seeing his admirable plans rejected, with more or 
less indifference, by the republic of Genoa and by the court 
of Portugal, to which he successively applied. Even in 
Spain, where he met with a reception more favorable to 
his views, many years elapsed in a course of fruitless 
negotiations and repeated disappointments, before obtain- 
ing the aid so earnestly desired. Indeed, having already 
despatched his brother Bartholomew to Efigland, he him- 



PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 415 

self was on tlie point of departing from Spain, when, at 
the representations of some zealous and influential per- 
sons, Isabella and Ferdinand at length consented to fur- 
nish him with three small vessels, and ninety sailors, who 
were Joined by several private adventurers and servants, 
making the whole number about one hundred and twenty 
persons. It was with this weak squadron, that Columbus 
undertook to brave the dangers of unknown seas, in order 
to execute one of the boldest designs ever conceived. 

First voyage and landing on Oct. 12. — On the 
3d of August of the year 1492, having, with his officers 
and crew, prepared himself by religious exercises for the 
hazardous undertaking, he sailed from the harbor of 
Palos in Andalusia, under the royal commission which 
appointed him admiral of the new seas, and viceroy of 
the lands he was going to discover. He stopped for some 
time at the Canary islands, to repair his vessels and 
refresh their crews, and then steered directly west. A 
gentle breeze blowing from the east, speedily wafted them 
over a tranquil sea; so that at the end of four weeks 
more, they had come two thousand and two hundred 
miles. No land, however, yet appeared; and Columbus 
had often to struggle against the murmurs and dismay of 
his companions, who loudly insisted on abandoning the 
voyage. Some even carried their mutiny so far as to pro- 
pose in their meetings to throw him into the sea, and 
spread the report that he had fallen overboard while 
observing the stars. Columbus, in order to pacify them, 
had to use consummate prudence; he assured them that 
they would discover the land within the space of three 
days. That it was not distant he knew from many cer- 
tain signs: e.g. birds and fish of such kinds as never go 
far from the shore, and also green branches, which were 
seen near the vessels as they advanced. The three days 
had not elapsed, before land was descried: and, a few 
hours after, on the twelfth of October, the crews disem- 
barked, to the very great surprise of the harmless natives. 
The country thus discovered was called by its inhabitants 
Guanahani, one of the Bahama islands. 

Discovery of Cuba and Hayti. — It would be diffi- 
cult to conceive the respect which the Spaniards now 
manifested for the great man whom they so lately threat- 
ened with death; and still more so, to describe the feel- 



416 MODEKN HISTORY. 

ings of Columbus himself at the sight of his happy dis- 
covery. As a memorial of the termination of those dan- 
gers from which he had been rescued, he gave the island 
the name of San Salvador, and took possession of it for 
the Castilian sovereigns. Then again putting to sea, he 
discovered Cuba, and shortly after another extensive and 
beautiful island called Hayti, an Indian name it has 
resumed in these latter times, after having been succes- 
sively called Hispaniola and San Domingo. Everywhere, 
a fertile soil exhibited to the sight of the Spaniards pro- 
ductions and animals unknown in Europe. In some 
places, gold was so abundant, that valuable pieces of it 
were easily obtained for little mirrors, small bells, and 
other trifles given in exchange, the simple and artless 
natives setting little value on that metal so much prized 
by other nations. Struck with astonishment at the dress, 
color and arms of the Spaniards, they took these new 
guests for so many supernatural beings descended from 
the sky, and accordingly received them with all imagina- 
ble kindness and respect. As Columbus always supposed 
that their country was the extremity of Eastern India, he 
gave them the name of Indians; an appellation which, 
notwithstanding the subsequent acknowledgment of the 
mistake, the aborigines of the new world have to this day 
retained. 

Return to Europe. — Columbus now thought of 
returning to Spain, that he might be the first to impart 
to the sovereigns the news of his success and discoveries. 
One of his vessels having run aground, he used the 
remains of the wreck, with the consent of the Indians, to 
build a fort upon the shores of Hayti, and leaving in it 
forty of his companions, sailed for Europe in January, 
1493. In the middle of the ocean the two remaining ves- 
sels were assailed by so furious a tempest, that Columbus, 
abandoning all hope, wrote a hasty account of his voyage, 
and, having surrounded the paper with a waxed cloth, 
put the whole in a cask, which he threw into the sea, hop- 
ing that the waves might carry it to the land. Happily, 
this precaution proved unnecessary, the storm abated, 
and, on the fifteenth of March, Columbus triumphantly 
entered the harbor of Palos, from which he had sailed 
about seven months before. 

Columbus and the egg. — The fortunate admiral pro- 



PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 417 

ceeded by land to tlie Spanish court, then at Barcelona; 
and, as a specimen of his important discoveries, offered to 
Isabella and Ferdinand a variety of golden ornaments and 
productions of the 'New World. The sovereigns, in re- 
turn, gave him every mark of regard and esteem, and 
confirmed his title of admiral and viceroy. Following 
their example, the courtiers and lords vied witli one 
another in bestowing upon him proofs of personal consider- 
ation. As, however, there are never wanting mean char- 
acters, jealous of the reputation of others, some persons 
of this description publicly told him that, after all, he 
had not much reason to glory in the discovery of Amer- 
ica, some little share of courage and a fortunate chance 
having been sufficient to bring the attempt to a successful 
issue. Columbus made no direct reply, but, taking an 
egg, invited the company to make it stand upon one end. 
As no one could do this, he struck the egg upon the 
table, so as to break the end, and left it standing on the 
broken part, showing, in this simple and pleasant man- 
ner, that the most perplexing things may become the 
easiest to be done when we are once shown the way, but 
not before ; and that such was exactly the case with re- 
gard to the attempt of going in search of unknown lands. 
Bull of Pope Alexander VI. establishing a line 
of partition. — The tidings of the great discovery made 
by Columbus rapidly spread throughout Europe, filling 
every one with astonishment, and arousing among the 
nations the spirit of adventure and discovery. The Span- 
ish sovereigns lost no time in taking means to secure 
their new acquisitions. A bull was obtained from Pope 
Alexander VI., granting them all the land that had been 
or might be discovered in Western India, under the con- 
dition of planting and propagating the- Catholic faith 
among the inhabitants. But, lest the discoveries of the 
Spaniards should interfere with those of the Portuguese, 
which had likewise been secured by a papal bull, an ideal 
line was drawn, by order of the Pope, from the northern 
to the southern pole, a hundred degrees west of the 
Azores. All land discovered to the west of this line was 
conceded to the crown of Spain; all discovered in the 
opposite direction was to belong to Portugal.* 

* See note L. 



418 MODEKN HISTORY. 

Second voyage of Columbus, Sept. 25, 1403.-111 

the meantime, great exertions were made in the Spanish 
ports to fit out a second expedition upon a larger scale. 
It consisted of seventeen ships, and about fifteen hundred 
persons, among whom were laborers and artisans of all 
kinds intended for the projected colony, and twelve 
clergymen who went to impart religious instruction to 
the natives. With these, Columbus sailed from Cadiz on 
the twenty-fifth of September, 1493, and had a favorable 
passage to Hayti; but his disappointment was very great 
at finding there neither the fort which he had built, nor 
the forty men whom he had left for its defence. During 
his absence, their tyrannical and oppressive conduct pro- 
voked the hostility of the Indian population, who slew 
them and utterly demolished their fortress. 

The return of Columbus, his authority, his prudence 
and moderation, might have restored tranquillity in the 
island; unfortunately the excellent views which he enter- 
tained, instead of being seconded by the zeal, were fre- 
quently opposed by the avarice, ambition and depravity 
of many of his new companions. In spite of his efforts, 
of the orders of the sovereigns, and of the remonstrances 
of zealous clergymen, the Indians were cruelly oppressed; 
and the numbers of that unfortunate race daily decreased, 
from war, starvation, and ill treatment. 

Finding himself involved in difficulties, Columbus 
returned to Spain in 1495. His arrival at court easily 
dispelled the clouds which envy and calumny had thrown 
round his conduct and administration; but he foresaw 
how much more he would have afterwards to endure from 
his enemies. 

Third voyage of Columbus. — It was only after two 
years of fresh disappointments and tedious waiting, that 
he succeeded in obtaining a squadron of six vessels for a 
new voyage. For various reasons, he was induced to 
steer more to the south than he had ever done before. 
This course led him to the mouth of the great river Ori- 
noco, where for the first time he beheld the continent, on 
the first of August (a.d. 1498); a most interesting discov- 
ery, of the importance of which Columbus himself was 
little aware at the time. The continual dangers which he 
had to encounter in those unknown seas, together with a 
variety of other incidents, obliged him to hasten his 



PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 419 

return to Hispaniola, where he hoped to enjoy the rest he 
so much needed, before pursuing the great work of ex- 
ploring the continent. 

Columbus sent in chains to Spain.— But, while 
the admiral was thus undergoing all kinds of hardships 
for the service of Spain, the party of his enemies obtained 
the ascendency at court. Their charges against his 
administration were so frequent, so artful and so numer- 
ous, that the Spanish sovereigns thought it proper to 
despatch a commissioner to Hispaniola for the purpose of 
investigating the real state of aifairs. This commissioner 
was Francisco de Bobadilla, an intelligent, but at the 
same time a passionate man. After his arrival at San- 
Domingo, he acted with such great partiality that, while 
he readily listened to the accusations of the rabble against 
Columbus, he refused to hear his defence, and even 
went so far as to send him in chains to Europe (a.d. 
1500). ^ ^ 

In the midst of the outrageous injuries thus heaped 
upon him, Columbus displayed surprising magnanimity. 
When the vessel on which he embarked, put to sea, the 
captain, who was a man of feeling, wished to take off the 
fetters of the unfortunate admiral; but he never would 
consent to it, and protested that he was resolved to wear 
them until they should be removed by the express com- 
mand of his sovereigns. It is said that he ever after kept 
those chains hanging in his room, and gave orders that 
they should be buried with him, as a memorial of the 
ingratitude of the world for eminent services. 

The arrival of Columbus as a prisoner and a criminal, 
caused throughout Spain a general burst of indignation 
against his enemies. The king and queen disavowed the 
proceedings of Bobadilla, as contrary to his instructions ; 
they consoled the admiral by a most gracious reception, 
and promised to reinstate him in all his privileges and 
dignities. This, however, owing both to the untimely 
death of Isabella, and to the procrastinating policy of 
Ferdinand, never was effected. After all, selfish and 
mercenary considerations had but little weight with 
Columbus ; nor could obstacles abate his zeal for useful 
discoveries. 

Fourth and last voyage of Columbus, May 11, 
1502.— Having obtained after some delay, a few vessels he 



420 MODEKN HISTORY. 

sailed once more from Cadiz, in the spring of 1502, accom- 
panied by his youngest son Fernando, who afterwards 
wrote his father's life. 

Never had the admiral to suffer so much as in this his 
fourth and last voyage; yet never did he evince more 
wonderful presence of mind or greater resources of genius. 
This appeared chiefly in the following occurrence. After 
a long and perilous cruise on the boisterous seas near the 
isthmus of Panama, the shattered state of his vessels 
obliged him, on his return, to run them ashore on the 
coast of Jamaica, and to remain there for several months. 
At first, the Indians were eager to supply the Spaniards 
with provisions, which they exchanged for trifling objects; 
gradually their interest abated and their useful visits be- 
came less and less frequent. The scarcity daily increased 
in the little camp ; and all began to entertain horrible 
apprehensions of famine, when a most happy idea pre- 
sented itself to the mind of Columbus. 

From his knowledge of astronomy, he ascertained that 
there would be, in three days, a total eclipse of the moOn. 
He therefore summoned the principal caciques (Indian 
chieftains) to a conference, appointing for it the day of 
the eclipse. When all were assembled, he first reproached 
them, through his interpreter, with their inhuman insen- 
sibility, and threatened them with the vengeance of the 
God of heaven, whom the Spaniards adored: as a token 
of this impending vengeance, the moon, he said, would 
refuse its light to them on that very night. In fact, the 
eclipse commenced a few hours after, and struck terror 
and dismay into the hearts of the Indians. They fell at 
the feet of Columbus, and entreated him to ask pardon 
for them of the God of heaven, assuring him that they 
would henceforth bring to the Spaniards whatever should 
be required. He feigned to yield with reluctance to their 
request, and shutting himself up for some moments in his 
cabin, came out to them again, and said that, under the 
strict condition of their future fidelity to their promises, 
he had obtained their pardon from the Almighty; in sign 
of which they would presently behold the light of the 
moon. 

The admiral, before speaking thus to them, had waited 
for the opportune moment when the eclipse was about to 
terminate. The moon began to appear, and soon recov- 



PKELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 42] 

ered all its brilliancy, to the inconceivable joy of the 
Indians, who were scarcely able, from excess of astonish- 
ment, to testify their admiration, reverence, and gratitude 
for Columbus. They hastened to propitiate him with 
gifts, and, from that time forward, not only supplied the 
Spaniards with abundance of provisions, but carefully 
avoided giving them the least offence. At last, two ves- 
sels arriving from Plispaniola, delivered the admiral with 
his companions from this perilous kind of exile, and con- 
veyed them to a safer place. As soon as the state of his 
affairs permitted, he re-embarked for Spain, which, after 
a passage marked by new adventures, he reached on the 
7th of November of the year 1504, with a constitution 
shattered by so many anxieties, hardships, and suffer- 
ings. 

Columbus' death. — About this time, Columbus lost 
his constant protectress, Queen Isabella, and, with her, 
every well-founded hope of ever being reinstated in his 
former dignities. It was in vain that he had more and 
more deserved the gratitude of the court by new services 
and discoveries; in vain too, that he urged the fulfilment 
of the royal promise; the politic Ferdinand always de- 
ferred, under various pretences, till the admiral, who had 
been ill ever since his return, died at Valladolid, at the 
age of about sixty-five (a.d. 1506). His last sufferings 
were sanctified by his usual resignation, his last mo- 
ment devoted to all the pious practices of religion, and his 
last words, those of the Royal Prophet, Into thy hands, 
Lord, 1 commend my spirit. — Psalm xxx, 6. 

What has been already said of Columbus, clearly shows 
that he possessed all the characteristics of a truly great 
man — a noble soul, a vast genius for discovery, and a 
surprising sagacity in finding out expedients and re- 
sources in the greatest dangers. His piety was genuine 
and fervent; his heart, benevolent and generous; and his 
conduct, in unison with the feelings of his heart. In- 
stead of ravaging the newly found countries, like many 
of his contemporary discoverers, who were intent only on 
immediate gain, he sought to colonize and cultivate 
them, to civilize the natives, and subject everything to 
the control of law, order and religion. If the noble at- 
tempt failed, the whole history of this great man proves 
that the failure cannot be laid to his charge. 



422 MODERN HISTORY. 

Voyage of Amerigo Vespucci. — When Columbus, 
by his death, ceased to excite the jealousy of the Spanish 
court, great honors were paid to his memory; yet, he 
never obtained the recompense which he had best de- 
served, that of giving his name to the New World. His 
just claims were defeated, and the honor was given to 
Amerigo Vespucci, a native of Florence, who in 1499 
visited the same coast of Paria which Columbus had dis- 
covered in 1498. His interesting account of the important 
fact, first published at Florence in 1507, years afterwards, 
caused the continent to be called America. But even ad- 
mitting the merits of Vespucci, he cannot claim the honor 
of the discovery; to him alone it belongs who was the first 
to conceive, mature and execute the bold design of cross- 
ing an unknown ocean in search of a New World. 



PORTUGUESE SETTLEMENTS IN ASIA. 
— A.D. 1497-1515. 

Voyage of Sebastian Cabot — Discovery of the 
Cape of Good Hope by Vasco da Gama in 1498.— 

Numerous expeditions followed the enterprise of Colum- 
bus. Most of them started from the harbors of Spain, 
and were conducted by Spanish adventurers eager to 
enrich or distinguish themselves by new and important 
discoveries; but others were also undertaken by other 
nations. About the same time that Columbus and Ves- 
pucci saw Terra Firma in the south, the celebrated nav- 
igator, Sebastian Cabot, sailing in the service of Henry 
VII., king of England, discovered and explored the coasts 
of the northern continent of America. Not long after, 
Canada and the river St. Lawrence were visited by 
Jacques Cartier and other French seamen; but the Portu- 
guese, by following a different direction did something 
still more remarkable. In 1497 Vasco da Gama, sent by 
Don Emmanuel, king of Portugal, succeeded in doubling 
the cape of Good Hope, and after a voyage of thirteen 
months arrived at the fertile shores of Western India. Dur- 
ing the ensuing years the Portugese made, throughout 
that extensive country, acquisitions and settlements nearly 
equal in value to those of the Spaniards in the New 
World. 



PORTUGUESE SETTLEMENTS. 423 

The East Indies had always held a conspicuous rank 
among the states of the Asiatic continent, and had been 
looked upon, from the time of the ancient Assyrians, 
Persians, and Greeks, as an important and desirable coun- 
try. At later periods, India suffered from frequent revo- 
lutions, and was exposed to frightful calamities from the 
incursions of the Turkish, Tartar, and Mogul conquerors. 
Towards the epoch which now occupies our attention, 
and during the two following centuries, it comprised 
many independent states, the most powerful of which, 
and probably the most opulent in the world was the 
empire of Hindostan, abounding in pearls, gold, and sil- 
ver, and enriched both by its commerce and the produc- 
tions of the soil. 

Greater resistance was made by the Indians of Asia 
than by those of America to their European aggressors. 
It was only after much toil and hardship, after many 
struggles, battles and persevering efforts under the com- 
mand of intrepid leaders, Gama, Cabral, Pacheco, and 
Albuquerque, that the Portuguese were enabled to estab- 
lish settlements all along the Indian Coast, at Goa, 
Cochin, Malacca, etc., and in various Islands of the 
Southern ocean. Nor did their sway in these countries 
last long, most of their Asiatic possessions being soon 
wrested from them by the Dutch and the English, in the 
course of the seventeenth century. 

The Portuguese had also extended their commercial 
relations to the eastern extremities of Asia, as far as 
China and Japan. These countries although hitherto 
little known to the nations of Europe, were -ancient and 
flourishing empires. The Chinese particularly claim a 
very high antiquity, their nation having been founded 
about two thousand years before the coming of our Lord, 
and governed since that remote period by two hundred 
and forty emperors, of twenty-two different families. 
Still their history, with respect to the ages preceding the 
epoch of their great legislator Confucius (towards the 
year 500 B.C.), is involved in obscurity. 

China is the most populous empire in the world, con- 
taining nearly three hundred millions of inhabitants, and 
several cities, if not superior, at least equal in extent to 
the largest among the European and American cities. 
The established religion is a mixture of theism and idola- 



424 MODEEN HISTOEY. 

try; there are also Mohammedans and Jews, though in 
small numbers. In the seventeenth century, Chrisitianity 
obtained numerous proselytes among the Chinese, under 
their celebrated emperor Kang-hi ; but since that time, 
the Christians have been always harassed and persecuted 
with more or less rigor. 

The northern frontier of this extensive region is pro- 
tected by a wall twenty-four feet high, thirty or forty 
feet thick, and fifteen hundred miles long, crossing not 
only valleys and mountains, but even rivers, over which 
it passes in the form of bridges. Its gates and towers are 
almost every where of a colossal size, and defended by 
numerous troops. It was bailt two thooisand years ago, 
as a defence against the Tartars, whom it did not how- 
ever prevent from twice invading and subduing China, 
first under Genghis Khan and hid sons, and again in the 
seventeenth century. 

The Chinese are generally witty and polite, intelligent 
and industrious, but only to a certain degree ; and they 
are vain-glorious, self-conceited, and excessively prepos- 
sessed in favor of their nation. Although great lovers of 
architecture, mechanics, painting, astronomy, natural 
philosophy, etc., they advance but little in these various 
departments of the arts and sciences. They could not 
conceal their surpi'ise and jealousy when the Jesuit mis- 
sionaries appeared three hundred years ago in China, at 
seeing these foreigners much more versed than them- 
selves in all the branches of mathematics and natural his- 
tory. Even the knowledge and use of the mariner's com- 
pass, of printing, of gunpowder and artillery, which they 
seem to have possessed before our European ancestors, has 
been always comparatively imperfect. Their armies, 
however numerous, scarcely deserve the name of a mili- 
tary force, or their vessels that of a navy ; while, in 
point of morality, their inhuman treatment of infants, 
their injustice towards foreigners, their pride, and other 
vices, place them far below most other nations. 

During the first half of the present century the opium 
trafiic between India and China grew into gigantic pro- 
portions, and became an important source of wealth to 
the British merchants, and of revenue to the Indian 
government. 

The Chinese government, however, awake to the enor- 



POKTUGUESE SETTLEMENTS. 425 

mous evils of the growing use of the narcotic, forbade 
the importation of the drug ; but the British merchants, 
notwithstanding the imperial prohibition, persisted in 
the trade. Finally, the government seized and destroyed 
all the opium stored in the warehouses of the British 
traders at Canton. This act, together with other " out- 
rages," led to a declaration of war on the part of Eng- 
land. British troops then took possession of Canton, and 
the Chinese government, whose troops were as helpless as 
children before European soldiers, was soon foi'ced to 
agree to the treaty of Nanking, by which tlie island of 
Hong-Kong was ceded to the English, several important 
ports were opened to British traders, and the perpetua- 
tion of the nefarious traffic in opium was secured. The 
treaty also provided for the payment by the Chinese of 
an indemnity of about $20,000,000, to cover the loss sus- 
tained by the British merchants in the destruction of 
their opium, and to defray the expenses of the war. 

Japan is likewise a civilized and mighty empire, con- 
sisting of many islands, not far from the eastern part of 
Asia. The revenue and forces of the empire are immense, 
the former being, it is said, nearly two hundred millions 
of dollars, the latter amounting, on a war footing, to four 
hundred thousand infantry and sixty thousand cavalry. 
The government was until recently absolute and despotic, 
but within the last three decades has been modified greatly 
by the advance of civilization. 

St. Francis Xavier in Japan. — Towards the middle 
of the sixteenth century, St. Francis Xavier and other 
zealous missionaries preached the gospel in Japan with 
such wonderful success, that, half a century later (in 
1605), it contained no less than eighteen hundred thou- 
sand Christians. Unfortunately, at that time, powerful 
and profligate princes undertook to destroy this illus- 
trious portion of the Church, and succeeded in the im- 
pious attempt. A dreadful persecution arose, which shed 
torrents of Christian blood in various provinces of the 
empire ; nor did it cease until there remained no more 
victims to be sacrificed by the sword of the persecutors. 
From that epoch, up to the year 1852, Japan remained 
closed against foreigners, and the Dutch were the only 
Europeans admitted into one of its harbors for the pur- 
poses of trade. 



436 MODEKN HISTORY. 



DECLINE OF THE ITALIAN REPIJBLICS.- 
WARS FOR THE POSSESSION OF ITAEY.— 
CARDIIVAE XIMEMES.— POPE EEO X.— A.D. 
1494-1517. 

The Italian Republics. — The discovery of America 
and the passage of the cape of Good Hope while they 
proved of the greatest advantage to Spain and Portugal, 
naturally occasioned the decline of the Italian republics. 
Up to this period foreign commerce had been mostly in 
the hands of the Venetians, Genoese, and other maritime 
nations of Italy, who, from the shores of the Adriatic 
and Mediterranean seas, communicated with the Red sea 
across the Isthmus of Suez, and thus could carry on 
trade with all the nations of the East. The two great 
events just mentioned gave a new direction to the ideas, 
projects and commerce of the European nations; and 
Venice, with the other commercial states of the penin- 
sula, saw her traffic decline in proportion as Portugal and 
Spain increased in wealth and power. 

War about the Kingdom of Naples. — Another and 
a still heavier calamity that afflicted Italy at this period, 
was the almost uninterrupted series of bloody wars in 
which it was involved during a great number of years. 
The chief cause was a dispute for possession of the king- 
dom of Kaples. Since 1443, it had been under the 
princes of the house of Arragon; but the French mon- 
archs looked with a jealous eye at that beautiful country, 
which had once belonged to princes of their family. 
King Charles VIII., the successor of Louis XI. whose 
whole reign had been spent in endeavoring to weaken the 
power of the great vassals of the crown, undertook to 
reconquer Naples in 1494. He executed his design in 
the beginning of the following year, but soon lost all his 
conquests. The Italian princes had now united against 
him, and, although he defeated them in the battle of 
Fornovo, he was merely enabled by the victory to save the 
remains of his army, and return without further obstacle 
to France. 

Second expedition. — A second expedition for the 
same purpose took place in 1501, under Louis XII., suc- 
cessor of Charles VIII. It was similar in circumstances 



DECLINE, ETC. 427 

and results to the first: great success in the beginning, 
followed by great disasters in the end; at first, repeated 
advantages obtained over the Neapolitan army by the 
French troops, and afterwards their own signal defeats 
at Cerignola, Garigliano, etc., by the Spanish com- 
mander, Gonzales of Cordova, surnamed the gi^eat general. 
A treaty almost entirely to the advantage of Spain, was 
then concluded between the rival powers, and terminated 
these contests for the kingdom of Naples. 

The League of Cambray. — But there were not want- 
ing other motives or pretences for renewing the war. 
In 1508, a powerful league was formed at Cambray be- 
tween the emperor of Germany, the kings of France and 
Arragon, and some other sovereigns, against the republic 
of Venice, whose pretensions and conquests had provoked 
their anger, or awakened their jealousy. None of the 
confederates acted with as much vigor as Louis XII., and 
none derived less advantage from the defeat of the 
Venetians. His very exploits and his brilliant victory at 
Agnadel (a.d. 1509) having soon rendered him an object 
of alarm to the other princes, the league turned against 
him; and the French, notwithstanding their new and 
bloody victory at Eavenna, where they lost their young 
heroic leader, the duke of Nemours (a.d. 1512), were 
again expelled from Italy. 

France itself was invaded, on one side by the Swiss, 
who, having defeated the duke of La Tremoille, at 
Novara, advanced into Burgundy as far as Dijon; on the 
other, by the emperor Maximilian and Henry VIII., king 
of England, whose combined armies gained the battle of 
Guinegamp, also called the battle of spurs, because in it 
the French cavalry used their spurs more than their 
weapons. Moreover the king of Scotland, James IV., 
an ally of France, was also defeated by the English at 
Flodden Field, where he lost his life in the conflict (a.d. 
1513). The conquerors however made but little prog- 
ress, and Louis happily succeeded in obtaining a truce, 
which afforded him some respite. He died at this junct- 
ure, without male issue, and was succeeded on the throne 
by his cousin, the earl of Angouleme, who took the name 
of Francis I. 

Francis L, 1515-1547. — This new monarch, being in 
the flower of his age, resolved to carry on the war with 



428 MODERN HISTORY. 

greater vigor. He therefore crossed the Alps at the head 
of a gallant army, and pressed forward till he was at- 
tacked by the Swiss near Marignano, on the 13th of Sep- 
tember, 1515. These brave highlanders had neither 
cavalry nor artillery, yet they fought with the most un- 
daunted courage. Notwithstanding the dreadful slaugh- 
ter which the cannon made among them, they repeatedly 
renewed the charge, and several times were on the point 
of breaking through the French line. It was only after 
a furious engagement of two days, and the slaughter of 
several thousands of them, that the survivors retired 
from the field. A French general, the marshal of 
Trivulce, who had been present at seventeen other bat- 
tles, said that none of them, for the obstinate valor dis- 
played on both sides, could be compared with that of 
Marignano. He consequently called it the battle of giants, 
by which name it is known in history. 

Francis I. displayed on that trying occasion rare cour- 
age. He met the most vigorous charges made by the 
Swiss, without ever losing, in the long conflict, his pres- 
ence of mind, or his confidence of success. At last, the 
timely arrival of the Venetians, his allies, under the 
command of their celebrated general Alviano, entirely 
turned the tide in his favor. 

Great were the fruits of this splendid victory for 
France. Some of her opponents presently desisted from 
further hostilities; and the Swiss in particular agreed 
to a treaty of reconciliation with such willingness and 
sincerity, as to become, from that time, her most faith- 
ful allies. King Ferdinand stili endeavored, it is true, 
to protract the war; but, exhausted by mental fatigue 
and bodily infirmity, he died in the following year (1516), 
after an almost uninterrupted career of glory, tarnished, 
however, on some occasions, by a want of gratitude to- 
wards useful men, and of fidelity to his promises. In 
royal qualities and political achievements he had cer- 
tainly no equal among the sovereigns of his age, if we 
except his heroic and virtuous consort Isbella, who 
moreover surpassed him in pure, noble and delicate feel- 
ing. 

Cardinal Ximenes. — The chief personages who con- 
tributed with Ferdinand and Isabella to the glory of their 
reign, were beyond doubt Christopher Columbus, Gon- 



DECLINE, ETC. 429 

zales of Cordova, both already noticed in the foregoing 
pages, and Cardinal Ximenes, archbishop of Toledo, 
the ablest politician, the most zealous minister of state, 
the most penetrating genius, in a word, all things taken 
into consideration, the greatest man that Spain ever 
produced. Immense and innumerable were the services 
which he rendered to the Church, to the state, to his 
sovereigns and to the people, during the twenty-two 
years of his episcopal and civil administration (1495- 
1517). Magnificent, great, generous, the constant pro- 
tector of merit, virtue and innocence, he conceived and 
executed projects best calculated to advance the cause of 
religion, humanity and learning. To him the Spanish 
nation was indebted for several of her best and most useful 
establishments, and the literary world for the publication 
of the first Polyglot Bible* which he with incredible 
care and at great expense, had printed at Alcala, in six 
folio volumes (a.d. 1515). 

Pope Leo X. — From this time we may date the 
complete revival of literature and of the arts and sciences. 
The French king Francis I. distinguished himself by his 
patronage of learning and of learned men. But no one fav- 
ored their cause and promoted their success, with greater 
zeal than Pope Leo X. whose name has in consequence been 
adopted to designate the first part of the sixteenth cent- 
ury considered as a literary age. Endowed with the 
most exquisite taste, he imparted to all around him a 
love for the fine arts, for true eloquence and poetry. 
Scholars and artists, roused to uncommon exertions by 
his protection and encouragement, were justly compared 
with the most distinguished geniuses of antiquity, and 
Italy again beheld, as in the time of the Cassars, a mul- 
titude of her children, Eaphael, Michael Angelo, Ariosto, 
Tasso, Vida, Bembo, Sadolet, etc., astonishing the world, 
some by their masterpieces of painting and architecture, 
others by their beautiful poems and various kinds of 
writing, which we still admire, both for their delicacy 
and for their pure and elegant style, t 



* Or, Bible in several languages. — There exist three other celebrated 

Polyglots: that of Antwerp, A.D. 1572 ;— of Paris, 1645; — and of London, 
1658. 

t See note M. 



430 MODEKN HISTOEY. 



LUTHER ABfD THE REFORMATION. 
~A.D. 1517-1529. 

At the termination of the wars of Italy in 1516, there 
was a prospect of a general and lasting peace among 
Christian nations, when unforeseen events unexpectedly 
excited anew all the human passions and again greatly 
disturbed Europe. The chief and first cause of these 
fresh commotions, was the religious revolution effected 
by Luther in Germany. 

Martin Luther. — Martin Luther was horn in 1483, 
at Eisleben, a small town of Saxony. After having 
studied with great success in the Latin schools of Magde- 
burg and Eisenach, he completed his education in the 
university of Erfurt. In the year 1505, he took the 
degree of Master of Arts, which authorized him to deliver 
lectures on Physics and the Ethics of Aristotle. But in 
consequence of an extraordinary event* which happened 
to him about this time, and produced a deep impression 
upon his mind, he formed the design of becoming a 
religious, and accordingly joined the order of the Au- 
^ustinians at Erfurt. 

The life of the young monk (he was then twenty-five 
years of age) appeared regular, and in many respects 
edifying. He betrayed however, in several instances, 
particularly when he was opposed or corrected, a warm 
and irritable disposition. In 1507 he was ordained priest 
and in 1513 he was made doctor of theology. His talents 
and learning caused his superiors to recommend him to 
the elector of Saxony, as a professor of divinity in the 
newly erected university of Wittemberg; and when he 
afterwards began to preach, his ardent language, the 
boldness of his eloquence, and his nervous style, with 
great fluency in his mother-tongue, soon acquired for him 
the reputation of a good preacher. 

In the year 1517, Pope Leo X. having solemnly pub- 
lished indulgences to be gained by those who, being truly 
repentant for their sins, should contribute by their pious 
offerings, to the rebuilding of St. Peter's church in 



* The death of one of his companions, who was killed by a thunderbolt 
at his side, when they were walking together. 



LUTHER AND THE REFORMATION. 431 

Rome, and to the expenses of an intended crusade against 
the Turks, the Augustinians could not see without some 
jealousy, the publication of these indulgences intrusted 
by the archbishop of Mentz, not to them, as had been 
usual, but to the Dominican order; and as it was reported, 
on the other hand, that great abuses existed in the 

Eublication and distribution of these indulgences by the 
•ominicans, Luther was commissioned by his superiors 
to preach and write against these abuses. This commis- 
sion he fulfilled with a great deal of warmth; but he did 
not stop there. In the heat of the dispute, he passed 
insensibly from abuses which the whole Church con- 
demned with him, to the things abused, and soon began 
to attack the indulgences themselves; and to maintain 
his first position, he was gradually led to deny also the 
efficacy of the sacraments, the invocation of the saints, 
the sacrifice of the Mass, and many other tenets univer- 
sally admitted in the Church. 

Burning of the papal bull at Wittemberg. — This 
bold step produced the greatest excitement all over the 
Christian world: Luther himself was at first terrified at 
it. When he began the dispute, it was not his intention 
to carry it so far, still less to come to an open rupture. 
He had even expressed his perfect submission to the 
Roman Pontiff in a letter which he wrote to Leo X., and 
which he concluded with these remarkable words: 
" Therefore, most holy father, prostrate at the feet of 
your Holiness, I place myself at your disposal, with all 
that I am and all that I have. Vivify, kill, call, recall, 
approve, disapprove, as you please; in your voice I will 
acknowledge the voice of Christ, who presides and speaks 
in you." But having in the interval gained over a strong 
party, he no sooner saw his condemnation pronounced in 
the papal bull of the fifteenth of June (a.d. 1520), than, 
yielding to his resentment, he suddenly broke asunder 
all the ties by which he still adhered to the Roman See, 
openly separated from it, and the better to seal his separ- 
ation, he publicly burnt the bull in which his opinions 
had been condemned, together with the decretals of the 
popes and the writings of Eckius his principal adversary, 
in the presence of the professors and the students of the 
university, and an immense concourse of the inhabitants 
of Wittemberg. 



432 MODERN HISTORY. 

Zuinglius and Calvin. — The die was cast; Luther 
continued to indulge his wrath by calling the pope anti- 
christ, the man of sin, the minister of Satan, and enemy 
of all good : he used similar expressions, not only against 
the king of England, Henry VIII., who had written a 
book in refutation of his doctrines, but also against the 
various universities and Catholic doctors, by whom his 
doctrine had been unanimously rejected. The vehe- 
mence of his discourses, his exhortations to shake off the 
yoke of sacramental confession, of penitential works of 
religious celibacy, and his suggestions for the seizure of 
ecclesiastical property, vastly increased the number of his 
followers. As early as the year 1523, the doctrines and 
practices of the Reformation were introduced into Den- 
mark, Sweden, and many other countries of the.north of 
Europe; while, on the other hand, Zuinglius, and shortly 
after, Calvin, endeavored to effect similar or even greater 
changes in Switzerland and France, where they met how- 
ever with more opposition and less success. 

Diet at Speier. — In 1529, an imperial decree was is- 
sued at Speier for the purpose of checking the progress 
of religious dissensions, and restoring the unity of faith 
in Germany; but it had very little effect. The partisans 
of Luther protested against it, whence came their name of 
Protestants; they moreover appealed to the sword in sup- 
port of their pretensions, and commenced a civil war 
which disturbed nearly the wLole reign of the emperor 
Charles V. These measures were . adopted by them the 
more willingly, as Luther himself had declared that it 
was lawful, and even necessary, to take up arms in order 
to defend and spread the Reformation ! 

The Council of Trent. — Thus was completed a revo- 
lution, which split the great Christian family in Europe 
into many separate and opposite communities. Its chief 
promoter lived long enough to see not only the rise of the 
other branches of the Reformation, but also the. subdivi- 
sion of his own establishment into a, multitude of parties. 
He died in 1546. During the same year, his various ten- 
ets, together with those of Zuinglius and Calvin, began 
to be discussed and subjected to the usual form of Eccle- 
siastical condemnation in the council of Trent, the last 
but one of the general councils, first convened in the end 
of 1545, and, after two interruptions, finally closed in 1563. 



CHARLES V. AND FRANCIS I. 433 



CHARLES V. AXD FRANCIS I.— A.D. 1519-1529. 

An'OTHer cause of the disturbances which afflicted 
-Europe at this unfortunate period, was the obstinate 
jealousy of two rival and powerful sovereigns. The 
imperial throne of Germany, left vacant by the death of 
Maximilian I. in 1519, had been simultaneously claimed 
by Francis I., king of France, and Charles, archduke of 
Austria, who had lately succeeded his grandfather Fer- 
dinand on the throne of Spain. The former indeed was 
a brave and generous prince, but the latter possessed 
more prudence and skill, and, being moreover of German 
extraction, he was easily preferred to his competitor. He 
received the imperial crown at Aix-la-Chapelle, on the 
twenty-third of October (a.d. 1520). 

Francis could not, without great regret, see his hopes 
disappointed; and, imagining himself injured, advanced 
his claims to the kingdoms of Navarre and Naples as an 
excuse to commence hostilities. During the first cam- 
paigns success Avas almost equally divided between the 
two parties, until the Constable de Bourbon, dissatisfied 
with the French court, and basely abandoning the cause of 
his sovereign and country, carried his services to the em- 
peror. Immediately after, the French lost all their pos- 
sessions in Italy, together with the brightest ornament 
of their chivalry, the illustrious Bayard, surnamed the 
TcnigM without fear and ivithout reproach. 

Battle of Pavia. — Francis now resolved, in order to 
repair his losses, to take upon himself the conduct of the 
war. He crossed the Alps at the head of a fresh army, 
and marched as far as Pavia which he besieged, the im- 
perial troops under the command of De Bourbon hasten- 
ing at the same time to the relief of the garrison. At 
their approach, Francis was advised by his ablest officers 
rather to abandon the siege, than to expose his wearied 
soldiers to an attack from superior forces ; but he could 
not brook the idea of retreating before the enemy; he 
therefore determined to abide the issue of a battle. 

It seemed, in the beginning, that victory would declare 
for the French. Their well-conducted artillery mowed 
down whole ranks of their opponents, when, on a sudden 
the imprudent valor of the king destroyed his prospect 



434 MODERN HISTORY. 

of success. Anxious to fight with the sword, he rushed 
forward, and most indiscreetly placed himself between 
the enemy and his own cannon, which, being thus pre- 
vented from firing any longer, of course became useless. 
This conduct was deservedly followed by a complete over- 
throw. The imperialists, having nothing more to fear 
from the French artillery, rallied and fell with fury on 
the squadron commanded by the king. In a few mo- 
ments, the scale of fortune turned; Francis saw all his at- 
tendants fall by his side; and after having fought with the 
most desperate courage, and killed seven of the assailants 
with his own hand, he was forced to surrender himself a 
prisoner. Of the French army, one-half had been de- 
stroyed, and the remainder evacuated Italy (a.d. 1525). 

Peace of Madrid. — The unhappy monarch was, at 
his own request, conveyed to Madrid, the capital of 
Spain. He was detained there for several months, and 
only released upon promising the full cession of several 
provinces, which he either actually possessed, or had 
hitherto claimed. No sooner was he set at liberty, than 
he bitterly complained of the severity of these condi- 
tions, and availed himself of the opposition to the 
treaty in the council of state, to leave it unexecuted. 

Renewal of the war — Peace of Cambray. — This 
conduct could not but highly displease the emperor. The 
feelings of both parties were thus more exasperated than 
ever; the war was renewed and carried on with redoubled 
violence, especially by the treacherous Constable de Bour- 
bon, who, having no funds to pay his army, chiefly com- 
posed of Lutheran soldiers from Germany, promised, in 
order to make Pope Clement VII. repent of his friend- 
ship towards France, to enrich them by the pillage of 
Eome. Accordingly he led his troops to the attack of 
this capital; and, although he fell by a musket-ball as he 
was mounting a ladder in the assault, the city was taken, 
and being abandoned for two months to a licentious and 
infuriated soldiery, suffered more from the German ad- 
venturers, than it had formerly done from either the 
Goths or the Vandals. Still, as neither this nor any other 
event of the war could be looked upon as a decisive 
action, both parties became tired of hostilities, and 
equally desirous of a speedy accommodation of their dif- 
ferences. This was effected in 1529 by the treaty of 



CHARLES V. AND SOLIMAN II. 435 

Cambray, which, although more favorable to the interests 
of the French monarch than that of Madrid, secured 
to the emperor many advantages. 

CHARLES T. AXD SOLIMAN II.« 
— A.D. 1520-1532. 

The chief motive which had urged Charles V. to con- 
clude peace with France, was, that he needed all his 
troops to defend his hereditary dominions against the 
Turks. The spirit of these infidel invaders was as un- 
daunted as under Mahomet II. Not only had they, 
within recent years, extended th&ir conquests in Europe 
and Asia, but even Egypt, the richest country of Africa, 
was entirely subdued by them in 1517, notwithstanding 
the brave resistance of its possessors, the Mamelukes. 

Soliman II. 's expedition into Hungary. — Soliman 
II., who succeeded his father, Selim I., in 1520, carried 
still further the glory of the Ottoman name. More fortu- 
nate than Mahomet himself, he successfully invaded 
Hungary; and Belgrade, no longer protected by the sword 
of Hunyadi, fell, after a siege of six weeks, into the 
hands of the Turks. Many other towns were successively 
carried by storm, or obliged to open their gates. After 
this expedition, the sultan not thinking it advisable for 
the present, to advance farther in that direction, prepared 
himself for another conquest which he deemed still more 
important. 

Siege of Rhodes. — In 1522, four hundred vessels 
and two hundred thousand men appeared in sight of 
Rhodes and laid seige to the capital of this island, which 
had been in the possession of the Ejiights Hospi- 
tallers for more than two hundred years. The Grand- 
Master was Villiers de FIsle Adam, a hero not inferior in 
any respect to Peter d'Aubusson, but less favored by cir- 
cumstances. The nations of Europe being too actively 
engaged in the struggle between Charles V. and Francis 
I., to send him any assistance, all the forces he could 
oppose to the multitude of the assailants, consisted 



* Called Soliman I. by several authors who do not reckon Soliman, the 
son of Bajazet I., among the Turkish sultans, owing probably to the short 
duration of his reign. 



436 MODERN HISTORY. 

merely of five thousand soldiers and six hundred knights. 
Still, with this handful of warriors, he held out, during 
six months, against all the efforts of the Janizaries and 
all the exertions of Soliman, who had now arrived to con- 
duct the siege in person. Such was the valor of these 
generous defenders of Rhodes, that in a general assault, 
the Turks lost no fewer than twenty thousand, and in 
other attacks, a proportionate number of their most in- 
trepid warriors. 

At the sight of this dreadful slaughter of his troops, 
the Bultan, driven almost to despair, thought of abandon- 
ing the siege, when the secret, but fatal advice of an in- 
famous traitor, one of the chief commanders in the town, 
encouraged him to stay and redouble his efforts. The 
treason indeed was detected, and visited almost instantly 
with capital punishment; but it was too late for the liber- 
ation of Rhodes, now in great want of ammunition, and 
almost reduced to the last extremity. Although the 
knights continued, with their usual heroism, to repel 
every assault of the enemy, and seemed determined to 
bury themselves under the ruins of their capital, the 
inhabitants were not endowed with the same degree of 
fortitude. Justly dreading the horrors of a city carried 
by storm, they urged with entreaties, and even with 
threats, the acceptance of an honorable and advantageous 
capitulation offered by Soliman. 

Malta becomes the seat of the knights. — It had 
thus become absolutely necessary to yield, and all subse- 
quent resistance would have been of no avail; however, 
the few remaining knights could not leave, without deep 
regret, the spot which had been the theatre of their 
exploits. Above all, the departure of the Grand Master, 
at his advanced age, for a distant country, was an afflict- 
ing scene, which the sultan himself could not witness 
without compassion. Like the Trojans of old, under the 
conduct of ^neas, these noble fugitives, carrying along 
with them the fortunes and destinies of their Order, wan- 
dered for some time over the seas, in search of a hospi- 
table land. After a short stay in Candia, they reached 
the shores of Italy where they met with the most consol- 
ing and cordial reception, and obtained at length from 
Charles V. the possession of the small island of Malta, in 
the middle of the Mediterranean sea, a situation well 



CHARLES Vv AND SOLIMAN 11. 437 

adapted to their religious and military purposes. They 
fortified this new residence, so as to make it, like the for- 
mer, the bulwark of Christendom and the central point 
of their struggles against the infidels. 

Battle of Mohacs — First siege of Vienna. — The 
heavy losses which Soliman had sustained in Rhodes, 
taught him not to be hasty in undertaking any new expe- 
dition. He therefore passed the three or four ensuing 
years in promoting the interior prosperity of his empire, 
and securing justice for his subjects; till a revolt of the 
Janizaries warned him again, very unhappily for Europe, 
not to let those restless warriors live any longer in idle- 
ness. Having quelled the revolt, he, for the second time, 
invaded Hungary, at the head of two hundred thousand 
men. King Louis II., with only twenty-five or thirty 
thousand soldiers, fearlessly met him in the plains of 
Mohacs, but was, after a sharp contest, overwhelmed by 
numbers, and lost on the same day his army, his crown, 
and his life (a.d. 1526). The sultan, no longer opposed 
in his march, now laid waste the surrounding country, 
took Buda, an important place, and advancing westward 
towards Vienna, laid seige to that city, the capital of the 
Austrian dominions. Fortunately, Vienna was better 
supplied than Rhodes with troops and provisions: twenty 
thousand brave soldiers, under the command of the count 
Palatine and the earl of Salm, composed the garrison, and 
all of them displayed such undaunted courage, as finally 
to compel the Turks to retire, after twenty fruitless 
assaults, and the loss of eighty thousand warriors (a.d. 
1529). 

Soliman's retreat before the Imperial Army. — 
Soliman, however, did not yet give up his hostile designs 
against Austria. He reappeared in 1532, with an army of 
three, some say, five hundred thousand men. Charles V. 
marched against him with thirty thousand horse, and 
ninety thousand well disciplined infantry, besides pro- 
digious swarms of irregulars. At the sight of these pow- 
erful monarchs and of their formidable hosts advancing 
against each other, all Europe stood in awe and in expec- 
tation of a tremendous conflict; yet,, when the armies 
approached, instead of a decisive battle, there were only a 
few skirmishes between the advanced parties. Soliman 
did not think proper to risk a defeat; and, retreating in 



438 MODERN HISTORY. 

good order, rather chose to turn his arms against the less 
warlike nations of Asia, Nor did the emperor undertake 
to pursue him in this retrograde march, but, satisfied at 
seeing the country free from invasion, he disbanded his 
own forces, and set out from Germany to visit his prov- 
inces of Italy, and his kingdom of Spain. 

COXqUEST OF MEXICO.— HERNANDO CORTEZ 
A.D. 1519-1523. 

First voyage around the world by Magellan. — 

Whilst Charles V. caused his power to be obeyed or 
feared all over Europe, his name was carried to the ex 
tremities of the earth by the celebrated Magellan, who 
was the first to undertake the circumnavigation of the 
globe ; and other intrepid adventurers, about the same 
time, were subjecting to his sway vast and opulent coun- 
tries in the New World. Such was, indeed, especially 
during this period, the heroic spirit, partly religious, and 
partly chivalrous, diffused among the Spaniards, that 
nothing seemed impossible to their activity, valor, and 
perseverance. This the reader will easily perceive in the 
impartial and detailed account of the manner in which a 
few warriors of that brave nation succeeded in conquering 
the mighty empires of Mexico and Peru, the former in 
North, the latter in South America. 

Hernando Cortez. — In one of their excursions upon 
the American continent, the Spaniards were informed 
that there existed, at no great distance from the coast, a 
rich and flourishing empire called Mexico. The governor 
of Cuba, Velasquez, having conceived the design of estab- 
lishing colonies in that extensive country, fitted out a 
fleet for that purpose, and placed it under the command 
of Hernando Cortez, one of his officers, whom he con- 
sidered a man equally capable of bringing the most 
arduous enterprise to a happy issue, and at the same 
time incapable of ever aspiring to independence. His 
conjectures as to the abilities of Cortez were perfectly 
correct ; for it would have been impossible to find an 
individual possessing more sagacity and prudence, more 
energy and boldness : but, as the sequel will show, he 
had completely mistaken the turn of his mind and his 
leal character. 



CONQUEST OF MEXICO, ETC. 439 

Foundation of Vera Cruz. — Cortez sailed from 
Cuba on the tenth of January (a.d. 1519), with eleven 
small vessels carrying six hundred men, sixteen horses 
and fourteen pieces of artillery and thirteen cross-bow- 
men, not hesitating with this inconsiderable force to 
undertake the conquest of an empire which exceeded in 
extent all the European dominions of Spain.* He had 
not proceeded far, when Velasquez began to suspect the 
new general, and wished to revoke his commission; but it 
was too late. Cortez, protected not only by the affection 
of his soldiers, but also, says Solis by the justice of his 
cause, continued his voyage, and landing on the conti- 
nent, proclaimed himself independent of the governor of 
Cuba, and accountable to none but the Spanish monarch. 
Immediately after this, he founded the colony of Vera 
Cruz, and the better to inspire his troops with desperate 
courage, burnt all his vessels, thus taking from them all 
hope of return. 

Alliance with the Tlascalans and advance upon 
Mexico. — The undaunted Spaniards began to advance 
through a populous country towards the Mexican capital, 
concerning which they had obtained fresh and more 
ample information. It was then under the sway of 
Montezuma, a prince who governed with absolute des- 
potism. Many of his subjects and tributaries, espe- 
cially those at a distance, tired of the yoke that lay 
heavy upon them, looked upon Cortez as a deliverer, 
entered into an alliance with him, and supplied him with 
provisions and every assistance. The republic of Tlas- 
cala, however, did not follow their example; on the 
contrary, it prepared to repel the strangers by force. 
Many battles were fought, in which the people displayed 
uncommon bravery; but they could not long withstand 
the arms and tactics of the Europeans. Finding them- 
selves always defeated, the Tlascalans at length con- 

* Intelligent readers will easily understand that we here make use of 
the word conquest, only through an anticipated view of the event. The 
projects of Cortez, as both his words and conduct invariably testified, 
were wholly humane and pacific. It is true, he provided himself, and that 
very prudently, with means of self-defence and even of warfare, in a case 
of stern necessity : but he always intended to treat the natives with due 
moderation and kindness, and with a sincere desire for their own greater 
good, nor did he deviate from this rule, until compelled to do so by the 
indomitable hostility of the Indians. 



440 MODERN HISTORY. 

sented to treat the Spaniards as friends^, and in fact be- 
came thenceforth their most faithful and useful allies. 
They aided Cortez wonderfully in the prosecution of his 
enterprise, particularly in subduing the great city of 
Cholula, and inflicting a severe chastisement on its in- 
habitants for a dreadful conspiracy which had endangered 
the lives of all the conquerors. 

Cortez enters Mexico and arrests Montezuma 
in his own capital. — In the mean time, Montezuma 
was endeavoring, by every expedient in his power, to 
impede the progress of the Spaniards; but Cortez over- 
came all obstacles, and, after a few days, finally came 
within sight of the vast and populous city of Mexico, 
which contained no fewer than sixty thousand houses 
with a proportionate number of inhabitants. It was 
surrounded by a lake, well fortified, and adorned with 
a great number of temples, palaces, and other public 
buildings, evincing a certain degree of civilization. Cor- 
tez entered the town, under his assumed quality of am- 
bassador of the Spanish monarch, and was received with 
great pomp by Montezuma, who lodged him together 
with the other Spaniards, in one of his palaces. But 
while these things took place in Mexico, an attack had 
been directed by a Mexican general against the colony of 
Vera Cruz. No sooner was Cortez informed of all the 
circumstances of this new act of perfidy than, in order to 
secure himself against the dangers of his situation, he 
conceived and executed the boldest and most extraor- 
dinary design of which history makes mention, that of 
arresting the emperor himself in open day, and in the 
very presence of his officers and subjects. Taking with 
him a small band of resolute men, he went to the im- 
perial palace, surrounded Montezuma, and compelled 
him to come with them to their residence as a hostage. 
In that new abode, the astounded monarch agreed to 
acknowledge himself a vassal of Charles V.; and, in con- 
sequence of this agreement, delivered into the hands of 
the Spaniards a large sum of gold and silver, which Cor- 
tez distributed among his officers and soldiers with ad- 
mirable disinterestedness and equity. 

Cortez defeats Narvaez. — Everything until now 
had been successful, and according to the most sanguine 
wishes of Cortez; but this course of prosperity was soon 



CONQUEST OF MEXICO, ETC. 441 

to meet with new obstacles. On the one hand, the Mexi- 
cans became highly indignant at the long sojourn of 
their sovereign among foreigners, and at the protracted 
stay of the Spaniards in Mexico; on the other hand, 
intelligence was received that the governor of Cuba, 
Velasquez, had despatched eighteen ships and nine hun- 
dred men to attack Cortez as a rebel. This rendered the 
position of the latter extremely perplexing. Should he 
remain in Mexico, or march against his new opponents, 
there was in either case danger of losing all the fruits of 
his past labors. He therefore adopted a middle course, 
not less daring indeed than the other two, but which 
offered a greater chance of succeeding on one side, with- 
out losing ground on the other. Leaving one hundred 
and fifty men in the imperial city under the command of 
Alvarado, a brave and intrepid officer, to maintain the 
advantage he had already obtained; he set out with about 
two hundred and fifty others, to meet his hostile and 
imprudent countrymen. By great courage and activity, 
he not only surprised and defeated the nine hundred 
Spaniards, but even disarmed them all, made Narvaez, 
their general, prisoner, and taking the vanquished troops 
of that unskilful commander into his own service, 
returned in triumph to Mexico. 

Insurrection against the Spaniards — Monte- 
zuma's death. — His joy was not of long duration. The 
insurrection of the Mexicans, which had commenced 
during his absence, became general after his return. 
The Spaniards were surrounded, and repeatedly attacked 
in their intrenchments. As, on one occasion, the danger 
appeared imminent, Montezuma made his appearance, 
in order to quell the revolt; but the unfortunate mon- 
arch was struck by a stone thrown by one of the assail- 
ants, and expired after three days of great suffering. 
His death proved fatal to the Spaniards, in whose pres- 
ervation and welfare he seemed, in the end, to take a 
sincere interest. Under Quetlavaca, his successor, the 
attacks of the Mexicans were carried on with redoubled 
fury; and, although thousands of them were daily 
destroyed by the swords and cannon of the Spaniards, 
others fearlessly rushed forward in crowds to take the 
places of the slain, and to maintain the bloody con- 
test. 



442 MODERN" HISTORY. 

In all these occurrences, Cortez made exertions and dis- 
played a valor which seemed to be almost above nature. 
One day for instance, he fought, though painfully 
wounded, for three hours, till he forced the Mexicans to 
abandon a post from which they had greatly annoyed the 
Spaniards. On another occasion, having driven the assail- 
ants to a distance, and being entirely occupied in con- 
tinuing the pursuit, he at length found himself cut off by 
a numerous body of enemies from his own troops. In 
this imminent danger, he endeavored to reach a neighbor- 
ing street, which he supposed might afford him greater 
facility for escape. Scarcely had he advanced in that 
direction when he met another party of Mexicans, and 
saw in the midst of them his intimate friend Duero, 
whom they were dragging to a temple of idols, to sacrifice 
him to their gods, Cortez, forgetful of his own peril, 
immediately rushed against them, dispersed them and de- 
livered Duero, who was even so fortunate as to find his 
horse and spear at a short distance. Then the two noble 
friends riding together, cut their way through the enemy, 
and safely rejoined their soldiers, who had just completed 
the defeat of the Mexicans. Cortez always considered 
this adventure as one of the most fortunate of his 
life. 

Retreat of the Spaniards — The " Noche triste." — 
It became necessary, however, for the present, to abandon 
Mexico. The requisite preparations for a retreat were 
made with extraordinary diligence and care; and the 
Spaniards began their march a little after midnight, on 
the first of July, 1520. Silence and darkness favored 
them at first; but all their motions had been watched by 
a vigilant foe, and no sooner had they begun to cross a 
breach in the causeway, than a shower of darts, arrows 
and stones assailed them from different sides. Dismay 
and confusion pervaded their ranks, and the preposterous 
conduct of many who were intent on preserving their 
riches, was an additional cause of disaster. This awful 
night, which justly retained the name of Noche triste, cost 
the retreating army, several hundred Spanish, and more 
than a thousand Tlascalan soldiers, with nearly all the 
horses, treasure, artillery, and baggage. Cortez appeared 
inconsolable, and was seen on the following day, when 
the troops resumed their march, shedding abundant tears, 



CONQUEST OF MEXICO, ETC. 443 

thus giving a mark of paternal sensibility, that endeared 
him to his soldiers as much as his consummate prudence 
and valor caused him to be respected. 

The Spaniards continued their retreat in good order. 
It was rather matter of surprise, that they did not meet 
with more formidable attacks; but the sixth day of their 
march discovered the new schemes contrived by the 
enemy for their destruction. The Mexican forces had 
been secretly directed to the valley of Otumba, through 
which the Spanish troops would be obliged to pass, on 
their way to Tlascala. When Cortez reached the neigh- 
borhood of that spot, the whole valley was already occu- 
pied by a hostile force amounting, it is said, to two hun- 
dred thousand Indians, who had been collected from 
different tribes, as appeared from the variety of their ban- 
ners and ornaments. In the midst of them, the general 
of the empire appeared conspicuous, borne upon a splen- 
did litter, from which he gave his orders. He carried in 
his hands the imperial standard, which Avas never in- 
trusted to any one but himself, and never unfurled except 
on the most important occasions. 

Battle of Otompan. — At the sight of this vast multi- 
tude of enemies, Cortez fervently implored the divine 
assistance, and plainly told his followers, that there was 
no alternative now left them but to conquer or die. His 
plan was, to open for his troops a passage through the 
Indians in the narrowest part of the valley, where the 
confined nature of the spot would more easily render 
multitudes useless. Accordingly, he disposed his infan- 
try in the form of a column, the files of which were com- 
posed alternately of arquebusiers or archers and lancers. 
As to his cavalry, which terrified the Indians by the mere 
motion of the horses, it was placed partly in front, to 
break the first rank of the enemy, and partly in the rear, 
to prevent them from reuniting. In this order, the 
Spaniards descended the hill, in order to commence the 
perilous conflict. 

The first discharge of the fire-arms Was made with such 
success, that the Mexicans who were facing the Spanish 
column, had no time to shoot their arrows. They were 
instantly attacked with swords and pikes, while the 
cavalry pushed forward, and dispersed or crushed all who 



444 MODERN HISTORY. 

fell in their way. Considerable advantage was gained by 
this first onset. Similar charges produced similar results, 
but so great and obstinate was the bravery of the Indians, 
that, after the cavalry had forced them to retire, they 
fearlessly returned to the charge, and regained the ground 
which they had just lost, the valley of Otumba, in the 
mean time, resembling a stormy sea agitated by the per- 
petual motion of its waves. Cortez, who, at the head of 
the horsemen, was causing terrible slaughter wherever he 
directed his steps, began to fear that this mode of warfare 
would finally exhaust the strength of his little army. 
His uneasiness increased every moment; when he suddenly 
conceived one of those bold ideas which great danger 
sometimes suggests, but only in men of uncommon 
energy. 

Cortez' strategy. — At the sight of the imperial ban- 
ner waving in the distance, Cortez remembered having 
heard that the issue of battles was considered by the 
Indians as dependent on its loss or preservation. He 
immediately called around him his bravest officers, 
Sandoval, Olid, Alvarado, with some other courageous 
men, and, at full gallop, forced his passage towards the 
banner. While his companions were despatching or 
putting to flight all who had dared to await their 
approach he himself attacked the Mexican general, 
wounded him, and by a powerful stroke of his lance 
brought him to the ground. 

As soon as the venerated banner disappeared from the 
sight of the Mexicans, they lowered the other ensigns, 
and, throwing down their arms, fled precipitately towards 
the woods and mountains; so that the valley was in a few 
moments entirely cleared. Aware how important it was 
to complete their dispersion and overthrow, Cortez or- 
dered his men to pursue them. He himself was suffering 
from the blow of a stone, which had broken his helmet 
and badly wounded his head. His orders, and the knowl- 
edge that he was wounded, so animated the Spaniards, 
that, notwithstanding the dreadful fatigue of the day, 
their strength seemed to be revived, and their fury to re- 
double in the pursuit of the enemy. According to the 
Spanish authors, twenty thousand Indians perished in 
this famous battle, which may be justly reckoned the 



CONQUEST OF MEXICO, ETC. 445 

greatest and most glorious ever fought by the Europeans 
against the aborigines of America.* 

This brilliant victory removed all obstacles from the 
way of the Spaniards. A few days after, they safely 
reached the friendly city of Tlascala, where a kind recep- 
tion compensated for the innumerable hardships which 
they had hitherto endured, and prepared them for new 
and more decisive efforts against Mexico. 

Cortez reinforces his army. — The attention of Cor- 
tez was constantly directed to the grand object his mind 
had previously in view; and difficulties rather increased 
than diminished his courage. Having granted his troops 
the repose which they needed, and given permission to 
reembark in the ships of Narvaez to those among his fol- 
lowers who were afraid of another expedition, he devoted 
all his time and care to the levying of a sufficient force. 
His good fortune, or rather Divine Providence, seconded 
his efforts beyond his exjiectation. Bands of brave sol- 
diers, with arms and ammunition, successively came to 
him from different quarters of the Spanish settlements; 
the sulphur of a neighboring volcano enabled him to 
provide nearly as much gunpowder as might be wanted; 
thousands of the Tlascalans and other tribes in the neigh- 
borhood offered to assist him in the conquest of Mexico: 
and, there was found sufficient material to build as many 
brigantines, as would be necessary to secure the com- 
mand of the lake by which the city was surrounded. 

Siege of Mexico. — When all things were in readiness, 
Cortez, for the third time, approached iae capital of the 
Mexicans, and commenced the regular operations of a 
siege. By his command, the attack was made under the 
direction of Sandoval, Olid, and Alvarado, at three differ- 
ent points along three causeways leading to the town. 
Each of these brave captains had under him thirty or 
forty thousand Indians, with two hundred Spaniards and 
two pieces of artillery. Cortez reserved to himself the 
attempt to gain possession of the lake, as be:ng the 
object on the attainment of which the success of all their 
exertions chiefly depended. His penetrating mind hav- 

* The interesting particulars of this battle may be seen in the Spanish 
historian Solis, Conqvista de la Nueva EsjHina, lib. iv., cap. 20; — also in 
the English authors of Univ. Hist. vol. cxiv., pp. 354-357 ; — in La Harpe, 
Abrege dp, I'histoire des voyages, vol. xi\.,pp. 484-488; etc. 



446 MODERN HISTORY. 

ing easily perceived that this was the surest way to con- 
quer Mexico, he fitted out for this purpose a flotilla of 
thirteen brigantines, each of which had, besides sails, 
twelve Indian rowers, twenty-five Spanish soldiers with a 
captain at their head, and a piece of ordnance. Cortez 
selected for himself the swiftest of these vessels, that he 
might the more easily afford assistance wherever it should 
be needed. 

The brigantines, in a single line, advanced across the 
lake towards Mexico. At some distance from the shore, 
a small island, or rather a large rock, on which was a 
castle defended by bodies of Indian troops, attracted the 
notice of the Spanish general. When he drew near, the 
Mexicans, believing their post to be inaccessible, loaded 
the Spaniards with insults and threats. Cortez thought 
that such insolence ought not to go unpunished, espe- 
cially in the sight of the capital and in the presence of 
its inhabitants, who were observing from their balconies 
the movements of the European flotilla. He therefore 
landed, for a moment, with one hundred and fifty men, 
and the castle was assaulted at two different points with 
such vigor and success, that one part of the garrison fell 
by the sword, and the other was obliged to escape by 
swimming. 

This easy triumph gave occasion to another of much 
greater importance. While Cortez and his troops were 
detained on the island the Mexicans had sufficient time 
to collect their canoes on the other side of the lake, to 
the number of at least four thousand, with which they 
advanced towards the enemy. This incredible number of 
Doats, the movement of the waves, the glitter of the arms 
and ornaments of the Indians, presented a spectacle at 
once magnificent and terrific. Cortez however beheld it 
without the least emotion, and merely considered it as a 
warning to prepare for the combat; only, in order to 
oppose a broader front than before to the enemy, he now 
caused his ships to be drawn up in the form of a crescent. 
No sooner had he given the signal for the attack, than all 
the brigantines urged forward at the same time by the 
oars and by a favorable breeze, bore down upon the Indian 
boats with irresistible impetuosity, and, notwithstanding 
the gallant resistance of the Mexican chieftains threw 
them into a state of confusion more easily conceived than 



CONQUEST OF MEXICO, ETC. 447 

described. Nor was the result for a moment doubtful, 
as the arms of the Spaniards, a favorable wind, and the 
very bulk of their vessels, gave them, from the beginning 
of the action, a decided superiority. Great numbers of 
the Indian canoes were broken to pieces by the artillery, 
sunk by coming in contact with the brigantines, or dashed 
against one another; the remainder, closely pursued by a 
victorious enemy, made a narrow escape. 

Fall of the Mexican Empire. — This great naval 
victory made the Spaniards masters of the lake, and con- 
siderably hastened the capture of Mexico. The three 
divisions of the land army being now aided by their vic- 
torious fleet, gradually advanced along the causeways, 
and proceeded into the very streets of the imperial city, 
not, however, without terrible obstacles and several 
bloody conflicts, the Mexicans being occasionally success- 
ful in repelling the attacks of the besiegers, and disput- 
ing every inch of ground with incredible obstinacy. In 
these desperate encounters, the Indians were animated 
by the example of their young and brave emperor, 
Guatimozin, who had lately succeeded Quetlavaca, and 
who left nothing untried to save his country and empire. 
But the combined efforts of the sovereign and of his sub- 
jects served only to place in bolder relief the consummate 
abilities of the Spanish general. His measures were so 
well concerted, and the attack so admirably conducted 
by himself and his officers, that, in spite of every obstacle, 
the three divisions of the army reached the centre of 
Mexico nearly at the same time. The other parts of the 
city were soon forced to surrender; and, as the provinces 
quickly shared the fate, and followed the example of the 
capital, the capture of Mexico, in August, 1521, may be 
considered as the date of the downfall of the Mexican 
empire. The siege had lasted three months, and cost 
the lives of one hundred and fifty thousand Indians. 

Guatimozin. — The emperor, with his court and fam- 
ily, had endeavored to escape but all were taken pris- 
oners. The Spanish soldiery greatly disappointed in the 
amount of treasures which they had expected to obtain 
in the city, determined, in order to discover them, to put 
the unfortunate Guatimozin and his chief minister to 
the rack. That prince endured the torture with invin- 
cible constancy. Most historians relate that hearing his 



448 MODEKN HISTORY. 

fellow-sufferer complain, he turned to him and said: 
-'And myself, am I on a bed of roses?" Cortez rescued 
him on this occasion, from the hands of the soldiery; 
But Guatimozin being afterwards accused of treason and 
conspiracy, was condemned and put to death about the 
year 1523. Thus perished the last emperor of Mexico. 

Cortez' fate and death. — Cortez himself soon ex- 
perienced the vicissitudes of fortune. The conquest of 
an empire at first acquired for him from Charles V. the 
honorable title of viceroy of the rich and extensive re- 
gions which he had subdued, and his indefatigable 
activity in extending his conquests entitled him more 
and more to honors and rewards. But he was doomed, 
like Columbus, to be the victim of envy. Twice was he 
obliged to cross the ocean, in order to vindicate himself 
and although he defended himself with success, he saw 
his authority gradually declining, until, through the 
influence of his enemies, it disappeared entirely. His 
great services now seemed to be forgotten; the conqueror 
of Mexico was treated with indifference by the court of 
Spain, and could scarcely obtain an audience from his 
sovereign. It is said that, as he one day made his way 
through the crowd which surrounded the carriage of the 
emperor, Charles asked him who he was: " I am," re- 
plied Cortez, "the man who gave more provinces to your 
majesty than you inherited towns from your ancestors." 
Finally, baffled in all his hopes of recovering his former 
dignities he retired to a little town near Seville, where 
he died at the age of sixty-two years (a.d. 1547). 

The life of Cortez exhibits a variety of exploits so ex- 
traordinary, that, were it not for the testimony of the best 
historical documents, they would rather appear to exist 
only in the imagination. The burning of his fleet, after 
landing on unknown shores; his attack of a powerful 
empire with a handful of men; the capture of Montezuma 
in his own capital; the defeat of Narvaez; the victory of 
Otompan; the siege and capture of Mexico, with all their 
circumstances, present a serious of truly wonderful events 
— events almost unparalleled in the annals of history. 
Even amongst the greatest conquerors, few possessed, 
in as high a degree as Cortez, prudence in counsel, sagac- 
ity in his plans and measures, intrepidity in their exe- 
cution, and energy in the severest trials. The greater 



CONQUEST OF PERU, ETC. 449 

were the dangers and hardships to which he was exposed, 
the more did his courage, presence of mind and military- 
genius appear. To these brilliant qualities was joined 
a religious mind; a sincere modesty, which made him 
think it no disgrace to ask for advice; constant probity 
and generosity, which gained him universal confidence 
and esteem; in fine, a dignified gravity in public, and an 
amiable kindness and good humor in social life.* 

It is certain then, notwithstanding the envious and 
prejudiced attacks, that the conqueror of Mexico was 
every way deserving of the extraordinary success which 
attended his arms. If jealousy endeavored to depreciate 
his transcendent merit during life, justice openly pro- 
claimed it after his death; and posterity will ever dis- 
tinguish Hernando Cortez among the many eminent per- 
sonages of whom Spain so justly boasts, as one of her 
most conspicuous heroes. 

CONQUEST OF PERU.— FRANCIS PIZARRO. 
^A.D. 1524-1534. 

The same is to be said of the conqueror of Peru, 
iPrancis Pizarro, a man whose courage, energy, and mag- 
nanimity were not inferior to those of Cortez, though he 
had fewer occasions to display them on the field of battle. 
Having entered into a compact with Diego de Almagro, 
another intrepid adventurer, and collected a small band 
of followers, he sailed, in 1525, from Panama, and began 
to explore the shores of the Pacific ocean. His first at- 



* It would be unjust to charge this hero with certain acts of cruelty com- 
mitted during the Mexican war. He was perhaps too hasty in consenting, 
though he did so with reluctance and for fear of worse consequences, to 
the torture and execution of Guatimozin ; but, whatever may have been 
the fury of some soldiers, all historians agree in praising the habitual mod- 
eration and generosity of Cortez. He waged, it is true, a terrible warfare 
against the Mexicans, but it should be remarked, first, that he did not 
commence hostilities until he had been treacherously and repeatedly 
attacked by them ; in the second place, that, even in the midst of his 
victories, he frequently offered them peace, which they refused ; and, 
finally, that he had to fight for the noble cause of humanity against 
enemies not less ferocious than implacable, and addicted to the barbarous 
custom of immolating human victims, to the number of at least twenty 
thousand every year. The abolishment of this monstrous custom was, on 
the authority of the ablest divines and civilians, Suarez, Grotius, etc., 
sufficient of itself to justify the military expedition of Cortez, and to 
tender it a just and honorable enterprise. 



450 MODERN HISTORY. 

tempts at discovery were attended with little success. 
A variety of obstacles, contrary winds, disease, and the 
like, often impeded his progress, and so discouraged his 
companions, that nearly the whole crew once abandoned 
him and returned to Panama, not more than thirteen 
hardy men consenting to remain with him upon a desert 
coast, until he should receive a fresh supply of soldiers 
and provisions. By his persevering efforts, he succeeded, 
under the . sanction of the Spanish government, in col- 
lecting a body of about two hundred men, by the begin- 
ning of the year 1531. With fresh ardor he advanced 
into the very heart of Peru, an extensive monarchy 
governed by sovereigns called Incas, and then the richest 
known country in the world for mines of gold and silver. 
Conquest of Peru. — The Peruvians were not less awed 
than the other nations of America, by the sight of men 
mounted upon formidable animals, and carrying thunder 
in their hands. The whole country was divided at that 
time into two hostile parties headed by the late Inca's 
sons, who had just made an appeal to arms for the decis- 
ion of their quarrel concerning the succession to the 
throne. Huascar, the elder, was at first victorious: but 
being afterwards defeated, he fell into the hands of 
his younger brother, Atabaliba, who committed great 
cruelties on this occasion. Both princes were anxious 
to secure the protection of the strangers, and Pizarro 
did not fail to take advantage of circumstances so 
favorable to his views. Concealing his real designs, he 
marched on to meet the usurper, and, after some 
useless conferences, so vigorously attacked the Peruvian 
troops, whose number amounted to upwards of thirty 
thousand men, that four thousand of them were killed, 
and the others dispersed, without the loss of a single 
soldier on the side of the Spaniards. The proud mon- 
arch was made prisoner, and, being soon tired of his cap- 
tivity, he offered for his ransom to fill up with pieces 
and vessels of gold a room twenty-two feet long and 
seventeen broad, as high as his hand could reach, and 
double that quantity of silver. The stipulated sum was 
paid to the Spaniards: still Atabaliba did not recover his 
liberty; but on charges of treason, and also as a punish- 
ment for his brother's murder, he was put to death in the 
year 1533. 



CONQUEST OF PERU, ETC. 451 

Foundation of Lima — Pizarro's death. — The two 

principal cities of Peru, Quito and Cusco, surrendered to 
the Spaniards, with scarcely any show of resistance (a.d. 
1534). The rest of the empire was also subdued in a short 
time; and, the better to secure its allegiance, Pizarro 
founded, at a short distance from the sea, the rich and 
celebrated city of Lima. Unfortunately, obstinate and 
bloody quarrels began to arise among the conquerors 
themselves about the partition of their conquest. Pizarro 
prevailed for a time over the party of his opponents: but, 
disdaining to credit a reported conspiracy against him, 
he finally became its victim. On the twenty-sixth of 
June (a.d. 1541), he was suddenly attacked in his palace 
at Lima, by a crowd of vile assassins, who, in their fury, 
made the air resound with the cry, aioay with the tyrant. 
His friends and servants being either killed or dispersed, 
he remained alone, without betraying the least sign of 
fear. Surrounded as he was by murderers, he defended 
himself with heroic courage, killed some of the assail- 
ants, wounded others, and at last, having himself received 
a mortal wound, fell and expired in the midst of them, 
while recommending his soul to his Creator. 

Chili and Paraguay become Spanish ; Brazil, 
Portuguese. — Such was the deplorable end of one of the 
most illustrious conquerors of the New World; of one, 
to whose undaunted valor and invincible courage, Spain 
was indebted for the subjugation of the Peruvian empire, 
and Charles V. for the invaluable mines of Potosi. 
After his death, civil wars continued to desolate Peru, 
until the chief leaders of the first expedition had all dis- 
appeared. It was only in 1548 that the virtuous gov- 
ernor Pedro de la Gasca succeeded, by his consummate 
prudence, in terminating these wars, and in establishing 
the Spanish government on a permanent basis in that 
enviable country. The Spaniards acquired also, about 
the same time, the extensive territories of Chili and 
Paraguay; and the Portuguese profited by their example, 
to form valuable settlements along the coasts of Brazil. 



452 MODERN HISTORY. 



CHARLES V. COWTIXUED — ACCESSION OF 
PHILIP II. AND FIRST TRANSACTIONS OF 
HIS REICN— A.I>. 1535-1559. 

While the empire of Charles V. was thus increasing 
abroad to an immense extent, that prince continued to 
astonish Europe by the display of his military and po- 
litical talents. War having been renewed between him 
and Francis I., Charles generally maintained the superi- 
ority which he had previously acquired; still, when he 
attempted, in 1536, to invade France at the head of for- 
midable forces, he was compelled to retire with consider- 
able loss. 

Charles V.'s expedition against Tunis. — The year 
before, the emperor had undertaken an expedition into 
Africa, for the purpose of checking the alarming progress 
of Barbarossa, a famous pirate chieftain. Having met 
him near Tunis, he defeated him in a great battle, took 
the city and rescued from twenty to thirty thousand 
Christian slaves. Another expedition of the same kind, 
directed against Algiers, in 1541, was far from obtaining 
the same success: dreadful storms both on sea and land 
destroyed half of the emperor's fleet and army and 
obliged him quickly to depart from those perilous shores. 
So unfortunate a result was the more painful to Charles, 
as he had conceived and followed up the project of con- 
quering Algiers, contrary to the advice of the celebrated 
admiral Andrew Doria, and other able generals. How- 
ever, throughout that series of disasters, he evinced such 
courage, firmness, magnanimity, and above all, so tender 
a solicitude for his distressed soldiers, as fully to atone 
for the partial loss which his reputation for prudence and 
his military glory had sustained. 

Battle ofMuhlberg. — The same alternation of suc- 
cess and misfortune accompanied him in his wars against 
the Protestant princes of Germany. He signally defeated 
them at Miihlberg (a.d. 1547), but they recovered from 
this blow, and continued to give him considerable trouble 
till the year 1552, when an agreement was entered into 
by both parties. 

Abdication of Charles V. — His death. — After hav- 
ing been thus long the chief potentate of Europe, after 



CHAKLES v., ETC. 453 

having filled the whole world with the fame of his glori- 
ous achievements, this mighty emperor abandoned all 
earthly grandeur for an obscure and private life. He 
left the imperial dignity to his brother Ferdinand, re- 
signed the Spanish crown with all its colonies and foreign 
dominions to his son Philip, and retired into a monastery 
of Hieronymites in Spain (a.d. 1556). In that peaceful 
abode he lived two years, dividing his time between spir- 
itual exercises and innocent employments. The manner 
in which he closed his mortal career was as extraordinary 
as his life. Stretching himself in a coffin, he had the 
funeral rites performed, and after the ceremony, retired, 
in a state of deep melancholy, to his apartments, where 
he was seized with a violent fever, and died on the 
twenty-first of September, in the fifty-eighth year of his 
age. His -reign, together with that of his grandfather 
Ferdinand and that of his son Philip, undoubtedly forms 
the most brilliant part of the history of Spain. 

The famous rival of Charles, Francis I., had descended 
before him into the grave: he was succeeded by Henry 
II., a prince equal to his father as well in bravery as in 
his determined opposition to the house of Austria. This 
hostile feeling Henry II. had often evinced during the 
emperor's life; it was revived in the beginning of Philip's 
reign. Accordingly France and Spain continued to be 
engaged in war against each other under their new sover- 
eigns; and, in consequence of the marriage of Philip II. 
with the English queen Mary, England interfered in 
favor of the Spanish monarch. 

War between France and Spain — The battle of 
St. Quentin.— In the year 1557, the war assumed a most 
serious aspect. The confederates, amounting to seventy 
thousand, under the command of the duke of Savoy, 
invaded the French territory, and laid siege to St. 
Quentin, a town of Picardy defended only by a handful 
of soldiers. Then the Constable de Montmorency, at the 
head of an army of thirty thousand men, undertook to 
relieve the place, and really succeeded in reinforcing the 
garrison ; but, not retiring in time he was overtakea by 
superior forces, and compelled to engage in a very un- 
equal contest. His defeat was complete; his cavalry fled; 
five thousand of the infantry were killed or wounded; 
whereas the Spaniards did not lose more than eighty 



454 MODEKN HISTORY. 

men, and several thousand among the vanquished, to- 
gether with their chief officers, the constable himself, 
eighty-eight banners, and all the artillery and baggage, 
fell into the hands of the conquerors. 

Calais retaken by the French. — The battle of St. 
Quentin might have proved the downfall of the French 
monarchy, had the conquerors pursued their advantage 
without delay. They wasted their time in taking some 
inconsiderable towns, until the autumnal rains obliged 
them to retire beyond the frontier. Henry improved the 
happy circumstance, by speedily mustering new forces, 
which enabled him, in the very next campaign, not only 
to stand upon the defensive, but even to attack with suc- 
cess. The duke of Guise, a general justly renowned for 
having a few years before compelled the emperor Charles 
to abandon the siege of Metz, was now placed at the head 
of the army, with the title of lieutenant-general of the 
kingdom. His prudence and valor fully justified the 
confidence reposed in him. After deceiving the allies by 
a skilful march, he suddenly appeared before Calais, and 
attacked it so vigorously, that this famous town, hitherto 
considered impregnable, was taken after a siege «f eight 
days. It had been during two hundred and ten years in 
the power of the English, who lost with it their last pos- 
session on the continent (a.d. 1558). 

The peace of Cateau-Cambresis. — At the news 
of this event, so unexpected, and, under existing circum- 
stances, so glorious for France, all nations admired the 
vigor of her national spirit and the extent of her re- 
sources. No later than the ensuing year, a treaty was 
concluded between Philip and Henry, in virtue of which 
they restored to each other nearly all their late con- 
quests; but Calais, with some other places, remained in 
the possession of the French. This loss sustained by the 
English, naturally leads us to mention the other great 
events, both civil and religious, which took place in Eng- 
land under the government of the Tudors. 

ENOL.A1VD UNDER THE TIJDORS. 
—A.D. 1509-15§§. 

Henry VIII., 1509-1547. — After the prosnerous reign 
of the first Tudor, Henry VII., the Engfish sceptre 
passed, in 1509, into the hands of his son, the famous 



ENGLAND UNDER THE TUDORS. 455 

Henry VITI. For the space of about twenty years, the 
new monarch enjoyed a great reputation, and increased 
the glory of his kingdom, by a wise administration at 
home, owing chiefly to the abilities of his prime minister. 
Cardinal Wolsey, and by brilliant success abroad, in his 
wars against the French and the Scots. A vile passion 
which he would not restrain, transformed liim into a 
despicable prince and a cruel tyrant. Wishing to repudi- 
ate his lawful wife, Catherine of Arragon, for the pur- 
pose of contracting another marriage with Anne Boleyn, 
a lady of his court, he applied to Pope Clement VII. to 
obtain a dispensation; but it was refused as opposed to 
the divine law. The dissolute monarch, disregarded the 
refusal; and not content with marrying Anne Boleyn, he, 
in his anger, disavowed the papal jurisdiction in his 
kingdom, and assumed himself spiritual supremacy over 
the English Church (a.d. 1534). From that time, he 
made his own will the only rule to be followed in Church 
and State; persecuted both Catholics and Protestants; 
and spared neither his wives nor his most illustrious sub- 
jects, such as Bishop Fisher and Chancellor More, who 
were put to death for refusing to admit the assumed 
power, and to obey the wicked orders of the tyrant. 
This unhappy prince died in 1547. 

Edward VI., I547-I553- — Under his son and succes- 
sor, young Edward VI., and by the exertions of the 
regent, the duke of Somerset, the Protestant doctrine 
became the religion of England. 

Mary the Catholic, I553-I558.— Mary, the eldest 
daughter of Henry VIII., reestablished the Catholic wor- 
ship in 1554; but, in 1559, it was again discarded by her 
sister Elizabeth, who founded the Church of England as 
it now exists. Mary, exasperated by the revolts which 
disturbed her reign, had treated the Protestants with 
great rigor ; Elizabeth, without having any such cause, 
treated the Catholics with still greater severity, and, 
under the influence of unprincipled ministers, framed the 
first of those oppressive statutes which disgraced English 
legislation for nearly three centuries, and have in partic- 
ular weighed so heavily upon Catholic Ireland. 

Elizabeth, 1558-1603. — Two other events of remark- 
able importance contributed to render the reign of Eliza- 
beth forever famous in a double point of view. 



456 MODERN HISTORY. 

Death of Mary Stuart. — The first was the death of 
the queen of Scotland, Mary Stuart, on the scaffold, in 
1587. This unfortunate princess, persecuted with invet- 
erate hatred by an unnatural brother, and other enemies 
of her faith, her authority and her person, had been 
obliged to seek a refuge in England, where, instead of an 
asylum, she found a dreary prison. After eighteen years 
of confinement, she was brought to a trial to which 
history affords no parallel, and, upon a variety of slan- 
derous and atrocious charges, was condemned to capital 
punishment, which she suffered at the age of forty-two, 
with truly Christian fortitude. All Europe shuddered 
with horror at the crime of her enemies; and Elizabeth 
endeavored in vain, by affected tears, to wipe away the 
foul stain forever imprinted on her own character by this 
deed of darkness. 

The other event alluded to, and which, in apolitical 
point of view, did great honor to the English queen, was 
her triumph over all the maritime forces of Spain. 
Before this, she had, by proper and constant encourage- 
ment, placed her own navy on a respectable footing. 
The famous admiral Drake successively attacked the 
coasts of San Domingo, Florida, Peru, and Chili, laid 
waste the Spanish settlements, and each time returned 
loaded with rich booty. Afterwards, he attacked the 
coast of Spain itself, and captured or destroyed eighty 
vessels in the harbor of Cadiz. 

Defeat of the Spanish Armada. — These attacks 
were too flagrant and too often repeated, not to provoke 
open hostilities from Philip II. After patiently suffering 
them for a time, he prepared at immense expense, a 
formidable fleet for the invasion and subjugation of Eng- 
land. It was called the Invincible Armada, and consisted 
of one hundred and flfty enormous vessels, carrying 
nearly three thousand cannon, with numerous troops and 
the flower of the Spanish chivalry. Nothing was spared 
to secure the success of the expedition; England 
trembled at the approach of this powerful armament : 
but she was soon relieved from her fears by the intre- 
pidity and skill of her admirals. They carefully shunned 
a general action, confining themselves to partial engage- 
ments, in which they were always successful. After the 
Spaniards had suffered various losses by this mode of war- 



WAR AGAINST THE TURKS, ETC. 457 

fare, a multitude of incidents aided the exertions of th^ 
Englisli, and a series of violent storms completed the 
defeat of the Armada (a.d. 1588). 

The loss of the Spaniards in this unhappy expedition 
was astonishing; but it produced not the least effect upon 
Philip, who received the disastrous intelligence with as 
much tranquillity as he would have done that of a signal 
triumph. "I had," said he, ''sent my fleet to fight 
against the English, and not against the winds. Let the 
will of God be done. I thank Him that He has given me 
so many resources to repair this disaster." 

TVAR AOAINST THE TURKS. — SIEOE OF 
MALTA. — LOSS OF CYPRUS. — BATTLE OF 
LEPANTO.— A.D. 1560-1571. 

We may now revert to the affairs of the Turks, and to 
their new efforts against the Christian nations. At the 
time when Philip II. began to rule over Spain, Soliman, 
the conqueror of Khodes and Belgrade, was still seated 
on the throne of Constantinople. A war having arisen 
between these two mighty sovereigns for the possession of 
Tripoli in Africa, a great naval battle was fought in 1560, 
in which the Turks were completely victorious. This 
success emboldened Soliman to undertake other con- 
quests; and resentment urged him to attack once more 
the knights of St. John, the greatest enemies of his 
power, and to drive them, if possible, from the new resi- 
dence which the liberality of Charles V. had conferred on 
their Order. Accordingly, an army composed of forty 
thousand choice troops, under the command of three able 
generals, Mustapha, Piali and Dragut, was landed in 
1565 on the shores of Malta, and immediately began a 
siege which, from the uninterrupted vigor of the attack 
and defence during the space of four months, may be 
reckoned the most memorable event of this kind recorded 
in history. 

Siege of Malta. — The number of the knights and sol- 
diers in the whole island did not exceed nine or ten thou- 
sand men; but the Grand-Master, John Parisot de la 
Valette, was a host in himself. This worthy successor 
of Peter d'Aubusson and Villiers de ITsle-Adam, had, like 
them, a mind incapable of fear even amidst the greatest 



458 MODEPN HISTORY. 

dangers, wonderful prudence and ability much improved 
by experience, and intrepid valor constantly animated by 
religious and patriotic principles. The plan which he 
adopted from the beginning of the siege, and which he 
followed up with unshaken constancy, was to defend, by 
the most vigorous exertions, every fort, every post, every 
inch of ground, against all the efforts of the Turks, hop- 
ing in this manner so to harass them and diminish their 
numbers, as finally to compel them to evacuate the 
island. 

Its wonderful defence. — In consequence of this 
noble determination, sharp skirmishes daily took place, 
retarding the progress of the assailants. A little fort, 
called St. Elmo, stopped their whole army for several 
weeks; nor could they take it except by sacrificing eight 
thousand of their bravest warriors; which made one of 
their greatest generals exclaim: " If the son has given us 
so much trouble, what must we expect from the father! " 
The garrison of that fort, composed of a few knights 
and some hundred soldiers, exhibited a spectacle never 
seen before. They not only repelled the continual as- 
saults of the Janizaries, as long as succor could be sent 
to them by the Grand Master; but even when all commu' 
nication was cut off, and when they were reduced to a 
small band, they continued, though wounded and 
scarcely able to move, to defend the breach against thou- 
sands of assailants. As loss of blood and complete ex- 
haustion did not permit some of them any longer to fight 
standing and with one hand only, they sat upon chairs 
and benches, and, wielding their swords with both hands, 
fought to their last breath. Fort St. Elmo was not 
taken, till after the death of all the knights who had 
generously devoted themselves to its defence. 

Still more awful and bloody was the struggle, when di- 
rected against the principal forts of the island, and 
against the town in which most of the knights resided. 
Desperate courage on the one side, undaunted intrepidity 
on the other, daily made the ramparts of Malta a theatre 
of unparalleled feats of arms. The energy of the Grand- 
Master seemed to have been transfused into the souls of 
his brave companions, and the valor of the knights to 
have communicated itself to all the inhabitants; and 
such was the admiration which the spectacle of their 



WAR AGAINST THE TURKS, ETC. 459 

noble heroism excited, that all classes of the people 
wished to partake in their glorious exploits. Thus, on 
one occasion, a band of some hundred boys, with their 
slings, greatly contributed to repel a furious assault; on 
another, two sailors contrived the best measure to defeat 
one of the most dangerous attacks of the infields. Per- 
sons of every age and condition labored day and night in 
repairing the walls, or making new intrenchments, with- 
out being frightened by the scenes of carnage, or by the 
sight of the dead and of the dying. Even females, for- 
getting their usual timidity, went forward to help their 
fathers, husbands, or sons, and fearlessly appearing upon 
the breach, threw upon the assailants boiling water and 
oil, melted pitch, fire-works, and even large stones, 
which they would not have been able to move in any 
other circumstance. 

Incidents of the siege. — As to the Grand-Master, 
besides continually watching every motion of the enemy, 
and properly directing all the efforts of the besieged, he 
seemed to multiply himself, in order to be present at 
every attack. The imminent danger of death, which he 
braved a thousand times, never caused him any fear or 
disturbance. Having, in one of the assaults, received a 
deep wound, he generously disregarded it, and continued 
fighting until the Turks were repelled. At another 
time, his nephew, a brave knight, whom he very tenderly 
loved, was killed at a short distance from him; La 
Valette contented himself with saying: " To-morrow we 
shall have time to weep for the loss of my nephew; let us 
now avenge his death, by forcing our enemies to fly." 
Being told that Mustapha, the commander-in-chief of the 
Turks, had sworn to put all the knights to the sword, 
and preserve the Grand-Master alone, to bring him before 
the sultan, " I will prevent him from doing that," coolly 
replied La Valette: " if, contrary to my expectation, the 
result of the siege should prove fatal to us, rather than 
suffer myself to be taken prisoner, I would put on the 
dress of a common soldier, throw myself into the thickest 
ranks of the enemy, and fight until a glorious death 
should unite me to my brethren." 

This noble intrepidity, ably seconded by the undaunted 
courage of the knights, and the Maltese soldiers, 
could scarcely fail to be crowned at last with full success. 



460 MODERN HISTORY. 

Yet, tlie Turks were not dispirited; and for a long time 
they seemed to derive new strength and ardor from their 
very defeats, their shame at not having hitherto been able 
to subdue a handful of warriors making them perform 
prodigies of valor. Besides having recourse to the ordinary 
modes of warfare, they every day invented new engines 
to annoy the besieged. Sometimes, by means of power- 
ful machines, they threw barrels filled with gunpowder 
and case shot, so prepared as to burst upon the ramparts 
and spread death among their foes. On other occasions, 
they pushed forward to the walls wooden towers, from 
the tops of which their musketeers might, with deadly 
aim, shoot down every human being that appeared upon 
the ramparts. The besieged, on their side, were active 
in their endeavors to prevent the effects of these murder- 
ous machines, either destroying them by the brisk fire of 
their artillery, or even turning them against their very 
contrivers. It was an awful spectacle to see the fatal bar- 
rels, before they had time to burst, hurled back upon the 
assailants, the wooden towers dashed in pieces, the lad- 
ders broken, and numbers of Janizaries crushed to death 
at the foot of the ramparts. 

Raising of the siege. — Not only did Mustapha, in 
these daily conflicts, lose many of his bravest soldiers, he 
had moreover the most gloomy prospect before him. In- 
stead of reducing the inhabitants of Malta by famine, as 
he had for a time, hoped to do, he began to feel the want 
of provisions and ammunition in his own camp. He more- 
over supposed the defenders of the besieged places to be 
much more numerous than they really were; and conclud- 
ing that it was quite useless to continue the attack against 
the maritime forts, he turned his efforts against the city 
called Notable, the capital of the whole island. Here 
also his hopes were entirely frustrated. In his perplexity, 
he resolved to resume the operations of the former siege; 
when a body of troops, which had been promised by the 
ting of Spain, at length arrived from Sicily. Although 
it consisted of only seven thousand men, this number was 
sufficient to raise the siege. Despondency and conster- 
nation had already begun to spread among the Turks; 
panic and despair succeeded; and, after a single power- 
less discharge of musketry, they hastily fled to the shore 
and reembarked for Constantinople. 



WAR AGAINST THE TURKS, ETC. 461 

An end was j)nt to this harassing and terrible con- 
flict. At the arrival of the auxiliary troops and the 
departure of the enemy, there remained, in the residence 
of the knights, not more than six hundred men able to 
bear arms, and even most of that number had received 
many wounds. The Spanish and Sicilian allies could not 
refrain from tears at the sight of these truly invincible 
but disfigured and emaciated warriors; their beards and 
hair were in a dreadful state; their garments, owing to 
the length of time they had worn them, were falling to 
pieces, and covered with dust and gore. It was impos- 
sible, at such a spectacle, not to mingle lively feelings of 
compassion with the transports of joy caused by so happy 
a deliverance. In order to transmit to posterity an au- 
thentic memorial of these surprising events, the small 
town, around which so many exploits had been achieved, 
received the appellation of victorious aYi/, which it still 
retains. 

Foundation of La Valette. — A great and truly noble 
object now occupied the mind of La Valette. In conse- 
quence of the furious siege just ended, most of the houses 
and fortifications were destroyed, the cannon were de- 
molished or greatly damaged, the stores and arsenals 
were without ammunition, the coffers without money, 
the forts without sufficient garrisons, and those parts of 
the country which had been the theatre of the war, almost 
without inhabitants; in a word, Malta was in such a state 
of desolation, that the bravest knights lost all hope of 
ever seeing it recover its former prosperity, and expressed 
a desire that Sicily should be selected as the residence of 
the Order. But the Grand-Master, who, even in the ut- 
most distress, had never consented to yield anything, was 
much less willing now to abandon that glorious soil so 
well fitted to produce new laurels. All the Christian 
princes applauded his magnanimous sentiments, and 
readily assisted him in carrying out his views. Having 
therefore chosen a favorable spot, he laid the foundation 
of a new city, meant to be the principal seat of the Order 
of St. John; and the work was prosecuted with so much 
diligence and activity, as to be nearly completed in the 
space of five years. The city took the name of her illus- 
trious founder. La Vialette, and being protected both by 
nature and art, was deservedly reputed the strongest place 
in Europe. 



463 MODERN HISTORY. 

Invasion of Hungary. — The intelligence of his 
army's defeat threw Soliman into a paroxysm of rage; he 
trampled under foot the letter of his general, and swore 
vengeance against the Christians. He however thought 
it prudent not to attack again the heroes of Malta, prefer- 
ring to attack the Christian islands of the Archipelago. 
Afterwards, the indefatigable sultan led his Janizaries, 
for the fourth time, into Hungary (a.d. 1566). The storm 
at this period burst upon Szigeth a small, but well forti 
fied town, whose brave garrison of three thousand men, 
and its intrepid commander. Count Nicolas Zriny, bound 
themselves by a solemn oath, if they could not conquer, 
at least to die together in defence of their religion and 
their country. Never was there a generous promise 
better and more resolutely fulfilled. For the space of two 
months, they successfully resisted an army of one hundred 
and fifty thousand Turks, destroying upwards of thirty 
thousand of the foremost among the assailants. At last, 
finding their own number reduced to two hundred and 
fifty, they threw open the gates of the fortress, and rushed 
into the midst of the Janizaries, where they all fell while 
fighting with desperate courage; only two soldiers, who 
were left for dead on the field of battle, afterwards recov- 
ered from their wounds. Thus Szigeth fell under the 
power of the Turks, but not until it had become, as it 
were, a heap of ruins, without anyone left to defend it any 
longer. Soliman had not the satisfaction of seeing the 
end of that destructive siege; his disappointment, roused 
to fury by so obstinate a resistance; brought on an attack 
of apoplexy, of which he died three days before the last 
conflict. As, however, the ultimate result was the conse- 
quence of his exertions, the capture of Szigeth may be 
justly accounted one of the exploits, and the last, but 
dearly-bought victory of that renowned sultan. 

Soliman II.'s character. — Although implicit credit 
should not be given to all the encomiums bestowed on 
Soliman by the Turkish writers, since various instances 
of cruelty and restless ambition are found in his life, 
which are a stain on his memory; still it must be con- 
fessed that his reign was at least one of the most brilliant 
and successful of the Ottoman dynasty. This prince 
nearly equalled Charles V., his contemporary, in activity, 
prudence and warlike genius. A famous conqueror and a 
great general in the field, he was also an able politician 



WAR AGAINST THE TURKS, ETC. 463 

and a wise legislator at home; he left behind him many 
useful works; he embellished Constantinople, built a 
powerful navy, protected learning, and, by his munifi- 
cence, justice, and liberality, not only secured the respect 
of his Mohammedan subjects, but even on many occasions 
was an object of admiration to the Christians themselves. 

Cyprus taken by the Turks under Selim II. — 
Selim II., who succeeded Soliman on the Turkish throne, 
did not possess the military qualities of most of his pre- 
decessors, and yet successfully carried on their plan of 
aggrandizement and conquest.^ Looking with a jealous 
eye at the rich island of Cyprus, then in the possession of 
the Venetians, he equipped a numerous fleet and army, in 
order to bring it under his power. The greater part of 
the country surrendered without opposition, Nicosia and 
Famagusta being the only places that ventured to sustain 
a siege. The former was taken at the expiration of seven 
weeks; the latter held out four months, during which the 
Turks lost, it is said, forty thousand men, and were 
obliged to fire one hundred and fifty thousand cannon 
balls. They sullied their victory by shocking cruelties, 
and the defenders of Cyprus expiated in tortures the guilt 
of their vigorous resistance. Above all, the wrath of the 
infidels was visited upon the intrepid commander of Fam- 
agusta, Marc Antony Bragadino, whose heroism on that 
occasion will be remembered by the remotest posterity. 
This great nfan, having been, contrary to the terms of 
the capitulation, carried into captivity, experienced the 
most barbarous treatment from the Turkish general, 
Mustapha, and was finally flayed alive, without betraying 
the least symptom of pain, but piously reciting the 
fiftieth psalm, until he expired in the hands of the execu- 
tioner. 

Pope Pius V. forms a league against the Turks. 
— This barbarity of the Turks roused the indignation, 
while their increasing power excited the fears, of Chris- 
tendom. To avert the danger which threatened at once 
religion and civilization in Europe, Pope Pius V. exerted 
all his faculties, authority and zeal. He, on the one 
hand, by letters and embassies, formed a powerful league, 
consisting of his own states, the kingdom of Spain and 
the republic of Venice; on the other hand, he endeavored 
to secure victory to their cause by fervent supplications. 



464 MODERN HISTORY. 

and by ordering the dismissal from the Christian host of 
all persons whose vices and immoi'ality might provoke the 
wrath of heaven. This being done, the combined fleet, 
consisting of about two hundred and forty vessels, under 
the command of Don John of Austria, a half brother to 
Philip II., went in search of the Turkish fleet which was 
still more numerous. The belligerent parties came in 
sight in the gulf of Lepanto; and close to the same spot 
where Octavius and Anthony had formerly contended for 
the Roman empire, were the Christians and the Mussul- 
mans now about to fight for the possession of Europe. 

Battle of Lepanto. — The seventh of October, 1571, 
witnessed one of the most terrible naval battles recorded 
in history. For several hours the conflict all along the 
line was awful, and victory uncertain. At length the 
persevering courage of the confederates, tlie intrepidity 
of Don John and other generals, their superior skill in 
naval and military tactics, and a strong and favorable 
breeze which arose just at the beginning of the battle 
and carried clouds of smoke towards the Turks gave the 
Christians a decisive victory. The fierce Ottomans lost 
in that memorable action thirty-five thousand soldiers, 
with their admiral and chief officers, fifteen thousand 
Christian slaves, about two hundred and fifty men-of-war 
and galleys, three hundred and seventy-two large guns, 
and an immense quantity of stores with which their ves- 
sels were loaded.* 

So signal an overthrow everywhere spread terror and 
dismay among the Turks, particularly in Constantinople; 
whereas the victory of the confederates filled the Chris- 
tian world with exultation. In Rome, Toledo, and other 
places, it was celebrated with extraordinary rejoicings; 
the Venetians, above all, manifested their enthusiasm by 
forbidding any one to mourn for the loss of those who 
had perished in the glorious conflict. The conquerors, it 
is true, did not know how to pursue and follow up their 
victory as well as might have been expected; yet, it can- 



* A more detailed account of the battle of Lepanto may be found in 
Univers. Hist. vol. lx ; — Mignot, Hist, de I' Empire Ottoman ' (reign of Se- 
lim 11.); — Hist, du Bas-Empire^ continuee par Ameilhon, vol. xxvn; — 
also in the Eccles. historians, Berault-Bercastel and Fleury, or rather his 
continuator, ad ann. 1571; and Alban Butler's Life of St. Pius V., under 
the fifth of May, with the notes. 



PHILIP II., ETC. 465 

not be denied that its result was of immense advantage, 
since it proved not only a check to the progress of the 
Ottomans, but was also the beginning of their decline, at 
least as a maritime power. 



PHILIP II. CONTINUED.— THE REPUBLIC OF 
HOLLAND.— FRAXCE UNDER THE LAST 
VALOIS AXI> HENRY IV.— OENERAE STATE 
OF EUROPE IN THE BEGINNING OF THE 
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.— A.D. 1566-1618. 

War of liberation in the Netherlands. — The prose- 
cution of the Turkish war did not occupy the whole 
attention of Philip II. ; he was also, during the same 
period, and for many years after, engaged in hostilities 
against Holland. That country, which had been depen- 
dent on Spain ever since the accession of Charles V. 
began openly to shake off the yoke in 1566, under the 
pretence of political and religious tyranny. Neither the 
severity of the duke of Alva, nor the abilities of Don 
John, nor the heroic qualities of Alexander Earnese, 
duke of Parma, could reestablish in it the Spanish rule; 
and, in spite both of conferences and arms, the republic 
of Holland, or of the Seven United Provinces, namely 
Holland, Zealand, tltrecht, Gelderland, Groningen, Fries- 
land and Overyssel, was proclaimed in 1581. It rapidly 
increased during the first part of the following century; 
and, by uniting an active spirit of trade and maritime 
enterprise with great military skill and numerous ex- 
ploits on land, it acquired such prosperity, wealth, and 
power, as frequently to counterbalance the influence of 
the mightiest sovereigns of Europe. However, it was 
not universally acknowledged as a free and independent 
state before the year 1648, in the treaty of Westphalia. 

Battle of Alkassor — Loss of Portuguese indepen- 
dence. — The Spanish monarch was more successful in 
his expedition against Portugal. Not long before, under 
the reign of Emmanuel and John III., this kingdom had 
reached the height of opulence and glory. One single 
act of imprudence on the part of the young king Don 
Sebastian, in 1578, caused it not only to fall from the 
high rank which it held among European nations, but 
even to lose for a time its independence. Contrary to 



4G6 MODERN HISTORY. 

the advice of his wisest counsellors, that impetuous mon- 
arch obstinately persisted in making an expedition 
against some princes in Africa. A battle was fought, in 
which he displayed surprising valor, but finally met with 
a complete overthrow: the Portuguese troops were cut to 
pieces, and he himself disappeared, and was never seen 
afterwards. As he left no issue, the crown of Portugal 
was claimed by many competitors, who prepared to sup- 
port their pretensions by recourse to law, or by force of 
arms; but Philip of Spain, who was beyond comparison 
the most powerful of all the aspirants to the throne, 
overcame his rivals. Portugal was subdued in one cam- 
paign, and, with its numerous settlements in other parts 
of the globe, remained annexed to the Spanish monarchy 
during sixty years, viz.: from 1580 to 1640, when a 
sudden and successful revolution restored it to its native 
princes. 

By the addition of Portugal and its colonies to his 
hereditary dominions, Philip II. became the sovereign of 
the most extensive monarchy that had hitherto existed. 
Several countries of Europe and Asia, nearly all of South, 
and a considerable part of North America obeyed his laws ; 
hence he used to say, and with truth, that the sun ncTer 
set on his dominions. Nor was his mind unequal to the 
task of regulating so vast and so complicated a machine. 
He was continually watching over the different provinces 
of his amazing monarchy, there being no department of 
the public administration with which he was not familiarly 
acquainted, no affair of importance to which he did not 
personally attend, no minister of state, no general of his 
army, whose public conduct he did not diligently observe, 
in order to keep all within the bounds of duty. 

France until the reign of Henry IV. — Philip 
moreover exercised a considerable influence over the 
other states of Europe, particularly France; he even cher- 
ished for a long time the hope of placing one of his chil- 
dren upon the French throne. That kingdom, after the 
vigorous reign of Henry II., had fallen into a deplorable 
state under his weak successors, Francis II., Charles IX., 
and Henry III., owing chiefly to an almost uninterrupted 
series of civil wars between the Catholics, who wished to 
maintain the ancient faith, and the Huguenots or Cal- 
vinists, who were anxious to establish their own religious 



J 



PHILIP IL, ETC. 467 

system. The evil was increased, in 1572, by the massacre 
on St. Bartholomew's day, in which many hundred Prot- 
estants were, by an act of cruel retaliation, sacrificed to 
the resentment and vengeance of the court.* At the 
death of Henry III., who fell by the sword of an assassin 
in 1589, Philip II. endeavored, by every means in his 
power, to exclude the nearest heir, Henry of Bourbon and 
Navarre, who was a Protestant, from a throne which had 
always been occupied by Catholic monarchs; but the 
many victories of Henry, enhanced by his truly royal 
qualities, and finally his returrt to the Catholic Church,f 
baffled the projects and frustrated the hopes of the Span- 
ish sovereign. All obstacles were removed in 1595, and 
the king of Navarre, the head of the Bourbon family, 
was universally acknowledged king of France under the 
name of Henry IV. ; a name, notwithstanding the indi- 
vidual frailties of the monarch, ever to be held in grate- 
ful remembrance for the return of happiness and prosper- 
ity which it secured to this long afflicted kingdom. 

Death of Philip II. — In the mean time, Philip II., 
worn down by age, infirmity, and toil, was called from 
this world, and left his immense possessions to his son 
Philip III. His last moments, amidst the acute pains 
of a complication of diseases, more and more manifested 
that firmness and energy of character which he had so 
frequently displayed during his long career. He died, 
after a reign of forty-two years, on the thirteenth of 
September (a.d. 1598). Five years later, the famous 
queen of England, Elizabeth, also departed this life, and 
was succeeded by the son of the unfortunate Mary Stuart, 
James of Scotland, who was really the nearest heir to the 
British throne, when the posterity of Henry VIII. be- 
came extinct by the death of Elizabeth. Being the first 
who reigned over the united kingdoms of England, Ire- 



* See Note N. 

t The conversion of Henry IV. was not, as the infidel Voltaire pre- 
sumed to assert, owing to political and interested motives, but the fruit of 
doctrinal conferences held in his presence. Having asked the Protestant 
divines whether he could be saved in the Catholic religion, and being 
answered in the affirmative, he concluded that it was undoubtedly the 
safer step to become a Catholic. He immediately began to act up to this 
conclusion ; and, from that time, never ceased to evince the most sincere 
and the strongest attachment to the faith which he had embraced. 



468 MODERN HISTORY, 

land and Scotland, James, on that account, took the 
title of King of Great Britain. 

Preponderance of the power of Austria. — Under 
these new and pacific sovereigns, Europe, generally speak- 
ing, enjoyed profound peace during the first part of the 
seventeenth century. Still, a violent storm was prepar- 
ing against the house of Austria, whose preponderance 
destroyed, in the opinion of many, the necessary equilib- 
rium among the monarchs of Europe. It was the desire 
of the neighboring princes, and particularly of the French 
king, to weaken her power, and great preparations were 
already made for that purpose, when Henry IV. fell by 
the poniard of a base assassin, on the fourteenth of May, 
in the year 1610. 

Henry IV. 's popularity in France. — This tragical 
event delayed for a time the project of the confederates, 
an.d plunged France into the deepest affliction. At the 
news of Henry's death, all labor ceased; commerce was 
interrupted; in the towns, especially in the capital, noth- 
ing was heard but sobs and lamentations, and country 
people were seen to shed torrents of tears, thus testifying 
their gratitude for the truly paternal affection which the 
good king had always manifested for this class of his sub- 
jects. It was his wish that they could have a fowl to eat 
every Sunday, and his delight to talk with them about 
their toils, their profits and losses, and even their smallest 
concerns. In a word, to promote the happiness of his 
people may truly be said to have been his predominant 
passion; hence we need not wonder that he won the love 
of the French nation and the admiration of all ages and 
countries. Even at present, the name of Henry IV. 
reminds every one of a gracious, mild and beneficent 
king, who rendered himself still more commendable for 
the generosity of his feelings than for all his other 
princely and royal qualities. 

THE THIRTY YEARS' VTAR— A.D. 161§-1648. 

The intended war against the Austrian family, which 
had been postponed on account of the death of Henry IV., 
at length broke out in 1618, and lasted, almost without 
interruption, during the space of thirty years. Its com- 
mencement coincides with the beginning of the reign of 



THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 469 

Ferdinand II. an emperor whose magnanimity and other 
virtues won the admiration of even his enemies. His 
chief allies were the king of Spain, his relative, the king 
of Poland, and the duke of Bavaria: the principal among 
the belligerent powers on the opposite side were, at dif- 
ferent times, Denmark, Sweden and France. The two 
first mentioned of these three nations had hitherto been 
little known, except from their quarrels with each other; 
but they now began to take an active part and to exert a 
certain influence in the general affairs of Europe. 

War in Bohemia and Denmark. — The first hostile 
steps in this destructive contest were taken by the Bohe- 
mians, who had revolted against the Austrian rule, and 
by Christian IV, king of Denmark, who supported them 
with a powerful army; but both the Danes and Bohe- 
mians were entirely overthrown by the imperial troops. 
In a few campaigns, Tilly and Wallenstein, two distin- 
guished generals, compelled the enemies of Ferdinand II to 
desist from their hostile designs, and submit to the condi- 
tions which he thought proper to impose on them (a. d. 
1629), in the so-called "Edict of Restitution." 

Swedish period. — Unfortunately, the victorious em- 
peror refused to comprise Sweden in the treaty of peace. 
This kingdom was at that time under the sway of Gusta- 
vus Adolphus, a young hero, with whose abilities, energy 
and resources Ferdinand II. and his allies were but 
slightly acquainted. Deeply offended at the refusal, 
Gustavus immediately prepared to renew the struggle; 
and, like another Hannibal, resolved to attack his enemies 
in the heart of their country. His very first appearance 
in the north of Germany, at the head of a brave and 
well disciplined host, inclined the scale of fortune in his 
favor. All fled before him, and Tilly who attempted to 
stop his progress, was himself, after an obstinate engage- 
ment, completely defeated on the plains of Leipzic (a.d. 
1631). A second battle was equally unfavorable to that 
great general, who died a few days after of his wounds, 
having lived, it was said, one year too long for his reputa- 
tion and glory. 

Gustavus Adolphus falls in the battle of Lutzen, 
— Wallenstein then assumed the chief command, and has- 
tened with fresh troops to oppose Gustavus. The armies again 
met near the village of Lutzen, and fought with such 
spirit, that victory was for a long time doubtful. At 



470 MODERN HISTORY. 

length, the Swedes, by uncommon and desperate efforts, 
remained in possession of the field, but lost their invin- 
cible leader, who was slain during the hottest part of the 
action (a.d. 1632). This accident was more fatal to 
them, than the defeat of their army would have been. 
For, although several able commanders, by order of their 
senate, continued the war with great vigor, yet they 
lacked his penetrating genius; and no later than the 
year 1634, the Swedish army was signally overthrown by 
the imperialists in the battle of Nordlingen. This victory 
of Ferdinand revived his adherents, whereas the loss of 
eighteen thousand men weakened his opponents to such 
a degree, that France, their most powerful ally, was 
obliged, from that time, to take the principal share in the 
prosecution of the war. 

The French join the Swedes. — The French throne 
was, at this period, occupied by the son of Henry IV., 
Louis XIII., a just, brave and religious prince, who had 
given many proofs of great personal courage and of good 
government. Louis, it is true, did not seem much 
inclined of himself to make foreign conquests; but he 
possessed in the person of Cardinal Richelieu, a minister 
of state equally skilled in conceiving mighty plans, and 
in carrying them into execution. This powerful genius 
had hitherto rendered very important services to his 
sovereign and country, by destroying the excessive power 
of some of the nobles, and giving the last blow to the 
feudal system; by suppressing the restless Huguenots, 
preventing civil wars, and subduing La Rochelle, the 
principal seat of discontent and rebellion; finally, by 
establishing the French academy, and laying the founda- 
tion of the glory of the following reign. He had just 
raised the kingdom to this state of prosperity, when the 
Swedes experienced that defeat at Nordlingen, which 
obliged their allies to make greater exertions against the 
common enemy. Hostilities were now carried on princi- 
pally between Austria and France. As each nation pos- 
sessed brave troops and skilful generals, numberless gal- 
lant exploits were achieved on both sides; still no decisive 
action took place for several years, so that neither the 
emperor Ferdinand II. on one hand, nor Louis XIII. and 
Richelieu on the other, lived to see the termination of 
the war. 



CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND, ETC. 471 

Condi's victories. — It continued under Ferdinand 
III. and during the minority of the young king Louis 
XIV., who began, at the age of five, a glorious reign which 
lasted seventy-two years. Its very beginning, in 1643, 
was marked by a brilliant victory. The duke of Enghien, 
better known unxier his subsequent name of the prince of 
Conde, had been, a short time before, placed at the head 
of the French army. The first act of his military career 
was to conquer and destroy, near Rocroy in Champagne, 
the formidable Spanish infantry, so renowned for its disci- 
pline and valor ever since the time of King Ferdinand V. 
This victory, gained by a general scarcely twenty-two 
years of age, gave France a decided superiority, which the 
same prince, together with his rival in glory, the marshal 
De Turenne, strengthened more and more by their subse- 
quent triumphs at Freiburg, in 1644, Nordlingen, in 1645, 
and Lens, in 1648. 

Peace of Westphalia. — So many victories for one 
party and losses for the other resulted, towards the close 
of the year 1648, in the famous treaty of Munster and 
Osnabruck, commonly called the treaty of Westphalia. 
By that treaty the authority of the emperor was reduced 
to narrower limits, and by a natural consequence, which 
the French plenipotentiaries endeavored in vain to avert, 
the Catholics lost much of their influence in Germany. 
Holland was formally acknowledged as an independent 
state, and valuable possessions were acquired to France 
and Sweden. Thus was peace restored in the greater 
part of Europe; but, the treaty of Westphalia not having 
been fully accepted by the Spanish king, Philip IV., who 
still cherished the hope of retrieving his recent losses, 
hostilities continued for some years longer between him 
and France. As to England, she had been, nearly all 
that time, too deeply engaged at home by dissensions and 
civil wars, to take any active share in these distant broils 
of continental Europe. 

CIVIL. ^VAR IW EIVGLABfD.— COMMOWWEAIiTH. 
—RESTORATION.— A.D. 1625-1660. 

Charles L, 1625-1649. — The whole reign of James I. 
had passed in comparative tranquillity;* but this was 

* It was under this reign that some infuriated persons, nominal 



472 MODERN HISTORY. 

rather a deceitful peace, and one of those calms which 
prognosticate a storm. At his death (a.d. 1625), he left 
to his son Charles I., an empty treasury, a refractory par- 
liament, a kingdom given up to religious disputes and 
distracted by rival sects, the principal of which were the 
Episcopalians or Anglicans and the Presbyterians or 
Puritans. James had always desired to put down the 
latter of these two parties, but he left the work to be 
accomplished, if possible, by his successor; and when 
Charles made the attempt, he met with a resistance which 
proved the cause of his own ruin. 

An order had been issued for the general adoption of 
the Anglican doctrine and liturgy even in Scotland. The 
Puritans, who were numerous and powerful there, boldly 
opposed the royal decrees, and swore to defend their man- 
ner of worship against every attack from whatever quar- 
ter it might proceed. In order to quell the insurrection, 
Charles marshalled an army, and led it towards the fron- 
tiers; still, yielding to his inclination for peace, he con- 
sented to come to an agreement with the Scots, though at 
the risk of diminishing his authority. This act of con- 
descension instead of dissolving the Scottish covenant, 
seemed rather to give it new strength; and the covenant- 
ers grew bolder than ever, especially when they saw their 
cause openly supported by the English parliament, which 
was still more opposed to the court than themselves. 

Civil war. — This parliament seemed absolutely resolved 
to thwart the monarch in all his views, and to strip the 
crown of its highest prerogatives. Charles yielded on 
many points; but jfinding all his concessions of no avail in 
reestablishing concord and tranquillity, and morever, 
never receiving the necessary grants, he had recourse to 
arms, and summoned around him those who were still 
attached to his person, his government, or his fortunes. 
The parliament also raised troops; and civil war in every 
part of the realm was the consequence (a.d. 1642). 

Catholics, formed the horrid project, called the gunpowder plot, of blow- 
ing up the parliament-house during the session. The plot was detected, 
and its authors met with condign punishment : unfortunately, several 
innocent persons were involved in their ruin, and prejudice went so far as 
to throw the blame upon the whole body of Catholics ; as if Catholics at 
large could be accountable for the conduct of a few desperadoes whose 
plot they never knew — or the code of Catholic principles answerable for a 
crime which it always condemned and abhorred ! 



CIVIL WAE IN ENGLAND, ETC. 473 

Battle of Marston Moor, July 2, 1644. — This rev- 
olution was at first favorable to Charles, who gained in 
person great advantages, and forced one of the parlia- 
mentary armies, under the command of the earl of Essex, 
to surrender. But these successes of the royal cause were 
counterbalanced by the loss of the bloody battle of 
Marston Moor, fought in the north of England (a.d. 
1644); and, on the fourteenth of June of the ensuing 
year the still more fatal battle of Naseby deprived the 
king of nearly all his resources. Believing that there 
was no safer way to escape from the fury of his enemies 
than to take refuge among the Scots, he determined to 
throw himself upon their loyalty, and to surrender him- 
self into their hands. This was running from one dan- 
ger into another; the Scottish army (not the nation at 
large), after a short hesitation, shamefully delivered him 
to the English parliament for the sum of four hundred 
thousand pounds. 

Cromwell and the Independents. — A new party 
had now arisen in England, Tery appropriately called the 
Independents, because, in reality they claimed an entire 
independence in all matters both civil and religious. 
At their head were Fairfax and Cromwell, two men fa- 
mous in the history of those times, the former for his valor 
and skill in the command of armies, the latter for his in- 
triguing genius and uncommon talent — political and mil- 
itary. With boundless ambition, which he artfully con- 
cealed under the veil of modesty and religious zeal, all 
means, whether just or criminal, were equally good in his 
sight provided they would promote the object of his de- 
signs. In a short time, his ability raised him to the chief 
command of the troops, his refined intrigues to the first 
rank in his party, and his artful ambition to the sovereign 
power. 

Execution of King Charles I. — Cromwell be- 
comes "Protector." — Cromwell had contributed more 
than any one to the overthrow of the royalists in the bat- 
tles of Marston Moor and Naseby. Possessing, on that 
account, vast influence in the army, he made himself 
master of the king's person, and, confining him in a 
prison, defeated all the attempts that were made to set 
him at liberty. Afterwards, the bold usurper appointed 
a committee, which he took care was composed of his 



474 MODERN HISTORY. 

warmest partisans, for the trial of the royal captive. 
Charles indeed refused to acknowledge the competency ol 
that tribunal, and answered the absurd charges laid 
against him by a dignified silence or a smile of contempt; 
still, the proceedings went on with unusual rapidity; af- 
ter a mock examination, he was outlawed, condemned to 
death as if he were a foe to the English nation, and, 
finally, executed in London on the thirtieth of January 
(a.d. 1649). His most faithful defenders and friends 
soon experienced the same fate; and England saw with 
dismay her most distinguished nobles perish on the 
scaffold. On this sanguinary foundation a common- 
wealth arose in the place of the ancient monarchy, a new 
constitution was published, ■ and shortly after Cromwell 
was acknowledged as head of the government under the 
title of Protector. 

England a republic from 1649-1660 — Continu- 
ous wars. — In the mean while, great and numerous 
were the obstacles which he had to encounter everywhere. 
ISTo sooner had the intelligence of the king's death spread 
abroad, than parties were formed in IrelaDd, Scotland, 
and England itself, against the usurpers. A man of 
ordinary talents would have sunk under these accu- 
mulated obstacles; Cromwell overcame them all by his 
prudence and activity. After sending some of his gen- 
erals to quell the insurrection in England, he himself 
rapidly passed over to Ireland, compelled, by the superior- 
ity of his forces, the inhabitants to submit, and, returning 
with the same celerity, advanced against the Scots, whom 
he surprised and defeated at Dunbar (a.d. 1650). This 
overthrow did not prevent Charles, the eldest son of the 
late monarch, from penetrating into England at the head 
of fourteen thousand men. But Cromwell closely fol- 
lowed him, met the royalists again near Worcester, and 
gained over them a complete and decisive victory; Charles 
succeeded with extreme difficulty, in saving his life, and 
escaped into France by crossing the channel in a boat. 

Cromwell returned in triumph to London, and thence- 
forth occupied himself in securing the prosperity of the 
realm by a vigorous and wise administration. Although 
the government was called a republic, he acted more 
absolutely t'han perhaps any English king had ever done, 
dissolving the parliament whenever it opposed his views 



CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND, ETC. 475 

and measures. Tranquillity was restored to England; 
literature, arts and sciences were protected, and useful 
laws enacted, as well against blasphemy and luxury, as 
for the maintenance of order and justice. Commerce 
also was revived, and the navy greatly increased. 

While he was thus securing the prosperity of his govern- 
ment at home, Cromwell caused it to be also respected 
abroad. " I wish,^' said he, " to see the British common- 
wealth as much honored by other nations, as the Eoman 
republic once was." Accordingly, the English fleets tri- 
umphantly swept every sea; haughty conditions were im- 
posed on the rival powers of Europe; and the Dutch, who 
alone ventured to question the superiority of the British 
flag, were soon compelled to respect it by a series of 
great naval battles, in the last of which they lost their 
celebrated admiral Van Tromp. 

Cromwell's alliance with France. — Cromwell was 
still more honored when his alliance was sought with 
equal eagerness by France and Spain. Between these two 
nations, war had already lasted more than twenty years, 
although of late it had not been actively prosecuted owing 
to the civil disturbances during the minority of Louis 
XIV., which divided the attention of the French court. 
After some hesitation, the Protector preferred the alliance 
of France, and afforded the young king such assistance 
in troops and vessels, as to destroy the equilibrium which 
had so long protracted the war against Spain. As a com- 
pensation for this efficient aid, and an indemnity for the 
expenses incurred, he required that the important city of 
Dunkirk should be besieged, and the keys after its cap- 
ture delivered into his hands, and that France, moreover, 
should afford no refuge or protection to the exiled sons of 
Charles I. 

In consequence of this treaty, preparations were made 
for two grand expeditions. A British fleet, under the 
command of Blake, went in search of the Spanish forces, 
and gained two victories near the shores of Spain and 
Africa; and Jamaica was also conquered by the English, 
in whose possession it has since continued. On land. 
Marshal Turenne, already famous for many glorious 
campaigns and victories, led his army, composed of 
French and English troops, to the siege of Dunkirk. 
The Spaniards, on their side, were not idle; they ap- 



476 MODEKN HISTORY. 

proached the French lines for the purpose of raising the 
siege, but were entirely defeated in the celebrated battle 
of Dunes, the more honorable to Turenne, as he van- 
quished at once three able generals, viz., Don Juan, the 
commander-in-chief, and the prince of Oonde and the 
duke of York, both of whom, discontented with the court 
of France, had gone over to the party of the Spaniards 
(a.d. 1658). 

Within a few days Dunkirk capitulated, and, according 
to the previous agreement, was surrendered to the Eng- 
lish. Two other victories, and the capture of several 
other towns, terminated that decisive campaign, which 
was soon followed by the conclusion of peace between 
Spain and France on terms very advantageous to the 
latter. The prince of Conde was included in this treaty. 

Cromwell's death. — Cromwell did not see the termi- 
nation of the war, having died a short time before, just 
when the prosperous issue of his alliance with France had 
raised him to the zenith of his glory. However, neither 
in this nor in any other successful scheme had he ever 
enjoyed real happiness. From the moment in which he 
was invested with the supreme power to that of his death, 
his mind labored under a constant dread of assassination; 
nor were his numberless precautions and multiplied 
guards able to remove his fears. The nights especially 
he passed in a most feverish anxiety, never sleeping twice, 
or more than twice in succession, in the same chamber, 
and taking care that, besides the principal door, there 
should be some other secret one to facilitate escape. He 
died at the age of fifty-nine (a.d. 1658), on the third of 
September, the anniversary of the victories obtained by him 
at Worcester and Dunbar, the former seven, the latter 
eight years before. 

Abolition of the protectorate and re-establish- 
ment of the kingdom under Charles II. — Almost 
simultaneously with the death of Cromwell fell the form 
of government which he had established. Eichard, his 
son, was, it is true, appointed Protector in his place; but, 
possessing neither the abilities nor the ambition of his 
father^ he soon resigned the office, and the English, be- 
ing at length tired of so precarious a state of things, 
agreed to recall the royal family of the Stuarts. The 
whole affair, admirably well conducted by General Monk, 



BRITISH AND FRENCH COLONIES. 477 

afterwards called the duke of Albemarle, was finally ac- 
complished in May, 1660, when Charles II. was, with uni- 
versal satisfaction and applause, replaced upon the throne 
of his ancestors. 



BRITISH A]VD FRENCH COLONIES IN 
NORTH AMERICA. 

These successive changes of government were adopted, 
without much difficulty, by the numerous settlements 
which England already possessed in North America. It 
would have been impossible for these rising colonies, es- 
pecially at such a distance, successfully to resist the 
course of events in the mother-country; the more so, as 
many of the emigrants had a long and bloody struggle to 
maintain against the Indians, whom, it must be acknowl- 
edged, they rather harshly treated almost from the be- 
ginning, and who, in return, frequently opposed with all 
their might the rise and progress of the English settle- 
ments. Notwithstanding these obstacles, the colonies 
gradually improved, and, at length, by dint of labor, in- 
dustry, and courage, became very prosperous. 

Foundation of original states. — The most re- 
markable of them were established under the govern- 
ment of the Stuarts, and in the following chronological 
order : Virginia, in 1607, by Episcopalians; — Netv Am- 
sterdam, or JVew York, in 1614, or thereabouts, by the 
Dutch; this colony lost the former, and took the latter 
name in 1664 or 1665, when it passed under the power of 
the^ugVish;— Plymouth and Massachusetts, \n 1620-1630;* 
— Maryland, in 1633-1634, by Catholics, according to 
the plan of Sir George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, a noble- 
man of liberal character and distinguished abilities, and 
under the direction of his sons Cecilius and Leonard Cal- 
vert; the city of Baltimore was not however built till a 
much later period: — Pennsylvania and Philadelphia, in 
1681-1682, by Quakers, under the celebrated William 

* Some years later, were founded most of the other New England States. 
Those of Delaware and Nevi Jersey were first settled by Swedes and 
Dutch, shortly after New York. Lord Clarendon and other English gen- 
tlemen commenced, in 1663-1670, the establishment of Carolina; but it 
•was only in 1729 that the country was completely divided into North and 
SoKth Carolina. Georgia was settled in 1732-1735. The other States of 
the Upion, besides those mentioned above, are of much more recent date. 



478 MODERN HISTORY. 

Penn, to whom that portion of the American territory 
was ceded by the British court as a reward for the ser- 
vices of Admiral Penn, his father. 

Religious freedom established in Catholic Mary- 
land. — In these two last States, a system of equity, 
humanity and kindness was adopted towards the Indian 
tribes, which did great honor to the first settlers, and 
greatly contributed to their rapid increase and early 
prosperity. A still more distinguishing feature of the 
colony of Maryland is the example of Christian modera- 
tion and tolerance which she gave to her sister colonies; 
an example hitherto unknown in the history of America. 
For, while Virginia and New England were dooming, 
the former to exile, the latter to still harsher treatment, 
all who dissented from their respective creeds. Lord 
Baltimore and his associates, without in the least admit- 
ting religious indifference, being themselves sincere Cath- 
olics, removed however all idea of religious persecution, 
and legally recognized, from the beginning, that civil 
freedom of conscience which has since been adopted in 
the Constitution of the United States. 

French settlements. — It was also chiefly during the 
course of the seventeenth century, that the French made 
regular settlements in those parts of North America, 
which they had previously discovered, particularly in 
Canada. Champlain, an active and enterprising officer, 
founded Quebec in 1608; and in 1642, Montreal began to 
rise, and soon after to prosper under the active care of 
zealous settlers, and especially of the congregation of the 
Sulpitians, to whom the whole island was ceded about 
this time. Louisiana also became one of the French 
colonies, though somewhat later. New Orleans not having 
been founded before the year 1718. Florida belonged at 
that time to the Spaniards. 

SPLENDOR OF THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV. 

When" the restoration of the Stuarts to the throne of 
England took place, Louis XIV. had been king of France 
for seventeen years, but as he was only five years old 
when he became king of France in 1643, the government 
was conducted by his mother, Anne of Austria, in conjunc- 
tion with Cardinal Mazarin, whose consummate skill as 



SPLENDOR OF THE IIEIGN OF LOUIS XIV. 479 

prime-minister continued even after the king's majority 
to guide the affairs of France until 1661. However, even 
at that time, he occasionally evinced such energy of 
character, as plainly to indicate what he might effect at a 
subsequent period. Mazarin died in 1661, and Louis, 
then twenty-three years old, took the reins of government 
into his own hands, and never afterwards relinquished 
them, nor ceased to hold them in a manner suitable to 
his power and dignity. 

Louis XIV 's personal government. — He soon 
verified a saying of the deceased cardinal, that there was 
in him sufficent material to make four kings. Every 
branch of the public administration assumed under him 
a grand and majestic aspect. He settled with precision 
the extent of power to be exercised by each one of his 
ministers ; required them to report to him at stated 
hours ; and, while he encouraged them by sincere marks 
of confidence, carefully observed their proceedings, lest 
they should abuse their authority. His manner of gov- 
erning, alike dignified and courteous, secured the respect 
of foreigners and the affection of his own people. Mili- 
tary discipline was enforced, the public revenues were 
managed with prudence and wisdom, and strict order was 
observed in the courts of justice. Safe and capacious 
harbors were in a short time constructed and made ready 
to receive all kinds of vessels; the canal of Languedoc, a 
work not unworthy of the genius of ancient Eome, 
opened an easy communication between the Atlantic and 
the Mediterranean Sea, and a powerful navy was 
equipped, to contend for the empire of the ocean with 
the chief maritime forces then in existence. 

France prospers in every direction.— Under this 
mighty impulse, commerce and industry increased, splen- 
did manufactories arose, which astonished the world by 
the beauty and elegance of their productions in porcelain, 
tapestry, etc. The academies of sciences, belles-lettres, 
sculpture, and painting, were no sooner established than 
they produced masterpieces of every description. Archi- 
tecture displayed all its magnificence in the palaces of 
the Louvre and of Versailles. All the fine arts, with the 
various branches of literature and useful knowledge, were 
encouraged and protected both at home and abroad; and 
no fewer than sixty learned men, in the different coun- 



480 MODERN HISTORY. 

tries of Europe, received from Louis presents and other 
marks of esteem, with letters no less honorable to the 
monarch than to themselves. France alone produced at 
that epoch a great multitude of highly distinguished 
men; and the same age which saw with admiration Conde 
and Turenne, Luxembourg and Villars at the head of 
armies, Duquesne and Tourville in the navy, Louvois and 
Colbert in the cabinet, beheld also with astonishment the 
transcendent merit of Bossuet, Fenelon, Bourdaloue, 
Massillon, Flechier, in sacred eloquence; of Mabillon, 
Montfaucon, Thomassin, Petavius, Huet, in sacred learn- 
ing; of Pascal and Descartes, in mathematics and philos- 
ophy; of Lamoignon and D'Aguesseau, in jurisprudence; 
of Corneille, Eacine, Boileau, J. B. Rousseau, Lafontaine, 
in poetry, etc. 

In a word, the reign of Louis XIV, was in every re- 
spect, the reign of taste and genius ; one, during which 
the capital of France seemed to have become another 
Rome or Athens, so as to render that age, if not superior, 
at least equal to the most brilliant ages of antiquity. 
Hence the name of Louis was respected among thQ re- 
motest nations of the earth, and ambassadors came from 
the eastern extremities of Asia to seek his alliance and 
friendship. 

Louis XIV. 's religious zeal. — Nothing however 
can appear so honorable to the memory of that monarch, 
as his great zeal for the interests of religion. He encour- 
aged the diffusion of Christianity in the various parts of 
the world. It was chiefly during his reign, that crowds 
of pious and learned missionaries set out from France, to 
preach the gospel in North and South America, in China, 
Persia, Egypt and other countries, where they rendered 
invaluable services as well to the Church, as to science 
and to humanity. In his own kingdom, he extended the 
same protection to all good and useful institutions, he 
checked by severe laws the practice of duelling and the 
profanations of the name of Cod, and also enacted various 
laws for the preservation of good order. As for himself, 
although his character was not always blameless, he how- 
ever always remained strongly attached to religion, and 
ultimately atoned for the faults of youth by genuine piety 
in a more advanced age. 

Never perhaps did either France or any other country 



WAR OF FLANDERS— OF CANDIA, ETC. 481 

behold a greater and more brilliant display of military 
talents than under the reign of Louis XIV. This shall 
be shown in the following sections. 



WAWt OF FLANDER§— OF CANDIA, ETC. 
— A.D. 1664-1669. 

First war of conquest— Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

— The reader has already been told of the glory and ad- 
vantages acquired by France in the last war against Spain 
and Austria. Spain was again humbled, in 1667-1668, 
by the armies of Louis, and such was the rapidity of his 
conquests both in Franche-Comte and Flanders, that a 
confederacy of the neighboring nations was thought nec- 
essary to stop his progress. A league was therefore con- 
cluded, under the name of the triple alliance, by Eng- 
land, Holland and Sweden, the contracting powers agree- 
ing among themselves to settle the differences of France 
and Spain upon reasonable terms. By a subsequent 
treaty signed at Aix-la-Chapelle, the French monarch 
was permitted to retain his conquests in Flanders, and the 
Spanish king, now Charles IL, was contented with the 
restoration of Franche-Comte. 

In the year preceding the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 
(1667), a similar treaty had been made at Breda between 
the English and the Dutch, for the adjustment of their 
own dffferences. A new war had some time before 
broken out between them, which raged for some years 
with great fierceness, costing much bloodshed, and enor- 
mous expense; several naval battles had been fought, 
equally obstinate and undecisive; however, the final re- 
sult was favorable to the English, who obtained from the 
Dutch, by the treaty of Breda, the cession of extensive 
and valuable settlements in America. 

Participation in the war against the Turks- 
Battle of St. Gothard.— Louis XIV. was not so much 
engaged in these great concerns of war and peace with 
his neighbors, as not to take an active share in the inter- 
ests of more distant nations. In the year 1664, he sent a 
body of troops to assist the emperor Leopold against a 
fresh invasion of the Turks. This and other succors 
granted by different princes enabled Montecuculli, the 
commander-in-chief of the Austrian forces, to fight, near 



482 MODERN HISTORY. 

the river Eaab, the celebrated battle of St. Gothard, in 
which the Turks were entirely defeated, and compelled to 
postpone their projects of invasion. 

Siege of Candia. — Four years later, similar though 
less useful assistance was sent by the French king to the 
Venetians, for the defence of the island of Candia then 
vigorously attacked by the same infidels. The siege, or 
rather blockade of the capital, also called Candia, had 
already lasted twenty years, when the grand-vizier, 
Achmet Kiuperly, determined to bring it, by redoubled 
efforts, to a speedy issue. He himself landed in the 
island, and closely invested the town with an army no 
less formidable in numbers than for its valor and disci- 
pline. The siege lasted two and a half years longer, be- 
ing thus one of the most celebrated in either ancient or 
modern ages, for the obstinacy of both parties and the 
mighty deeds performed on each side. The besiegers as- 
saulted the place no fewer than fifty-six times; and, in 
the intervals, their artillery, consisting of three hundred 
cannon, were fired with such incessant fury, as to make 
the ramparts of Candia so many heaps of ruins. The 
besieged, on their part, fired against their foes upwards 
of five hundred thousand bombs and balls, expended fifty 
thousand barrels of gunpowder, and, besides repelling all 
the assaults of the enemy, made ninety-six sallies against 
the Turkish intrenchments. 

Capitulation of Candia after a stubborn resist- 
ance. — So terrible and obstinate a contest could not fail 
to be extremely destructive. According to the most mod- 
ern account, the Turks, before they could take possession 
of Candia, lost one hundred and twenty, and the Christians 
lost thirty thousand soldiers. There was not, all around 
the city, one spot which had not been moistened by the 
blood of many heroes. But the garrison being now re- 
duced to a handful of men, mostly wounded, or ex- 
hausted by their exertions, it was evident that the place 
could hold out no longer; and the Venetian commanders 
were at length induced to surrender it upon the terms of 
an honorable capitulation, which Kiuperly granted and 
faithfully executed (a.d. 1669). In all this, the grand- 
vizier acted with a moderation that did him no less 
honor than his manner of conducting and concluding the 
siege. This great man, still more to be admired as a 



WAR OF HOLLAND, ETC. 483 

minister of state than as a general, soon set about repair- 
ing in the island the numberless calamities it had suf- 
fered from so furious a war, and his efforts, aided by the 
natural salubrity of the climate and the fertility of the 
soil, were soon attended with complete success. He then 
returned to Constantinople, where, under the young sul- 
tan, Mahomet IV., he continued to govern the state with 
prudence and ability until the moment of his death, 
which happened in 1676. 

To return to Louis XIV. This monarch was more suc- 
cessful in checking the depredations of the Algerine 
pirates than he had been in saving Candia from the arms 
of the Ottomans. Squadrons which he despatched at 
different times dispersed the pirates, and restored secur- 
ity to commerce on the Mediterranean sea. 



yVAWL OF HOLL4BfD — AND SIJBSEQIJENT 
EVE]«TS TILL THE LEAGUE OF AUGS- 
BURG.— A.D. 1672-16§6. 

Success of the French arms. — A still greater design 
engaged at the same time the attention of Louis. The 
Dutch having of late given him many causes of com- 
plaint, he resolved to humble their pride and chastise 
their ingratitude. In the year 1672, a well disciplined 
force of one hundred and ten thousand men, commanded 
by the king in person, and by Conde and Turenne under 
him, crossed the Ehine, and overran a great part of Hol- 
land with little or no opposition. Their march was so 
rapid and successful, that, in the space of two months, 
three of the seven united provinces were subdued, and 
forty fortified towns captured. The army continuing to 
advance, and the conqueror refusing to grant peace except 
on rigorous and humiliating terms, the Dutch, in their 
despair opened their dykes and inundated the country. 
This bold measure saved them from utter ruin, and the 
French finding themselves in the midst of waters were at 
last compelled to retreat. 

A league formed against Louis XIV. — In the 
meanwhile William Prince of Orange, who had been just 
appointed stadtholder of the republic, was using all his 
efforts to rouse the great European powers against Louis 
XIV. His exertions easily induced the king of Spain, the 



484 MODERN HISTORY. 

emperor of Grermany, and the elector of Brandenburg, all 
of whom were alarmed at the power of the French mon- 
arch, to declare in favor of the Dutch: England alone 
remained at this time an ally of France, but for only two 
years. In 1673, great naval battles were fought in the 
channel between the fleet of Holland and the combined 
fleets of England and France, without any considerable 
advantage for either party. Three other engagements 
which took place on the Mediterranean sea, were more 
decisive; in the first, the celebrated Dutch admiral, 
Ruyter, was worsted by the French under Duquesne; in 
the second, he lost his life near Messina, a- maritime town 
of Sicily; and shortly after, his fleet, attacked for the 
third time, was almost entirely destroyed (a.d. 1676). 

Conquest of the Franche-Comtd — Campaign in 
the Netherlands. — Still more important events hap- 
pened on land, particularly along the frontiers of Ger- 
many and Flanders. Franclie-Comt6 now became insep- 
arably annexed to the French crown, having been a 
second time subdued by the king, who commanded in 
person an army on that side. Conde, with another, 
attacked, near Senef, the united forces of the allies, sur- 
prised their rear, and, before it could receive reinforce- 
ments, cut it to pieces. He then bore down upon the 
main body of their troops, and, after a sharp engagement, 
forced them to abandon the field of battle. Not satisfied 
with this, and, like Caesar, accounting nothing to have 
been done as long as there remained something to do,* 
the victorious prince pushed forward, and, for the third 
time, attacked the confederates in a strong position, 
where all their forces were assembled under the command 
of the Prince of Orange. Here the conflict was most 
obstinate and bloody, the slaughter on both sides being 
carried on from ten in the morning till eleven at night, 
so as to cost the lives of fifteen, some say, twenty-seven 
•thousand combatants. The allies, though not positively 
defeated, retired first from this melancholy scene of car- 
nage, and perceiving that they were yet too closely fol- 
lowed by the French, withdrew to a greater distance from 
the frontier (a.d. 1674). 



* Nil actum credens, quum quid superesset agendum. 
Lucan, lib ii., i. 657. 



WAR OF HOLLAND, ETC. 485 

Turenne's brilliant campaign on the Rhine. — 

Whilst Conde drove his opponents before him in the 
Netherlands, Turenne, with twenty thousand men, had to 
oppose, near the Rhine, sixty thousand German troops, 
who aimed at nothing less than the conquest of Alsace 
and Lorraine, whence they might, after winter, strike ter- 
ror into the very heart of France. The French general, 
who had until then separately defeated the different di- 
visions of their army before a junction could be effected 
by them, now seemed to be frightened by the approach of 
their joint numbers, so superior to his own. He there- 
fore left the banks of the Rhine, and retiring as far as 
the confines of Lorraine, abandoned the whole province 
of Alsace to the enemy. This retreat, though admirably 
well conducted, and achieved without the loss of a single 
man, seemed contrary to the promise which Turenne 
had previously made to save the French territory from in- 
vasion, and was to every one a subject of astonishment, 
and the more so, as he had, at the same time, ordered 
back fifteen thousand men who were advancing through 
Lorraine to reinforce his army. 

In the meanwhile, the German troops freely overran 
all Alsace, choosing the best positions for their winter 
quarters, and acting with as much security as if they had 
been in their own native land. This was exactly the 
opportunity that Turenne wanted for the execution of a 
design which he had been maturing for two months. 
Having divided his troops into different bodies, he put 
them all in motion in the dead of winter, and without 
disclosing his intention to any person in the army com- 
manded them to march on by different and difficult 
roads across the mountains, and to meet at the same time 
and place, both of which were specified. After a month 
of separation and painful marches, they found themselves 
all collected in one spot, with Turenne at their head, not 
far from the first of the enemy's posts. 

The chief commanders, of the allies refused to believe 
the first information that was given them of the return of 
the French; but their incredulity was soon obliged to yield 
to the evidence of the fact. Their posts were briskly at- 
tacked and obliged to surrender, their scattered troops fell 
into the hands of the assailants, and those only who had 
been stationed at a great distance, avoided the snare laid 



486 MODERN HISTORY. 

for their destruction. Such as could escape, precipitately 
retreated toward Colmar, where their leaders had appointed 
the general rendezvous. Although their force had been 
greatly diminished, it still surpassed that of the enemy ; 
and having, besides, taken a very advantageous position, 
they could scarcely believe that the French would attack 
them in this their last .and strongest intrenchment. But 
Turenne was too skilful either to lose the opportunity of 
striking a decisive blow, or to forget anything that might 
ensure success. No sooner had he arrived in sight of the 
enemy, than he posted the greater part of his forces just 
opposite to their front; and he himself, making a wide cir- 
cuit with some squadrons and regiments, suddenly ap- 
peared on their flank. The attack then commenced, and 
was conducted, on the side of the French, with such 
vigor and skill, that the dispirited imperialists soon be- 
gan to waver; a general flight ensued, and the sad rem- 
nant of their forces availed themselves of the darkness of 
the night to retire to Strasburg, whence, by recrossing 
the Rhine, they speedily returned to their own territory. 

This wonderful campaign filled up the measure of 
Turenne's reputation and glory. In hearing its details 
not only France, but all Europe was filled with admira- 
tion; especially when from a letter written two months 
before by the marshal himself to the secretary of state, 
it became publicly known, that so many encampments 
and marches, even the movements of the allies and the 
ultimate result of the expedition had been foreseen and 
planned in his mind exactly as they happened.* 

Turenne's death at the battle of Salsbach. — The 
ensuing year (1675) again beheld Turenne at the head 
of the French army near the Ehine. He had now to 
fight against the earl of Montecuculli, an opponent in 
every way worthy of him on account of his consummate 
ability and experience. During four successive months, 
these two great men employed against each other all the 
resources of military tactics, without either of them 
being able, all that time, to surprise his enemy in any 
faulty or inconsiderate measure. Turenne, however, by 
his masterly manoeuvres began to obtain some slight 



* See Anquetil, Hist, de France, ad ann 1674 ; — and Raguenet, Histoire 
du Vicomte de Turenne, p. 249. 



WAR OP HOLLAND, ETC. 487 

advantage, and gradually gaining ground, drove the Ger- 
mans from point to point till they reached the village of 
Salsbach. Here he made his last preparations to give 
them battle, and was already expressing to those around 
him his full confidence of victory, when, at the com- 
mencement of the cannonade, a bullet struck him dead 
(twenty-seventh of July, 1675). The whole army be- 
wailed with bitter tears the loss of that incomparable 
leader, whose beneficence, generosity, and other Chris- 
tian as well as military virtues, had gained their most 
devoted affection. His death was equally lamented 
throughout all France; and Louis, the better to honor his 
memory, caused him to be buried with extraordinary pomp 
in the sepulchre of the French kings at St. Denis, a privi- 
lege which had been granted to no one not of royal blood 
before, except to Du Gruesclin, in the time of King 
Charles V. 

Immediately after the death of Turenne, in order to 
compensate his loss, if possible, and fill his place in the 
army, no fewer than eight new marshals were created; 
but Conde was then in truth the only general capable of 
following up with success the plan of the deceased hero. 
He not only stopped the progress of the imperialists who 
had once more invaded Alsace, but obliged them to retire 
again beyond the Rhine; after which he himself was com- 
pelled by the gout to withdraw from the army. Monte- 
cuculli also resigned the command of the imperial troops, 
not judging it worthy of his reputation to fight against 
newly appointed generals, after he had had the honor of 
opposing Turenne and Conde. Thus the year of our 
Lord 1675 closed the military career of three among the 
chief heroes of modern times; Just as the year 183 B.C. 
terminated that of Hannibal, Scipio, and Philopcemen, 
three of the most illustrious generals of antiquity. 

The peace of Nimwegen. — Conde and Turenne 
left behind them skilful disciples in the art of warfare; 
and Crequi, Luxembourg and others maintained the 
superiority which the French monarch had already ac- 
quired. The king himself, with his brother, the duke of 
Orleans, frequently appeared at the head of his armies, 
and gained so many advantages, that the allies at length 
agreed to a treaty of peace, which they all signed at 
Nimwegen, on the conditions he had proposed (a.d. 



488 MODERN HISTORY. 

1678-'79). It was then that the surname of Great was 
conferred upon Louis, for his manifold triumphs, military 
and political, over the multitude of his enemies. 

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes on Oct i8, 
1685. — Even the time of peace was improved by the 
victorious monarch to strengthen his power at home, and 
to extend it abroad. He revoked the privileges which 
had been granted to the Huguenots by the edict of Nantes 
in 1598, which had proved, many times since, an occasion 
of great disturbances.* Genoa, Tripoli, and Algiers hav- 
ing dared to brave his authority, were bombarded by his 
navy, and compelled to send deputies to apologize for 
their conduct. Nor did he act less vigorously on land 
against Strasburg, then a free town, which had repeatedly 
broken faith with him; twenty thousand men suddenly 
invested it, and in his name took immediate possession of 
that city, one of the most important in Europe for its 
position and strength. 

LEAGUE OF AUGSBURG.— A.D.16S6-1697. 

England joins the league under William of 

Orange.— This continual increase of power again alarmed 
the neighboring states, and a new league, to check it, was 
formed at Augsburg in 1686, by the emperor of Germany, 
the king of Spain, the republic of Holland, etc. Louis 
might have found an ally in the king of England, 
James II., who had lately succeeded his brother Charles 
11. ; but James, by granting universal liberty of conscience 
in his kingdom, and being perhaps too eager in favoring 
the hitherto oppressed Catholics whose religion he had 
embraced, alienated his other subjects. Seeing himself 
betrayed and almost universally abandoned, while his 
son-in-law, the famous Prince of Orange, advanced to 
dethrone him, he fled, and sought refuge in France; so 
that the whole strength of the league of Augsburg, now 
rendered still more formidable by the accession of Eng- 
land, was directed exclusively against the French mon- 
arch. 

The battle of the Boyne, July i, 1690. — The first 
campaigns lacked important events; but, in 1690, the 

* See note O. 



LEAGUE OF AUGSBUKG. 489 

struggle became most animated in the various countries 
which were the theatres of the war. The exiled king 
having, with a strong army passed over to Ireland, where 
the majority of the population was favorable to his cause, 
attacked, with more resolution than prudence, the for- 
midable force of his enemy near the river Boyne. The 
Irish and French began indeed to fight bravely, but with- 
out much discipline; and victory soon declared in favor 
of superior numbers aided by valor and discipline. James 
retreated, and giving up too soon all further hope of 
success, departed from Ireland, which in a short time 
was entirely surrendered to the conquerors. Many how- 
ever of its inhabitants, through a heroic attachment to a 
dethroned and fugitive prince, followed him into France, 
which they soon learned to consider as their own country, 
and whose battles they fought in subsequent years with 
such determined valor, that her great monarch bestowed 
on them the flattering name of his hrave Irish. 

Defeat of the French fleet at La-Hogue in May, 
1692. — Just at the time of the defeat of James in Ire- 
land, an important action took place at sea. Admiral 
Tourville attacked in the channel, near the Isle of Wight, 
the combined fleets of England and Holland, and, with 
very trifling loss on his side, burnt or captured fifteen of 
their vessels. He was not so fortunate two years after 
(1692). Having to oppose, off cape La-Hogue, nearly a 
hundred sail under the command of admiral Kussell, with 
only sixty-three, or, as some say, only forty-four ships of 
the line, he maintained indeed the unequal contest for 
twelve hours, but could not prevent fifteen or seventeen of 
his finest vessels from being destroyed by the English. 
This was a fatal blow to the French navy, of which 
France at this period was justly proud. England, on the 
contrary, recovered her sovereignty of the seas and every 
probable hope of James II. towards the recovery of his 
kingdom was extinguished forever. 

Success of the French arms on land. — The defeat 
of La-Hogue was the only severe check then suffered by 
the arms of Louis XIV. ; the expeditions of his land 
forces were much more prosperous, and, for the space of 
several years (1690-1695), there was one continued series 
of victories and conquests. While the king in person 
took the important places of Mons and Namur in the 



490 MODERN HISTORY. 

Netherlands, the dukes of Noailles and Vendome subdued 
a considerable part of the province of Catalonia in Spain; 
Marshal Catinat completely defeated the duke of Savoy 
at Stafarda and Marsiglia, and conquered nearly all his 
dominions: and Marshal Luxembourg, by superior talent, 
gained the splendid victories of Eleurus, Steinkirk, and 
Nerwinde, over the chief army of the confederates, taking 
from them so many colors, that these trophies, having 
been sent to Paris, to ornament the cathedral, gained for 
the victorious general the singular but honorable appella- 
tion of Tapissier de Notre-Dame. 

So many triumphs reflected immense glory on France; 
but her very victories, which she did not obtain without 
great exertions and expense, gradually exhausted her 
strength^ whereas the allies, from their superior numbers, 
were no less powerful and formidable after their defeats 
than they were before. This chiefly appeared at the 
death of Marshal Luxembourg, whom an attack of apo- 
plexy carried off in the beginning of the year 1695.* The 
confederates availed themselves of his absence from the 
French army, to besiege and retake the important city of 
Namur. Both parties being now tired of the war, noth- 
ing of great consequence was performed on either side 
during the ensuing year 1696; France, however, made in 
1697 a new and vigorous effort, which enabled her gen- 
erals to obtain some advantages in Catalonia and Flan- 
ders. Moreover, her naval squadrons, under the com- 
mand of Tourville, d'Estrees, Forbin, Du^uay-Trouin, and 
John Bart, all of them excellent sailors, everywhere 
annoyed the commerce of the enemy, and bore off im- 
mense prizes from the maritime towns and colonies of 
England, Holland, and Spain. 

The peace of Ryswick, Sept. 30 1697. — These 
multiplied losses, and the withdrawal of the duke of Sa- 
voy from the confederacy, at length induced the allied 
powers to accept the moderate conditions Louis XIV. had 

* At that awful moment, this general, one of the most skilful, active, 
and successful that France ever produced ; who never experienced a de- 
feat, and who filled the world with the renown of his military exploits, 
publicly acknowledged the illusion and emptiness of all earthly glory. 
" Alas! " he exclaimed, " what will my victories avail me at the tribunal 
of my sovereign Judge ? Would to God that I could oifer him, instead of 
so many useless laurels, the merit of a cup of water given to the poor in 
his name! " 



SUCCESSION OF SPAIN, ETC. 491 

for a long time been offering to them. On the twentieth 
of September (a.d 1697), a treaty of peace was signed at 
Ryswick, by which the victorious monarch consented to 
resign nearly all his recent conquests, especially those 
made upon the Spanish territories. Many persons found 
fault with such great moderation, the secret reasons for 
which they did not perceive; but time soon disclosed the 
wisdom of the king's action and the depth of his policy 

SUCC£SlSIOX OF SPAIX.— DEATH OF LOUIS XIV. 
— A.I>. 1700-1715. 

Charles II., king of Spain, being about to die without 
issue, appointed as his heir and successor the duke of 
Anjou, his grand nephew by his sister Maria Theresa, and 
grandson to Louis XIV. The Spanish monarchy was 
claimed (1), By Louis XIV. as son of the elder daughter 
of Philip III., and husband of the younger daughter of 
Philip IV^. (3), By Leopold I., as son of the younger 
daughter of Philip III., and husband of the younger 
daughter of Philip IV. (3), By the electoral prince of 
Bavaria. Joseph Ferdinand as great-grandson of Philip 
IV., and grandson of the younger sister of Charles II., as 
appears from the genealogical table.* It must be re- 
marked, however, that Anna, the wife of Louis XIII., as 
well as Maria Theresa, the wife of Louis XIV., solemnly 
renounced their claims to the Spanish monarchy, at the 
time the marriage took place. 

The French court, after mature deliberation, accepted 
the important though dangerous inheritance, and the 
duke was proclaimed, in the year 1700, king of Spain, 
Naples, and the West Indies, under the name of Philip V. 
This momentous act again excited the jealousy and 



Philip III., King of Spain. 



Philip IV. Maria Anna 

married to Emperor Ferdinand III. 



Louis XIV. married to Maria Theresa. Charles XL Margareta Theresa married t« 

> , ' Leopold I. 



Louis, Dauphin. 



Philip of Anjou. Maria Antoinette Joseph Chas, 

King of Spain. married to Max Emanuel of Bavaria. 

Joseph Ferdinand 
Electoral Prince of Bavaria. 



492 MODERN HISTORY. 

awakened the fears of Europe, and particularly of the 
German emperor, Leopold L, who claimed the same suc- 
cession for his second son, the archduke Charles. In the 
course of two or three years, Holland, England, Prussia, 
Savoy, and Portugal, either apprehending that the house 
of Bourbon might become too powerful, or from a desire 
for their own aggrandizement, were induced to embrace 
the party of the emperor. The allies of France and 
Spain were the electors of Cologne and Bavaria; neu- 
trality was observed only by the Ecclesiastical State, 
Venice, and Switzerland. As this was also the time when 
Charles XII., king of Sweden, engaged in an obstinate 
and bloody contest against Poland and Eussia it thus hap- 
pened that the earliest period of the eighteenth century 
beheld the flames of war rekindled throughout nearly all 
Europe, from the shores of the Atlantic to the vast plains 
of Eussia, and from Gibraltar to the Arctic Ocean. 

Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy. — The British 
king, William III., who had been the principal leader in 
the last two confederacies against France, was preparing to 
take a prominent part in this new league; but he died 
just in the beginning of the war (a.d. 1703), with the 
reputation of a skilful though rather unfortunate gen- 
eral, of whom it has been said that none perhaps could 
boast of having lost more battles. He was, however, a 
profound politician; and, upon the whole, he proved to be 
the most successful opponent of Louis XIV. The death 
of that prince caused, however, no alteration in the plan 
of the allies; his views were followed up by his sister-in- 
law, Anne, who succeeded him on the throne, and his ab- 
sence from the army was more than compensated for by 
the duke of Marlborough at the head of the English, and 
by Prince Eugene of Savoy at the head of the imperial 
troops. These were the two great generals destined to in- 
terrupt the long course of the prosperity of Louis. 

Battle of Hochstadt and Blenheim, Aug. 13, 
1704.— France, it is true, also possessed at that time skil- 
ful and brave commanders, among whom the duke of 
Vendome and Marshal Villars were conspicuous; both 
gained several advantages during the first campaigns; but 
as they could not be present in every place where their 
cooperation was needed, the year 1704 witnessed a total 
change of fortune. Eugene and Marlborough haviug 



SUCCESSION OF SPAIl^, ETC. 493 

united their forces, attacked, near the village of Blen- 
heim, the combined armies of the French and Bavarians, 
commanded by the Elector-Duke and by Marshals Tallard 
and Marsin. The battle was a decisive one; the Aus- 
trians and English lost indeed twelve thousand men, but 
the French and Bavarians lost about forty thousand, 
killed, wounded and prisoners. The artillery, ammuni- 
tion, baggage, in a word, every trophy that can dis- 
tinguish a complete triumph, fell, with Marshal Tallard, 
into the hands of the victors. Moreover, the whole 
electorate of Bavaria became their prize; and not only 
were the vanquished driven from the plains of Hochstadt 
near the Danube to the banks of the Ehine, but even the 
remnant of that army, which had first spread terror to 
the gates of the Austrian capital, was obliged to take 
shelter within the frontiers of France. The conquerors, 
finding no further obstacle, crossed the Ehine, entered 
Alsace, and the strong fortress of Landau surrendered to 
them iDefore the close of the campaign; while, in a very 
distant quarter, the English captured also the important 
fortress of Gibraltar, which has ever since remained in 
their power. 

Louis XIV. possessed in an eminent degree that Chris- 
tian fortitude which enables one tc bear misfortunes with 
composure and resignation. Although accustomed to 
victory, he received without dismay the sad intelligence 
of the ruin of his army at Blenheim, and took the most 
vigorous steps to check the progress of the allies. Un- 
derstanding that the duke of Marlborough meant to carry 
the war, by the river Moselle, into the heart of France, 
he assembled, on that side, an army of seventy thousand 
men under Villars, whose conduct was so masterly, that 
he prevented Marlborough from effecting any measure of 
consequence during the whole of the year 1705. In Italy 
likewise, the French under Venddme maintained their 
superiority against all the efforts both of Prince Eugene 
and the duke of Savoy. 

Battle of Ramillies, May 23, 1706. — Eugene's 
victory at Turin, Sep 7, 1706. — In the ensuing year 
(1706) there was one continued series of defeats and 
losses for France and Spain. In the peninsula, Philip V. 
saw his fairest provinces conquered by the allies, his very 
capital invaded, and his rival, the archduke Charles, pro- 

32 



494 MODERN HISTORY. 

claimed king in his place. In the Netherlands, Marl- 
borough completely defeated Marshal Villeroi in the bat- 
tle of Ramillies, which was followed by the reduction of 
all Brabant and nearly all Spanish Flanders. The sud- 
den overthrow of the French armies in Italy was the 
finishing stroke of that eventful year, the most singularly 
disastrous perhaps that France ever experienced. The 
duke of Vendome having been recalled to oppose Marl- 
borough on the northern frontier, the command of the 
troops in Piedmont was given to the duke of Orleans, as- 
sisted by the duke of La Feuillade and Marshal Marsin, 
all of them full of zeal and courage, but lacking the 
talent and experience of the former general. They were 
besieging Turin, when Prince Eugene, by a masterly and 
successful march, arrived from Germany at the head of 
fresh forces to relieve the town. The French were at- 
tacked, and in spite of their courageous resistance, were 
forced within their intrenchments. Their loss on the 
field was dreadful, their defeat complete; and the battle, 
as disastrous at least as those at Ramillies and Hochstadt, 
cost them all their conquests in Italy. 

Battle of Oudenarde, July ii, 1708. — Never had 
the arms of the conquering Louis received so severe a 
check as during this fatal campaign. He made proposals 
of peace suggested by his situation, and yet could not sat- 
isfy the enemies of France, who, elated with past success, 
expected greater advantages from the continuation than 
from the cessation of hostilities. His affairs, however, as 
well as those of Philip V., seemed to take a more favora- 
ble turn in 1707, when Marshal Villars defeated the im- 
perialists at Stolhofen, and Marshal Berwick gained, at 
Almanza in Spain, a splendid victory over the united troops 
of the English, Dutch, and Portuguese. But this return 
of good fortune did not last long ; Philip was again driven 
from the capital of his kingdom, and obliged to fly before 
his rival: in Flanders, a hundred thousand men, under 
the dukes of Burgimdy and Vendome, were routed at 
Oudenarde by Eugene and Marlborough ; and neither that 
numerous army, nor the heroic exertions of Marshal 
Bouflers, could prevent the victorious generals from tak- 
ing the city of Lille, the strongest bulwark of France in 
that direction. 



SUCCESSION OF SPAIN, ETC. 495 

Battle of Malplaquet, Sep. ii, 1709. — The dreadful 
winter of 1709 increased the misfortunes of the French 
nation. Nearly all the fruit trees were frozen, and the 
harvest having failed, distress and famine became so gen- 
eral as to render it scarcely possible to provide a scanty 
sustenance for the troops. It was under these trying cir- 
cumstances that they had to fight against the superior 
force of the allies at Malplaquet; and yet such was theii* 
ardor for the combat, that, although they had spent the 
day before without eating, they threw away half of the 
bread which they had just received, in order to rush the 
sooner against the enemy. The conflict was extremely 
fierce and bloody, the French especially fighting with 
desperate courage, till Marshal Villars being dangerously 
wounded, they began to give way; but although they left 
the field, their retreat after the battle was so well con- 
ducted by Bouflers, that not one man was taken prisoner. 
This victory of the allies, if victory it may be called, cost 
them the lives of twenty thousand men; the French, 
though they retreated, had not lost half that number. 

The campaign not having been very unfavorable to 
Louis, he thought he could again without dishonor ask 
for peace; among other conditions he was required not 
only to abandon the cause of his grandson, but even to 
concur in dethroning and expelling him from Spain. 
When informed of this harsh condition, the king ex- 
claimed that, since he must have war, he preferred to 
carry it on against his enemies rather than against his 
children. The whole nation, equally indignant at the 
haughtiness of the allies, approved of his generous resolu- 
tion and appeared ready to sacrifice their property and 
their lives for the honor of the kingdom, the glory of 
their aged monarch, and the support of a just and neces- 
sary contest. In conformity with these sentiments, new 
soldiers enlisted for the army, and money was still found 
j to bear the expenses of the war. 

Success of the Spanish arms at Villa Viciosa. — 
Philip V. who had also been reduced to the greatest dis- 
tress in his disputed kingdom of Spain, displayed the 
same determination and obtained the same success. Well 
aware that his grandfather could not furnish him with 
troops, he contented himself with asking for the services 
of the duke of Vendome, a general in whom he placed 



496 MODERN HISTORY. 

entire confidence. His hopes were quickly realized: the 
duke had no sooner arrived in Spain, than soldiers, 
through esteem for his well-known abilities, flocked to 
his standard from all sides; in a short time, he had col- 
lected an army of thirty thousand men, with whom he 
retook Madrid, and immediately went in search of the 
confederates, to give them battle. Having overtaken 
them on the ninth of December (a.d. 1710), he first sur- 
prised a body of five thousand English, who were all 
made prisoners with their general Stanhope, and, on the 
following day, he gained over the earl of Starenberg the 
decisive though long disputed victory of Villa Viciosa, 
which secured the Spanish crown for Philip. This prince 
was present at the battle, and fought with great courage; 
when worn out with fatigue, he slept upon the most glo- 
rious bed that a conqueror ever had, a bed made by order 
of Vendome, of banners taken from the enemy. 

Death of Emperor Joseph I. — Another unexpected 
event greatly interested politicians of the age. The 
emperor Joseph I., who in 1705 had succeeded his father 
Leopold on the German throne, died in 1711, and his 
brother the archduke, who had so long contended for the 
sceptre of Spain, became emperor under the name of 
Charles VI. This entirely changed the appearance of 
affairs; for, had this prince been allowed to reign over 
both Spain and the empire, that balance of power, for the 
preservation of which nearly all Europe had arisen 
against the house of Bourbon, would have been effectually 
destroyed by the preponderance of the house of Austria. 
Influenced by this and other considerations. Great 
Britain began to listen to overtures of peace from France, 
and, besides dismissing Marlborough from the command 
of the army, gradually withdrew her forces from the con- 
federacy. 

This was an important point; but as the remaining 
allies still maintained at the northern frontier a formid- 
able force under the command of Prince Eugene, and 
-kept France in constant danger of invasion, much was 
yet to be feared for that monarchy. The king himself, 
with all his firmness, could not conceal his anxiety when 
Villars took leave of him to go and rejoin the army in 
Flanders. "Sire," said the marshal with emotion, "this 
is your last army!" The king answered: "I rely upon 



SUCCESSION OF SPAIN, ETC. 497 

your zeal, and upon the bravery of my troops. Go then, 
and fight the enemy wherever you can find him. If, by 
some accident, you happen to be conquered, write to me 
alone: I know the devotion of my people; I will raise a 
hundred thousand soldiers more; and we will go together, 
either to repair all our disasters at once, or bury ourselves 
under the ruins of the monarchy." (a.d. 1712.) 

Unsuccessful campaign of Eugene against the 
French. — This courageous design was never put in 
execution, as it soon became known that Villars, by a 
skilful and bold attack, had destroyed the army of prince 
Eugene at Denain. The different divisions of that army 
being too widely separated, the French successively as- 
saulted them with equal promptness and success, bore 
down every obstacle, and, besides destroying the enemy's 
best troops, took a great number of prisoners, with a pro- 
digious quantity of ordnance, ammunition, provisions, 
etc. This brilliant victory not only saved France from 
utter ruin, but suddenly gave her a superiority of which 
it was no longer in the power of her enemies to deprive 
her, and, being followed by the rapid conquest of several 
towns and fortresses, hastened the conclusion of peace. 

The peace of Utrecht, 1713, followed by the 
peace of Radstad. — It was signed at Utrecht, in 1713, 
by nearly all the belligerent powers, who agreed upon a 
number of mutual concessions, the principal of which 
was the solemn recognition of Philip V. as king of Spain 
and of the West Indies. The emperor, his rival, was 
offered, in compensation for the loss of Spain, several 
valuable provinces in Italy and the Netherlands; still, of 
all the allies, he was the only one who refused the treaty. 
Hostilities therefore continued for some time longer near 
the banks of the Khine, till Villars having gained new 
and important advantages over Prince Eugene, Charles 
VI. thought it prudent to yield. A treaty was then con- 
cluded at Eadstad (a.d. 1714) between that prince and 
France, upon terms substantially the same, yet a little 
less favorable to him than those which he had rejected at 
Utrecht. 

Death of Louis XIV.— Thus did Louis XIV., after a 
long series of disasters, secure by his courage and unshaken 
firmness a peace more glorious than that which he had 
obtained at Eyswick by the splendid victories of Lux- 



498 MODERN ;HIST0RY. 

embourg and Catinat. One year later (1715), this 
monarch, by far the most conspicuous of the age, ended, 
at the age of seventy-seven, a magnificent reign of 
seventy-two years. He had recently seen almost all the 
princes of his family, among others the pupil of the im- 
mortal Fenelon, descend before him into the grave ; their 
loss, though most painful to his paternal feelings, he had 
sustained with his usual firmness and Christian magna- 
nimity : the approach of his own death had no greater 
power to frighten or even disturb his noble soul. He 
now displayed only piety, meekness, and resignation. 
His last moments were those of a truly Christian and 
great monarch ; of one who humbly acknowledges his 
faults in the hope of obtaining the divine mercy ; who 
willingly leaves all earthly honors because he knows their 
emptiness, and departs this life even with joy, because he 
expects a much better and happier one in the heavenly 
kingdom. 

decluve of the turks.— a.d. less-iris. 

Seige of Vienna in 1683. — We shall now, after a 
long interruption, revert to the affairs of the Turks. The 
battle of Lepanto had long since proved that their prog- 
ress could be checked ; and the signal defeats they after- 
wards experienced in Hungary and Poland, were no less 
calculated to remove from their minds the notion that 
all Europe must pass under their sway. Yet, that war- 
like ardor which had so long animated their troops, still 
existed among them, and, being again aroused by the con- 
quest of Candia, could not be extinguished by the further 
losses which they suffered in Poland from the great gen- 
eral Sobieski. The Janizaries loudly called for a renewal 
of the contest ; and in 1683, Vienna, the capital of Aus- 
tria, was invested by two hundred thousand men, Turks 
and Tartars. As there was not in all Germany a force 
sufficient to oppose such a host of enemies, the emperor 
Leopold with his family fled at their approach ; de- 
spondency and consternation reigned everywhere ; and, 
though Vienna possessed a brave garrison, and an excel- 
lent commander in the earl of Starenberg, the ruin of that 
city seemed inevitable. 



DECLINE OP THE TUEKS. 499 

Sobieski, King of Poland, relieves Vienna. — In 

this new danger to which Christendom was exposed, Pope 
Innocent XI. had raised his voice to solicit the succor of 
Catliolic princes and nations, applying chiefly to the 
great Sobieski, whom numerous exploits and conspicuous 
virtues had lately raised to the throne of Poland. That 
hero had several subjects of complaint against Leopold ; 
but, generously sacrificing his resentment to the public 
good, he hastened at the head of twenty-four thousand 
warriors, and joined the imperial troops commanded by 
the duke of Lorraine. As soon as this junction was 
effected, they descended the moiintains, and attacked the 
Turkish camp at three different points. The Turks, 
seized with a sudden panic, were routed almost without 
resistance ; their spirits had already drooped in conse- 
quence of the length of the siege, and the numerous 
blunders of their general Kara Mustapha ; and now their 
flight was so precipitate that they left behind them one 
hundred thousand tents, three hundred pieces of artillery, 
and nearly five thousand barrels of gunpowder. 

Battle of Mohacs. — The conquerors, not satisfied 
with the liberation of Vienna and of all Germany, were 
eager to improve their victory, by a hot pursuit of the 
fugitives. During this expedition. King Sobieski having 
on one occasion attacked the Turks too hastily, was re- 
pulsed with great loss ; but he took ample revenge two 
days after, by cutting to pieces a body of twenty-five thou- 
sand men near the banks of the Danube. He then re- 
turned to Poland, leaving the conduct of the war to the 
brave duke of Lorraine, who not only continued to drive 
the Turks before him, but also gained important and ex- 
tensive victories. These advantages were secured by a 
new and brilliant victory gained (a.d. 1687) in the plains 
of Mohacs, the very same spot on which the Austrians 
and Hungarians had experienced an entire overthrow 
one hundred and sixty years before. 

Peace of Carlowitz and Passarowitz. — During the 
following campaigns, until 1698, and also at the renewal 
of the war in 1716, the house of Austria, well served all 
that time by zealous and skilful generals, again defeated 
the Ottomans in several battles. Their most formidable 
enemy, during this period, was Prince Eugene of Savoy, 
who gained over them the decisive victories of Zenta, 



500 MODEEN" HISTOEY. 

Peterwaradin and Belgrade. These bloody contests ended 
in the treaties of Oarlowitz (1699) and Passarowitz (1718), 
both of which showed the enormous losses lately sus- 
tained by the Turks, and the incontestable superiority 
now possessed by Christian Europe over their once 
dreaded and formidable empire. 

RISE OF PRUSSIA AWI> RUSSIA.— PETER THE 
ORE AT.— CHARLES XII., KIAiO OF SWEDEN. 
— A.D. 16S9-1725. 

Prussia becomes a kingdom on Jan'y i8, 1701.— 

The rapid decline of the Turks in the scale of power and 
political importance, coincided with the sudden rise of 
Prussia and Eussia to high rank among the European 
nations. Christianity and civilization had begun to be 
introduced into Prussia towards the close of the Crusades; 
since that time, it had been governed by the Grand Mas- 
ters of the Teutonic Order, and then by the princes of 
the house of Brandenburg, under the title of dukes. In 
1701, it arose to the dignity of a kingdom, the title of 
hing being then conferred by the emperor of Germany, 
Leopold I., on the elector of Brandenburg, Frederick I. 
Prussia became flourishing and powerful during the reign 
of the next monarch, Frederic William, and still more 
so under his son and successor, Frederick II., whom we 
shall see, after a short time, giving a strong and lasting 
impulse to the general affairs of Europe. 

Peter the Great, 1689-1725. — Eussia is also known 
to have been governed by a long series of dukes and 
of princes called Czars, under whom it remained almost to- 
tally uncivilized, until the accession of Peter I., which 
took place in 1689. This prince, possessed of an active 
mind and superior genius, labored unceasingly to improve 
the condition of his nation, and to raise it prominently 
above the neighboring states. He twice left his domin- 
ions, and travelled through different countries, in order 
to acquire, by experience, a knowledge of the various 
arts, institutions, and customs, which it might be useful 
to introduce among his subjects. Being attacked by 
conspirators and rebels, he overcame them all, and pun- 
ished them with inexorable severity. 



EISE OF PRUSSIA AND RUSSIA, ETC. 501 

Charles XII. of Sweden, 1697-1718, and the 
Northern war. — In the year 1699, Peter formed with 
the kings of Poland and Denmark a coalition against 
Charles XII., king of Sweden, in the hope of wresting 
some provinces from that young prince, then only in his 
eighteenth year; but it soon appeared that the allied mon- 
archs had relied too much for success upon his youth. 
Charles already united the talents of a general with the 
intrepidity of a warrior. Fired with indignation, and 
seconded by his brave Swedes, he successively overran 
Denmark, Saxony, and Poland, crossing rivers, capturing 
towns, defeating armies, and carrying everything before 
him. So frequent and decisive were his victories, that 
the king of Denmark was very soon forced to accept such 
conditions as it pleased Charles to impose on him; and 
the king of Poland, who had offered greater resistance, 
was compelled to resign his crown to Stanislaus Lesczin- 
ski whom the conqueror favored. 

Battle of Pultawa— Charles XII. 's Death.— The 
exertions of the Swedish hero against the Eussians were 
also for a long time extraordinarily successful. He de- 
feated them in several engagements, particularly in the 
famous battle of Narva, where, with only eight thousand 
men, he destroyed an army of eighty thousand Mus- 
covites, fifty thousand of whom were slain, drowned, or 
taken prisoners, and the rest dispersed. Having at last 
advanced too far into Russia, he lost in two hours, near 
Pultawa, the fruit of nine years' success (a.d. 1709). 
His half- famished and exhausted army being overpowered 
by numbers, was signally defeated, and Charles himself, 
wounded, and forced to leave the field, with difficulty es- 
caped to Bender, a Turkish town in Bessarabia. There 
he spent a long time in endeavoring to engage the Otto- 
man Porte in a war with the Eussians. Seeing the little 
success which attended his efforts, he resolved, after an 
absence of five years and many adventures worthy of a 
romantic hero, to return through Germany to Sweden, 
which he found in a miserable condition, without troops, 
without money, without resources, and attacked on all 
sides by her numerous enemies. Charles made desperate 
exertions to defend his kingdom and retrieve his losses, 
but he did not live to recover his former ascendancy, be- 
ing killed by a musket ball at the siege of Fredericshall> 



603 MODERN HISTORY, 

a towu of Norway, in 1718. His death was the signal foi 
a general cessation of hostilities; and Sweden hastened to 
conclude a peace, disadvantageous indeed, but required 
by the situation of her affairs. 

Foundation of Russia's power. — These events al- 
lowed the Czar to execute his plans of improvement. In 
the course of a few years, Eussia beheld with admiration 
the establishment in her cities, of schools, academies, 
manufactories, arsenals, and the rapid rise of St. Peters- 
burg, her present capital. A powerful navy was created ; 
harbors were opened on the Black and Baltic seas, to 
shelter numerous ships of the line, as well as frigates and 
merchant vessels ; the standing army was trained and dis- 
ciplined; laws were enacted and measures adopted to im- 
prove the morals and polish the manners of the people. 
A prudent management of the public revenue enabled 
Peter to accomplish his grand and extensive designs with- 
out oppressing his subjects. By these noble efforts, occa- 
sionally disgraced, however, by acts of cruelty, this prince 
not only laid the foundation, but also raised the super- 
structure of Russian greatness, and gained the surname 
of Great. He died in 1725. 



WESTERN EUROPE FROIU THE DEATH OF 
L.OUIS XIV. IX 1715 TO THE TREATY OF 

VIEWIVA IN 1735. 

The other leading sovereigns in Europe at this time 
were: Charles VI. in Germany, Philip V. in Spain, 
Louis XV. in France, under the regency of the duke of 
Orleans, and in England, George I., a prince of the house 
of Brunswick, who, upon the death of Queen Anne, had 
been called to the throne in preference to the surviving 
members of the house of Stuart. Peace continued among 
these different courts for the space of twenty-five years 
(1715-1740), except during two very short wars, one in 
1718, the other in 1733. 

Cardinal Alberoni's political schemes. — Spain un- 
der Philip V. was governed in the beginning by Cardinal 
Julius Alberoni, whose bold and ambitious spirit, not 
satisfied with regulating the internal concerns of that 
kingdom, undertook also to change the whole political 
system of Europe. His general plan was to raise Spain 



WESTERN EUROPE, ETC. 603 

■tgain to the pinnacle of active influence and power, in 
particular he intended lo.to engage the Russians in a war 
against Austria, and through this powerful help, wrest 
from the emperors hands that part of Italy which the 
treaty of Utrecht and later the peace of Radstad and 
Baden had allotted to him out of the Spanish possessions. 
2°. His object was to dethrone the British king George I. 
in favor of the son of James II., called the pretender; 
and 3°. to transfer the regency of France, during the 
minority of Louis XV., from the duke of Orleans to the 
Spanish monarch. Had these projects been successful, 
Alberoni would have gained a reputation, if not superior, 
at least equal to that of Ximenes and Richelieu; but all 
his brilliant schemes were baffled by the vigilance and 
activity of his opponents. The quadruple alliance formed 
by Germany, England, France and Holland against Spain, 
compelled Philip V. to adopt views very different from 
those of his minister; the Spanish troops, who had already 
entered Sicily and Sardinia, were obliged to evacuate 
those islands, and Alberoni fell into disgrace (a.d. 1720). 

War of the Polish succession. — Next came the 
war for the Polish succession, in 1733. After the death 
of Augustus II. Stanislaus Lesczinski, who had already, 
though for a short time, occupied the Polish throne 
under the protection of Charles XII. was a second time 
chosen king. But the emperor Charles VI. having, with 
the help of the Russians, obliged the Poles to hold a 
new election, the elector of Saxony his kinsman, was 
raised to that high dignity under the name of Augustus 
III., and Stanislaus again was forced to abandon his 
crown. 

Louis XV. thought himself injured in the person of 
this prince, who had become his father-in-law, and he 
determined to be revenged on the emperor. The more 
surely to effect his purpose, he entered into an alliance, 
not only with the court of Spain, almost always hostile 
to the house of Austria, but also with the king of Sar- 
dinia, formerly duke of Savoy, and war was begun at 
the same time on the German frontier near the Rhine, 
and in different parts of Italy. Philipsburg was invested 
by a gallant army under Marshal Berwick, and although 
this experienced commander was killed by a cannon ball 
while visiting the trenches, the place was taken, not- 



504 MODERN HISTORY. 

withstanding the presence of Prince Eugene, who lack- 
ing the energy of youth, did not dare hazard a battle, 
to prevent its surrender. The French were not less suc- 
cessful in Italy, where Marshal Villars closed his military 
career by the capture of Milan, and Marshal Coigny, 
his successor, gained the bloody victories of Parma and 
Gruastalla. In the south, still more rapid was the prog- 
ress of the Spaniards under the duke of Montemar and 
Don Carlos, son of Philip V. ; they defeated the impe- 
rialists in the decisive battle of Bionto^ and, in two 
campaigns, made themselves masters of the kingdom of 
Naples and of the island of Sicily. 

Peace of Vienna, Nov. i8, 1738.— Thus defeated 
at every point, the emperor intimated a desire of peace, 
the principal terms of which were arranged at Vienna, 
1738. By this treaty it was stipulated that Stanislaus, 
instead of the crown of Poland, should enjoy the duchies 
of Lorraine and Bar, under the title of king, and that, 
after his death, these duchies should be forever annexed 
to France; that the duke of Lorraine, the emperor's ally, 
should have Tuscany in exchange for his hereditary do- 
minions; and that, while the king of Sardinia would 
gain some districts in the north of Italy, the kingdoms 
of Naples and Sicily should be left to the house of Bour- 
bon represented by Don Carlos. In consideration of these 
cessions, Louis XV. agreed to restore to the empire his 
recent conquests near the Ehine, and to guarantee the 
so-called "^Pragmatic Sanction," by which the lands be- 
longing to Austria were declared indivisible and should, 
in case male heirs should fail, devolve upon the daughter 
of Charles VI., Maria Theresa, and her heirs. 



EASTERN EUROPE —THAIWAS KOULI KHAN, 
OR NADIR SCHAH, THE PERSIAN CON^ 
qiJEROR, ETC.,— A.D. 1736-1747. 

Unsuccessful war against the Turks ended by 
the peace of Belgrade. — Scarcely was this peace 
negotiated, when a fresh war broke out between the 
Eussians and the Turks, in which Charles VI. through 
his intimate alliance with Russia, found himself involved. 
He resolved to attack the Ottomans in the direction of 
Hungary, while his allies assailed them on the borders 



EASTERN EUROPE, ETC. 50o 

of the Black sea; but the imperial commanders were re- 
peatedly defeated, several important places were lost, 
and, as little hope remained of retrieving these disasters, 
the emperor had recourse to the mediation of France for 
the conclusion of a new treaty. Anne also, the Russian 
empress, though recently victorious at Ohotzim, con- 
sented, from fear of being deserted by her ally, to a 
negotiation. The Turks, under circumstances so favor- 
able to them, obtained an advantageous peace; the em- 
peror ceded to them Belgrade with two provinces, and 
the Czarina agreed to withdraw her troops from the city 
and territory of Azof, so as to reestablish the limits be- 
tween the Turkish and Russian empires as they were be- 
fore the commencement of hostilities (a.d. 1739). 

Decline of the Ottoman power in the East. — 
That treaty, however glorious to the Ottomans, did not 
long retard their decline; the Russians soon regained the 
ascendency, and even about this time, the Turks were 
rather unsuccessful in a war which they had against Per- 
sia. Having subdued, between the years 1723 and 1733, 
rich and extensive provinces, their career of success was 
at length stopped by the famous Nadir Shah, or Thamas 
Kouli Khan, who, after fighting the battles of his sover- 
eign Schah Thamas against powerful rebels, usurped the 
Persian throne. He renewed the foreign war which had 
ceased for awhile, and, though defeated three times in 
succession by Topal Osman, a brave and skilful general, 
victory declared in his favor on every other occasion, and 
the Turks were compelled to give up what they had 
lately conquered. 

After this. Nadir Schah, who seemed to have inherited 
the enterprising spirit of Genghis Khan and Tamerlane, 
turned his arms against the rich empire of Hindostan. 
With only sixty thousand warriors, he destroyed or dis- 
persed an army of twelve hundred thousand Hindoos and 
Moguls, took Delhi, their capital city, and returned 
with so prodigious a quantity of pearls, gold and silver, 
that the amount is commonly estimated to have been 
upwards of a billion of dollars. He did not long enjoy 
these fruits of his insatiable avidity: not less dreaded by 
his subjects for his cruelty than by his enemies for his 
valor, he fell a victim to a conspiracy, and was assassi- 
nated in his tent (a.d. 1747). His death was followed by 



506 MODERN HISTORY. 

a series of revolutions so bloody and destructive, that the 
populous city of Ispahan saw, within a few years, the 
number of its inhabitants reduced from a million to a 
few thousand persons, and a long time elapsed before 
Persia could even begin to recover from her astounding 
calamities. 



W^AR FOR THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION.— THE 
PRETENDER IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 
— A.D. 1740-1748. 

The death of the emperor Charles VI. without male 
issue, in 1740, involved all Europe again in war. In 
virtue of a previous agreement called the Pragmatic 
sanction, and also by the emperor's last will, his heredi- 
tary dominions of Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary, be- 
longed to his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, who had 
lately married Francis, duke of Lorraine. Her claims 
were supported chiefly by England and Holland, but 
opposed by Spain, Prussia, and Saxony, whose sovereigns 
brought forward different claims to a share in that im- 
mense inheritance, and especially by the elector of Ba- 
varia, who caused himself to be proclaimed emperor at 
Frankfort, under the protection of the French armies, 
and with the name of Charles VII. 

Maria Theresa appears before the diet in Pres- 
burg. — Everything at first prospered according to his 
wishes, and the wishes of his allies; Austria, Bohemia 
and Silesia, were invaded by their troops, who forced 
Maria Theresa to take refuge in Hungary. She appeared 
amidst the Hungarian nobles in the city of Presburg, 
holding her young son, afterwards Joseph II., in her 
arms, and earnestly recommending him to their fidelity. 
This affecting scene moved the assembly to tears; all 
swore to die, if necessary, for their sovereign, Maria 
Theresa,* and she was instantly supplied with a fresh 
army zealously devoted to her interests. By a sudden 
change of fortune, her competitor, Charles VTI., was not 
only deprived of his conquests, but even stripped for a 



* Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria Theresa; such was their sudden and 
unanimous exclamation. 



AUSTKIAN SUCCESSION. 507 

time of his own hereditary dominions; he died shortly 
after at Munich^ more of grief than of disease. 

It might have been expected that his death, and the 
general acknowledgment, on the part of the German 
princes, of Francis of Lorraine as emperor, would put an 
end to these bloody quarrels; and in fact, some of the 
belligerent powers hastened to conclude separate treaties 
of alliance; but the extravagant claims of some others, 
particularly of Great Britain and of the queen of Hun- 
gary, protracted the war for three or four years longer. 
It was prosecuted with vigor chiefly by the English and 
French, who thus, from mere auxiliaries, became the 
principal actors. 

Battle of Dettingen. — Even before the death of 
Charles VII., the king of England, George I., had taken 
the command of the British and allied forces in Ger- 
many. He was marching forward to join an additional 
body of auxiliary troops, when, near the village of Det- 
tingen, he was almost surrounded by the enemy, and 
placed in a very critical situation. In fact by the mas- 
terly manoeuvres of the French general, Marshal de Noa- 
illes, all supplies were cut off; the neighboring hills were 
strongly defended; and, had not the duke of Grammont^s 
rash descent from the defiles into the plain with a por- 
tion of the army, given the allies an opportunity of fight- 
ing on equal terms, a surrender, or total destruction 
would, in all probability, have been the consequence. 
The French charged, as usual, with impetuosity; but the 
English, animated by the presence of their king and of 
his son, the duke of Cumberland, received the shock 
with undaunted valor. After three hours fighting, the 
assailants were repulsed, having lost five thousand men, 
killed, wounded and prisoners (a.d. 1743). 

Battle of Fontenoy, May ll, 1745. — Two years 
after, Louis XV. and his son, the dauphin, in their turn 
defeated the army of the allies. The French king, hav- 
ing a large number of excellent troops commanded, under 
him, by Marshal Saxe, invested Tournay, one of the 
strongest towns in the Austrian Netherlands, and per- 
haps the most important place on that frontier. The 
combined forces of the British, Dutch, and Hanoverians, 
amounting to about fifty thousand men under the com- 
mand of the duke of Cumberland, advanced to its relief, 



508 MODEKN HISTOKY.- 

and attacked the French^ who had posted themselves on 
a rising ground in front of the village of Fonteuoy. The 
battle began at nine in the morning, and lasted till three 
in the afternoon, being maintained all that time with 
equal courage by the two parties. Although the fire from 
the French batteries was so heavy that it swept off whole 
ranks at a single discharge, the British infantry, in close 
column, continued to advance as if they had been invul- 
nerable, and the French began to give way. Marshal 
Saxe', fearing a total defeat, advised the king to pro- 
vide for his safety by a timely retreat; but Louis refused 
to quit his post, and his firmness contributed to gain the 
day. At the suggestion of Marshal Kichelieu, a battery 
was placed just opposite to the front of the English 
column, at the distance of a few paces only; while it 
fired upon them with dreadful execution, the French 
returned to the charge, and, after seven or eight minutes 
of heroic efforts on both sides, finally compelled the 
enemy to retreat with the loss of twelve or fifteen thou- 
sand men. The surrender of Tournay, and of many other 
fortified towns in the Austrian Flanders, was the fruit of 
this great victory. 

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Oct., 1748. — In the fol- 
lowing years good and evil fortune alternated. The French 
armies experienced signal defeats at Piacenza and Exilles 
in Italy, but were victorious in the great battles of 
Eaucoux and Laufeld, which rendered them masters of 
the Netherlands. At last, by the skilful movements 
of Marshal Saxe and Count Lowendhal, they began 
to penetrate into Holland, carried by storm cities and fort- 
resses that were deemed impregnable, and by this rapid suc- 
cess obliged the allied powers to receive the favorable con- 
ditions of peace which Louis XV. had been offering to them 
since the year 1744. He readily acknowledged Maria The- 
resa for the lawful heiress of Charles VL, willingly |, 
restored his conquests, and contented himself with f ' 
securing reasonable terms for his allies, saying that 
he wished to treat for peace, not as a merchant, but as a 
king. This treaty was signed at Aix-la-Chappelle, in 
October, 1748. 

Jacobite rebellion in England — Battles at Fal- 
kirk and Cullodon. — Some time before its conclusion, 
and while the British forces were still employed on the 



AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION. 509 

continent, Charles Edward, the grandson of James II., 
the dethroned king of England, attempted to revive the 
claims of his family by an invasion of that country. He 
first landed on the shores of Scotland with a single 
frigate, some ammunition and a few officers. The public 
assertion of his rights, his promise of just government, 
and his brilliant qualities, soon gathered around him a 
little army, with which he immediately took the field. 
His first exploits were the capture of Edinburgh and the 
total overthrow of four thousand Englishmen at Preston- 
Pans; he was then in England, took the city of Carlisle, 
and advanced as far as Derby, within eighty or ninety 
miles of London, when the approach of the duke of Cum- 
berland at the head of superior forces obliged him to 
retreat with some loss, though in good order. The vic- 
tory of Falkirk, which he gained in January, 1746, re- 
vived his hopes; but his subsequent defeat at Culloden 
blasted them forever. Being now destitute of money and 
troops, without any sure asylum, constantly pursued by 
Ms enemies, always in danger of falling into their hands, 
and of ending his career upon a. scaffold, wanting food 
and garments, wandering from place to place and from 
cavern to cavern, he exhausted, as it were, all the hard- 
ships of misfortune, and endured them with such heroic 
fortitude, as to gain the admiration of the whole world. 

The Pretender's end. — In all his calamities, and 
although the sum of thirty thousand pounds was offered 
as a reward of his capture, he had the happiness never to 
be betrayed by any one, not even by the poor who hap- 
pened to recognize him under his various disguises. As 
he was once quite exhausted, and almost dying of starva- 
tion, he determined to ask some assistance of one of his 
enemies whose house he perceived at a distance, while 
wandering through the country. He went, knocked at 
the door, and, as soon as the owner appeared: " Behold," 
said the young prince, "the son of your lawful sovereign, 
who craves a little bread and some clothes. I know you 
are my enemy; but on your probity I rely enough to be- 
lieve that you will not betray my confidence in you, nor 
take advantage of my extreme distress." The gentleman, 
deeply moved at the sight of such misfortune united with 
such courage, gave his guest all the assistance needed, 
and respected his secret. 



510 MODERN HISTORY. 

At last, after five months of incredible sufferings, 
Edward embarked on board a French frigate, and, escap- 
ing the sight of the British vessels which were cruising 
along the coast, safely reached the shores of France, 
whence he had sailed on his adventurous expedition. 
He afterwards repaired to Eome, where he died at the 
age of sixty-eight years (a.d. 1788). 

OL.D FRE^'CH IVAR, OTHERWISE CALLED 
WXVL OF HANOVER, OR SEVEBT YEARS' 
WAR.— A.D. 1756-1763. 

The boundaries of the French and British possessions 
in North America not having been definitely settled by 
the treaties of Utrecht and Aix-la-Chapelle, there soon 
arose complaints of mutual encroachments. Negotia- 
tions were again indeed opened between the courts of 
London and Versailles, but to no effect; hostilities fol- 
lowed, and after being carried on for a time without any 
declaration of war, at last came an open rupture in 1756. 

The Seven Years' war between England and 
France, 1756-1763. — This new war, which, in a short 
time extended to all parts of the world, entirely changed, 
from the beginning, the political aspect of Europe. 
France and Austria, so long opposed to each other, now 
united their interests, and were joined by Eussia, Sweden 
and Saxony. Holland and Spain preserved at first a sort 
of neutrality; but the English succeeded in securing a 
powerful ally on the continent, Frederic II., king of 
Prussia, who had already acquired great renown for his 
ability, and gained many laurels in the preceding conflict 
of the Austrian succession. 

Frederic II. in the Silesian war — The battle of 
Rosbach, Nov. 5, 1757. — The first results of the war 
were favorable to France almost everywhere. The Eng- 
lish and their allies were defeated in North America, on 
the Mediterranean sea, in the island of Minorca, where 
the supposed impregnable fortress of St. Philip, or Port 
Mahon, was taken almost at the first onset; and particu- 
larly in the north of Germany, where forty thousand men 
commanded by the duke of Cumberland, were compelled 
to surrender. Nor was Frederic II. in a better condition. 
After some success, he had been routed by the Aus- 



OLD FRENCH WAR, ETC. 511 

trians; his kingdom was ravaged by the Russians and the 
Swedes, and a French army was marching from another 
quarter to complete his ruin. In this extremity, his 
courage and presence of mind did not fail him: he 
retreated before the French, as if frightened at their 
approach, and occupied at Rosbach a strong position. 
Here, when the enemy advanced against him, expecting a 
sure and easy triumph, the tents which concealed his 
army suddenly disappeared, and the Prussians were seen 
in battle array, between two hills covered with artillery. 
At this unexpected sight, a panic seized the assailants, 
and they had scarcely fought a quarter of an hour, when 
they fled in every direction. This brilliant exploit, 
which was entirely owing to the genius of Frederic, 
revived his declining fortunes ; it enabled him to expel 
the imperialists from Silesia, and the French also had to 
give up their last conquests. 

France successful on the Continent suffers 
defeat in the Colonies — Surrender of Quebec. — 
The three following campaigns were made up of a series 
of battles and a variety of events, which it would be 
equally tedious and useless to enumerate. The French 
now maintained their ground well enough in Germany; 
but on every part of the ocean, as well as in the East and 
West Indies, they suffered incredible and irreparable 
losses. Hitherto, the Marquis of Montcalm had ably 
and successfully defended their Canadian possessions; 
but, as no fresh supplies could be forwarded to him 
across the Atlantic, where the English everywhere pre- 
vailed, the number of his troops daily diminished, and it 
was not in his power to hinder a superior force under 
General Wolfe from reaching the vicinity of Quebec. In 
order, if possible, to save that capital, he ventured to 
give them battle. The disposition of the two armies was 
masterly, and the action commenced with great resolu- 
tion on both sides. During the conflict, Wolfe and 
Montcalm, who had given equal proofs of personal cour- 
age, were both mortally wounded; the former died in the 
enthusiasm of victory, which he saw favoring the Eng- 
lish, and the latter with the sad consolation of not having 
to witness the approaching surrender of Quebec. It 
took place six days later, and was followed in one year by 
the reduction of all Canada (a.d. 1759-1760). 



512 MODERN HISTORY. 

The same fate befell the French settlements in the 
East Indies; sooner or later, all fell into the hands of the 
English. Nor could France prevent the astonishing 
series of disasters; her navy, which had severely suffered 
during the preceding war, was now in a wretched condi- 
tion, and though privateers greatly annoyed British 
commerce, her weak squadrons were totally inadequate to 
cope with the imposing forces of England. The only 
ground of hope was that assistance might be obtained 
from the other branches of the Bourbon family, actually 
reigning in Spain, Naples, and Sicily. Louis requested 
it through his ministers, and the Spanish king, Charles 
III., generously consented to help him with vessels and 
troops. A treaty to this effect was framed under the 
name of family compact; but it was of no advantage to 
Louis XV. and proved most prejudicial to his ally. No 
sooner were the English apprised of the treaty, than 
they directed their efforts against the Spanish settlements 
in Asia and America, destroyed their commerce, and 
made many important captures. 

Peace concluded at Paris, Feb'y lo, and at 
Hubersburg, Feb'y 15, 1763. — All the resources of 
France were now exhausted : one year had been sufficient 
to baffle Spain ; but England herself was much weakened 
by the amazing efforts she had made to obtain the supe- 
riority over all her enemies. This exhaustion of the chief 
belligerent powers made all parties desirous of peace 
(a.d. 1763). While it was concluded at Hubersburg be- 
tween the Prussian monarch and his numerous adversa- 
ries, the British, French, and Spanish courts signed the 
treaty of Paris, by which it was agreed that England, 
upon restoring a few of her conquests, should retain the 
whole of Canada, and many other valuable possessions. 
Thus did that mighty nation secure her maritime and 
commercial ascendency ; though the time was not far dis- 
tant when she was to be deprived, by an unexpected rev- 
olution, of her own colonies in North America. 

ORIGIN AWO PROORESS OF THE AMERICAN 
REVOLUTION.— A.I>. 1764-1776. 

Passage of the Stamp Act in March, 1765. — The 

great increase of power and territory just acquired by 
Great Britain, had not been gained without enormous ex- 



AMERICAN" REVOLUTION. 513 

penses, increased taxation, and a rapidly accumulating 
debt. No sooner were hostilities at an end, than the 
English ministry made it their chief object to find out 
new sources of revenue and devise means for replenishing 
the treasury. North America opened to their view, so 
they at least flattered themselves, a new and abundant 
field for levying taxes ; and, on motion of Lord Grenville, 
first commissioner of the treasury, the famous act for im- 
posing stamp duties on the colonies was passed, in 1765, 
by both houses of the British parliament. 

Repeal of the Stamp Act, March, 1766.— This act 
excited serious alarm among the Americans. Without 
altogether contesting the power vested in parliament, to 
regulate trade, they sternly denied its right to impose di- 
rect revenue taxes on them without their own consent. 
Petitions and remonstrances drawn up in energetic lan- 
guage, were instantly despatched to the government ; nor 
were there wanting in England itself men of remarkable 
talent and eloquence, as the celebrated William Pitt, earl 
of Chatham, who strenuously advocated the rights of the 
Colonies. All these protests, supported by the measures 
which the Americans took to prevent the exaction of the 
stamp duties, succeeded, on the accession of a new Brit- 
ish ministry, in procuring the revocation of the obnox- 
ious act (a.d. 1766). 

The rejoicings which this repeal produced in America, 
were great and sincere, but they were soon silenced by 
Parliament's assertion of full rights to legislate for the col- 
onies. Further restrictions, of various kinds, fostered 
the spirit of dread and mistrust in American hearts, and 
subsequent events revived all former irritation. The 
scheme of raising a revenue in the colonies was again 
practically adopted, by imposing duties on tea, glass, 
paper, and painters' colors imported from Great Britain. 
The colonists opposed these measures, which they consid- 
ered as subversive of their rights and liberties, by another 
series of petitions, remonstrances, and protests, and chiefly 
by non-importation agreements : nor did their resentment 
stop there ; an immense quantity of tea, which had been 
shipped to Massachusetts, not only was not suffered to 
land, but was even thrown into the bay by the Bostonians. 

Beg^inning of the war of Independence. — This 
bold act precipitated a new and momentous crisis in the 



514 MODERN HISTORY. 

relations between America and Great Britain. While in 
England bills were passed, coercive expedients adopted, 
and powerful reinforcements of vessels and troops de- 
spatched against Boston, the American States were not 
slow in espousing the cause of tlieir sister Colony, in 
organizing a militia, and procuring, by every means in 
their power, arms, ammunition, and all necessary supplies 
for the defence of their rights. It was the lot of the New 
Englanders to begin the conflict. A party of men having 
been sent by General Gage, from Boston, to destroy some 
military stores collected at Concord by the provincials, 
were, on their way back, attacked near Lexington, and 
lost two hundred and seventy-three of their number, 
whereas the loss of their opponents was only ninety-three. 
This was the first blood spilled in battle during the Amer- 
ican revolution. 

Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 17750 — Two months 
later (June 1775), a still more memorable action took 
place at Bunker Hill or rather Breed^s Hill near Boston, 
between fifteen hundred New Englanders, and three thou- 
sand British regulars. The coolness of the provincials at 
the approach of a veteran force double their number, was 
astonishing, and the order of General Putnam not to fire 
till they could distinguish the whites of the enemy's eyes, 
was scrupulously obeyed. The regulars were permitted 
to advance to within about sixty yards, when a deadly fire 
of small arms was opened upon them with such effect, 
that whole ranks were mowed down, and the line, wavering 
for a moment, at last broke, and gave way. They rallied, 
advanced again, and were again repulsed by the same de- 
structive and incessant fire. A third charge, led by Gen- 
eral Clinton, proved more successful, and the provincials, 
who had nearly exhausted tlieir ammunition, were obliged 
to retire, but although they left the field of battle, they 
could justly claim the advantage of victory, their loss be- 
ing only four hundred and fifty-three, that of the British 
one thousand and fifty-four. 

Congress at Philadelphia, 1775, George Wash- 
ington. — The spirit displayed by the Americans in these 
engagements greatly increased their confidence, and 
encouraged them to further efforts. In the meantime, a 
general Congress of the Colonies, represented by their 
deputies, had met in Philadelphia for the purpose of 



AMERICAN EEVOLUTION. 515 

adopting measures adequate to the important crisis. 
They voted to raise an army of twenty thousand men, 
appointed the general officers, and, on motion of Mr. 
Johnson of Maryland, unanimously chose George Wash- 
ington commander-in-chief of the American forces. 
The great man who thus already possessed the universal 
confidence and esteem of his countrymen, accepted the 
appointment with unfeigned modesty, and immediately 
took command of the army in the vicinity of Boston. 
Before his arrival, a plan for surrounding the royal forces 
in that city had already been arranged, a*d was about to 
be put in execution; Washington carried it out with such 
ardor and success, as to compel their immediate depart- 
ure on board their vessels anchored in the harbor. Ac- 
cordingly, on the seventeenth of March (a.d. 1776), the 
British troops, amounting to more than seven thousand 
men, evacuated the town, which was immediately occu- 
pied by the triumphant provincials. 

Shortly after this, the English having endeavored, first 
to surprise New York, and then to reduce Charleston by 
a vigorous attack, were foiled in both attempts. The 
Americans, it is true, were not equally fortunate in their 
own attempt upon Canada, but suffered a considerable 
loss, in the siege of Quebec, which cost the life of Gen- 
eral Montgomery, and reduced Colonel Arnold to the 
necessity of retreating; but this unhappy expedition 
served at least to show that the colonists were ready 
enough even for offensive warfare, although all their 
energies were required to defend themselves against a 
powerful enemy. 

All these actions however they had performed without 
renouncing their allegiance to the British crown. There 
was indeed in the Colonies a spirit of open and unflinch- 
ing resistance to what they unanimously deemed an inva- 
sion of their privileges; but the people and their repre- 
sentatives had, until the close of the year 1775, enter- 
tained the hope and expressed the desire of bringing 
their controversy with Great Britain to a speedy and 
amicable conclusion. Unfortunately for England, her 
existing ministry had determined to maintain by force 
the right of taxation and the legislative supremacy of 
parliament over the Colonies; and the Colonies were 
equally determined to contest the claim by force. 



516 MODERN HISTORY. 

The indignation of the people in America rose to the 
highest pitch, when they were informed that further 
preparations for war had been made by Great Britain 
against them, she having gone so far as to hire multi- 
tudes of foreign troops for a more vigorous prosecution of 
the war. The winter and spring of 1776 were spent in 
arguments, appeals and publications of every sort, urging 
the expediency of a total separation from the mother 
country. 

Adoption of the Declaration of Independence, 
July 4, i776.-^The momentous question was taken into 
serious consideration by Congress, then assembled at 
Philadelphia and consisting of the representatives of thir 
teen Colonies, viz.: Massachusetts including Maine, New 
Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New 
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, 
North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. After 
long and animated debates, a Declaration of Independ- 
ence, drawn up by Thomas Jefferson, was unanimously 
approved on the Fourth of July, a day forever memorable 
in the annals of America, and then solemnly proclaimed 
to the people. In this important instrument, the mem- 
bers of Congress, in the name of their constituents, after 
enumerating their grievances and subjects of complaint 
against the British government, renounced all allegiance 
to it, dissolved all political connection with England, and 
declared the United Colonies to be free, independent, and 
sovereign states; at the same time, mutually pledging 
to each other, for the support of this declaration, " their 
lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor." 

AMERICAN IVAR OF IWDEPENDEWCE— A.D. 

1 776-1 7§3. 

English efforts. — The declaration of independence 
was certainly of very high importance for the people of 
the United Colonies, but to render it efficient and irrevo- 
cable, all their energies were required in the open field; 
the more so, as the prospect of their affairs at that time 
was by no means encouraging. The British were well 
prepared for war by land and sea. Their army consisted 
of twenty-four thousand of the best troops from Europe, 
to whom several regiments of Hessian infantry were soon 



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GEORGE WASHINGTON. 



AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 517 

to be added, bringing up their number to thirty-five 
thousand men, under the command of very able generals 
and experienced officers, and well supplied with every- 
thing necessary for active and successful warfare. 

American patriotism. — To resist the attack, and 
check, if possible, the progress of these combined forces, 
the American general had under his command troops not 
only far inferior in numbers, but still more so in military 
discipline, and, owing chiefly to the pecuniary embarrass- 
ments of the country ill-provided with food, clothing, 
arms, and ammunition. It required his utmost sagacity 
and indefatigable efforts to train them to habits of neces- 
sary subordination and to a regular manner of fighting, 
and particularly to retain them in sufficient force under 
his banners, at a time when the ill-advised practice of 
short enlistments easily permitted them to withdraw from 
the service. Yet, under these trying circumstances, 
never did the great mind of Washington, even after many 
a defeat which neither his courage nor skill could pre- 
vent, abandon the hope of ultimate success. Never did 
Congress, even when surrounded by obstacles, and seeing 
the cause of independence on the brink of ruin, listen to 
any proposal of peace, except on the condition of an 
acknowledgment from England of the freedom of the 
Colonies. Like the Romans of old, who showed their 
contempt of the victorious host of Hannibal, by selling at 
a high price the field on which it was encamped near 
their city, so the leading American patriots, far from suf- 
fering themselves to be dejected by the gloomy state of 
their affairs, without wavering expressed their determina- 
tion to carry on the struggle at all hazards, rather than 
ever return under British subjection. 

America aided by European powers. — This lofty 
determination of Congress, in which a large majority of 
the people always concurred, was sustained not only by 
the consciousness of their own strength, but also by a 
well-founded expectation of foreign alliance and succors. 
In fact, almost from the beginning of the war, the Colo- 
nies had succeeded in obtaining from abroad supplies of 
arms and ammunition; and, though no foreign state had 
yet acknowledged their independence, such a number of 
able officers came over to them from Poland and France, 
as greatly added to the skill and strength of their armies. 



518 MODERN HISTORY. 

In 1778, the exertions of the commissioners of Congress, 
and particularly of the celebrated doctor Franklin, in- 
duced the French government openly to declare in favor 
of the Americans. Hostilities commenced from that 
moment between France and Great Britain, and the con- 
test became still more animated, when Spain in 1779, and 
Holland in 1780, joined in the war against England; and 
the league, called the armed neutrality, was also formed 
against her interests, by the northern powers of Eussia, 
Sweden and Denmark. 

To oppose this formidable array of enemies, the Eng- 
lish nation, roused by danger to exertions worthy of her 
opulence and greatness, displayed a spirit of great cour- 
age, and developed astonishing resources. Her fleets 
covered both hemispheres, and her armies everywhere 
fought with a valor which challenges unqualified admira- 
tion. Still, it was easy to foresee, that, since the Eng- 
lish were obliged to divide their forces, however success- 
ful they might be at one point and another, they would 
in the end lose the main thing at issue, the recovery of 
their Colonies. It is true, the allied European powers 
did not, at least in the beginning, lend to the Colonies 
such direct and eflScient co-operation as might have been 
anticipated; yet, it is evident that, by compelling the 
presence of the immense navies of Great Britain, as well 
in the East and West Indies, as along the shores of 
Europe and Africa, they afforded, by thus preventing her 
from concentrating her energies, an immense advantage 
to the American cause. The successful result of the war 
of independence was, therefore, to be, and in fact was, 
achieved in America itself, after a long series of hard- 
ships and battles, of disasters and victories. This nat- 
urally leads us to resume the course of military events, 
and relate in the order of time, those which immediately 
followed the declaration of independence. 

Battle of Long Island, Aug. 27, 1776.— Two 
months had not elapsed after that remarkable event, 
when the Colonies saw with dismay their troops signally 
defeated in the disastrous battle of Long Island. Wash- 
ington, unable to cope with the superior forces of the 
English and Hessians, was obliged to evacuate, not only 
this island, but even a few days after, the city of New 
York; nor was this the end- of the misfortune. At the 



AMERICAlSr WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 519 

approach of a victorious enemy, it became urgently nec- 
essary to abandon the province of 'New Jersey, and cross 
with all speed the river Delaware. It was truly dispir- 
iting to behold that scanty, destitute, and diminishing 
band, amounting scarcely to three thousand, pursued by 
a triumphant, well disciplined, and abundantly supplied 
army of thirty thousand men. About the same time, an 
American flotilla on Lake Champlain was entirely de- 
stroyed, and the State of Ehode Island occupied by the 
British. 

Washington crosses the Delaware, and wins 
the battle of Trenton, Jan'y 3, 1777.— Of all the 
periods of the revolution, this was the most gloomy and 
disheartening. It is true, so hopeless a state of things 
did not last long, and Washington having received rein- 
forcements which increased his army to about seven thou- 
sand, was enabled to raise the drooping spirits of his 
countrymen by a bold and successful movement. Observ- 
ing the scattered and loosely-guarded positions of the en- 
emy along the left bank of the Delaware, he recrossed 
that river on Christmas day, suddenly attacked the Hes- 
sian troops at Trenton, and captured about nine hundred 
men and officers, and all artillery and ammunition. Ten 
days later, he defeated three regiments at Princeton, and 
pursuing his advantage, skilfully wrested from the enemy 
almost all their conquests in the Jerseys, and to gain for 
himself among tacticians in Europe the surname of the 
American Fabius. At the reopening of the campaign in 
1777, he was again obliged to retreat before the over- 
whelming force of the British, and even, in consequence 
of the unfavorable actions of Brandywine and German- 
town, to leave Philadelphia for a time in the power of the 
enemy; yet, he so well handled his army, so judiciously 
chose the positions for his encampments, that the con- 
querors were unable to derive any material advantage 
from their victories. 

General Wayne's brilliant exploit. — It was dur- 
ing the course of these expeditions of the commander-in- 
chief, that the memorable attack on Stony Point took 
place. The British having fortified this post and manned 
it with a strong garrison, Washington, whose camp was 
not far distant, determined to dislodge them, and des- 
patched for that purpose General Wayne with a detach- 



620 MODERN HISTOEY. 

ment of infantry. Wayne arrived near the fort in the 
evening, and, dividing his men into two columns, directed 
them to assault it at opposite points, and, without firing, 
to depend entirely upon the bayonet. The assault, 
though extremely bold and hazardous, was executed with 
incredible courage. The assailants forced their way 
across a morass covered by the tide, and, though exposed 
to a galling fire of musketry and grape shot, they fear- 
lessly went on, till they met in the middle of the fortress. 
They lost, it is true, ninety-eight men slain or wounded, 
and the general himself received a severe wound while 
leading his column ; still, their success was complete ; 
five hundred and forty three prisoners, fifteen pieces of 
cannon, the standards, and a large quantity of military 
stores, fell into the hands of the conquerors. This ac- 
tion was considered one of the most brilliant achieve- 
ments of the war; it won high encomiums for Wayne and 
his troops, and Congress ordered a gold medal to be 
struck in honor of the victory. 

Burgoyne's surrender to Gates, Oct. 17, 1777. — 
Not long before this event, and towards the close of the 
year 1777, the previous losses of the Americans in the 
north were more than made up. General Burgoyne had 
undertaken to effect a junction of the British troops from 
Canada with those stationed at New York, for the pur- 
pose of cutting off all communication between the north- 
ern and southern States. His march from Quebec into 
the American territory was at first successful and rapid, 
though it cost him much labor to make tfie roads passable. 
The fierce battles of Bennington and Stillwater checked 
this triumphant course, and he was still far from having 
accomplished his object, when desertions and scarcity of 
provisions increased his embarrassment. A speedy re- 
treat towards the north might perhaps have delivered 
him from his perilous position; but of this last resource 
he was also deprived by the Americans, who skilfully sur- 
rounded him. Burgoyne, thus deprived of all means of 
escape, opened at Saratoga negotiations with the Ameri- 
can Commander, and on the seventeenth of October sur- 
rendered the remnant of his troops, now reduced from 
twelve to six thousand, with the whole train of artillery 
and an immense quantity of military stores. 

The capture of Burgoyne's army was, especially in a 



AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 521 

moral point of view and as an encouragement, of vital 
importance to the Americans. Still, much remained to 
be done and suffered before the war could be brought to 
a close. 

Loss of Savannah and Charleston. — Defeat at 
Camden. — The chief theatre of hostilities was now 
transferred, as if by common consent of the hostile par- 
ties, from the northern to the southern States. Here the 
cause of liberty seemed totally lost for a long time. The 
capture of Savannah, and the subsequent conquest of 
Georgia by the British in 1779; afterwards, their success 
in subduing Charleston and South Carolina, with a con- 
siderable loss of men and artillery on the part of the 
Americans, in 1780 ; finally, the signal defeat of General 
Gates by Lord Cornwallis at Camden, opening a free road 
to the invasion of North Carolina and Virginia; such was, 
up to the beginning of 1781, the discouraging and almost 
desperate list of disasters throughout that extensive part 
of the American territory. In this extremity, the com- 
mand of the republican forces just happened to devolve 
on two men endowed with that courage, activity, and per- 
severance which the emergency required; men of peculiar 
and fertile genius, who stimulated the spirits of the 
patriots, roused them to fresh exertions, and, by a series 
of gallant actions, not only checked the victorious career 
of the enemy, but even prepared the way for the final tri- 
umph of American Independence. 

General Greene appointed commander of the 
Southern army. — Morgan's victory at Cowpens, 
Jan'y 17, 1781. — The first of these prominent personages 
was General Greene, justly called for his brilliant achieve- 
ments, the liberator of the South. Being appointed to suc- 
ceed Gates after the defeat at Camden, he entered the state 
of South Carolina with a dispirited and almost destitute 
army, and found the country in the possession of a mighty 
foe, .'intrenched in a long chain of well garrisoned and for- 
tified posts. He successively broke through and captured 
them, and although several times defeated in the open 
field, he found so many resources in the energy of his 
character and the fertility of his genius, that he was al- 
ways formidable; nor did he cease to harass his oppo- 
nents, until he had driven them from their different 
posts throughout the State into the fortifications of the 



522 MODERN HISTORY. 

capital. The victory of General Morgan at Cowpena 
opened, and the battle of Eutaw Springs won by Greene 
in person, closed this decisive campaign.* 

Surrender of Lord Cornwallis, at Yorktown, 
Oct. 19, 1781, — Nearly the same success was obtained in 
Virginia by Lafayette, who, with only three or four thou- 
sand men, many of whom were raw levies, had to defend 
the country against the superior numbers and the vic- 
torious veterans of Lord Cornwallis now advancing, with 
full confidence, to the conquest of this important State. 
The French general, well taught in the school of Wash- 
ington, mancBuvred with so much skill, as to baffle the 
mighty efforts and frustrate the lofty designs of his oppo- 
nent. Cornwallis, thus constantly disappointed, retired 
towards the coast with all his troops, and at length took 
a strong position at Yorktown and Gloucester Point, near 
the mouth of York river. Here the protracted struggle 
was to be finally decided. 

No sooner did Washington, who was now actively occu- 
pied in the vicinity of New York, receive an exact 
account of the state of things in Virginia, and of the dis- 
patch of a powerful French armament to the Chesapeake, 
than he resolved upon capturing the whole army of Corn- 
wallis. This required profound secrecy, a skilful combi- 
nation of means and a mighty concentration of forces 
near Yorktown; but the mind of the commander-in-chief 
was not unequal to the planning of all the parts of that 
complicated scheme, or to its successful execution. Hiy 
first care was to conceal his real object from Sir Henry 
Clinton, who commanded the British army in New York, 
and this was easily done by feigning a serious attack on 
that city. He then, with the French general Eocham- 
beau, marched rapidly through New Jersey and Pennsyl- 
vania, and crossing the Chesapeake on board of vessels 
prepared for the occasion, effected the junction of his 
army with that commanded by Lafayette on the Virginia 

* As well in this as in other periods and theatres of the war, the officers 
and soldiers of the Maryland regiment highly distinguished themselves by 
their intrepid and gallant behavior. None fought more resolutely in the 
disastrous battles of Long Island and Camden ; and could victory have 
been won, their courage would have achieved it on both occasions. See 
Marshall, Life of Wanhington, vol. 1., pp. 346-347;— Wilson, History of 
the American Revolution,' pp. KiO and 306i — Frost, IlUtory of the Unit' 
ed States, pp. 200 and 271. 



AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 523 

side. The combined host amounted to nearly seventeen 
thousand men, twelve or thirteen thousand of whom were 
regulars, filled with confidence and enthusiasm and pro- 
vided with all the materials necessary for a siege. More- 
over, the French fleet, composed of about thirty ships of 
the line under the command of Count de Grasse, lay 
anchored at the mouth of York river and the entrance of 
the Chesapeake, so as to render the escape of Cornwallis 
impossible by sea, as his retreat was impracticable by 
land, in face of the superior forces of the allies. 

After a council of war held on board the ship La Ville 
de Paris, the attack on the British was commenced from 
the land side, in the beginning of October, of the year 
1781. On the tenth of the same month, the besiegers 
opened fire with such effect, that the enemy's cannon was 
silenced for a time, and the shells were thrown beyond 
the town as far as the ships in the harbor. It was in 
vain that Cornwallis endeavored to retard the progress of 
the assailants by a vigorous sally, and shortly after to 
effect his escape by Grloucester Point during the night; 
both attempts failed, and he was compelled to surrender 
unconditionally on the nineteenth of October: the whole 
British army amounting to seven thousand men, yielded 
themselves as prisoners of war, and delivered to the victo- 
rious allies their artillery, military chests, public stores, 
and the vessels in the harbor. 

Treaty of Peace of Versailles and Paris, Sept. 9, 
1783. — The victory of Yorktown, which was soon followed 
by the recovery of Savannah and Charleston, may be 
justly considered as the virtual termination of the War 
of Independence. Hostilities, it is true, were still 
carried on between the European powers with unabated 
vigor; but the signal defeat of the French by Admiral 
Eodney in the West Indies, and the total failure of the 
Spaniards at the siege of Gibraltar (a.d. 1782), counter- 
balancing the partial success previously obtained by the 
two nations, induced them to put an end to the contest. 
England too, notwithstanding her late triumphs, had no 
interest in continuing it, since she had now lost all 
rational expectation of ever recovering her colonies. 
Negotiations were accordingly opened, and commissioners 
from the interested parties assembled at Paris (or rather 
Versailles) to settle the terms of a general peace. After 



524 MODERN HISTORY. 

long and animated debates, the treaty was finally signed 
in September (a.d. 1783), by which, besides various 
advantages of minor importance granted to France and 
Spain, the Independence of the United States was 
solemnly and universally acknowledged. 

Evacuation of New York — Washington resigns 
on Dec. 23, 1783. — On the twenty-fifth of November 
following, the British army and fleet evacuated New 
York, their last remaining possession on the territory of 
the United States. General Washington entered the city 
in triumph, and, after a short stay, took an affecting 
leave of his officers, and set out for the purpose of resign- 
ing his office of commander-in-chief into the hands of 
Congress, then in session at Annapolis in Maryland. 
Here on the twenty-third of December, *'In the presence 
of the representatives of the States, and a large concourse 
of civil and military officers, foreign agents, and citizens, 
he delivered his commission with a simple and moving 
address, in which, after congratulating the country on 
the successful termination of the war, and recommending 
the officers and the army to the justice of Congress, he 
concluded by bidding them an affectionate farewell. The 
highest testimony of popular love and admiration fol- 
lowed him into his retirement; and his return to the 
domestic shades of Mount Vernon, accompanied by the 
blessings and plaudits of millions whom he had guided to 
liberty and safety, was the closing scene of the war of the 
American Revolution" (Wilson, p. 372). 

With this interesting event we shall also close the 
seventh part of Modern History. As there is no peculiar 
comment to be made on the discoveries of this period, 
their mere enumeration will find a more proper place at 
the end of the volume. 






PART VIII. 



FORHATION OF THE FEDERAI. COIVSTITU- 
TlOaJ OF THE IJAIITEO STATES.— A.». iyS3- 

1789. 

WASHINGTON, FIRST PRESIDENT. 

It was not enough for the happiness of the United Col- 
onies to have become free, independent, and sovereign 
States, a system of general government was moreover to 
be established among them, calculated at once to main- 
tain their union, provide for their defence and ensure 
their prosperity. Experience had already taught, and 
for some years more continued to teach, that the existing 
loose confederation which they had adopted during the 
war, could by no means effect these purposes. The great 
difficulties which occurred in disbanding the troops and 
satisfying their just demands, the want of pecuniary 
resources in Congress, the absence of a proper system and 
of uniform regulations for carrying on foreign commerce, 
and other similar things, were serious evils, threatening 
still worse consequences for the future, unless checked 
by a speedy and powerful remedy. 

Virginia and Maryland had the honor of taking the 
first effective steps towards the desired and so much 
needed measure. Their endeavors, aided by the cooper- 
ation of several other States, induced Congress to pass a 
resolution that a committee of delegates, invested with 
ample powers, should assemble for the purpose of fram- 
ing a constitution adapted to the exigencies of the coun- 
try. The proposed committee, composed of the ablest 
men in the Union, met at Philadelphia, in 1787, under 

535 



526 MODEKN HISTORY. 

the presidency of General Washington; after four months 
of discussion and labor, the important work was com- 
pleted, and transmitted by Congress to the several States 
for their consideration and acceptance. 

By the Federal Constitution, the general government 
is made to consist of three distinct departments, the legis- 
lative, executive, Sixid judicial. The legislative department 
consists of a Senate and House of Representatives, col- 
lectively called the Congress. The executive is composed 
of a president, who, together with the vice-president, is 
chosen for four years by electors from all the States, and 
of several subordinate officers appointed by the president. 
And the judicial power is vested in a supreme court, and 
in such inferior courts as Congress may from time to time 
ordain and establish. The limits of each power are de- 
fined and regulated; the principal article is that which 
authorizes Congress to declare war, raise and support 
armies, provide and maintain a navy, coin money, levy 
taxes, regulate commerce, and provide in general for the 
government, welfare, and security of the nation. 

No sooner was the Constitution made known to the 
public, than it met with earnest opposition from those 
who thought that it vested too much power iu the gen- 
eral government, to the detriment of the individual 
States. It was very strongly supported by others; and 
hence arose the two opposite parties of the federalists 
and anti-federalists. The two great parties of to-day are 
divided on very different lines. 

George Washington, first President.— Notwith- 
standing this contrariety and clashing of views, the Fede- 
ral Constitution was, after some amendments, sooner or 
later adopted by all the States. The time being near at 
hand, when the newly-framed government was to be 
started, Washington was unanimously chosen president: 
he was inaugurated on the thirtieth of April (a.d. 1789), 
and, being reelected after the lapse of four years, con- 
tinued in office until 1797. His public conduct all that 
time, was marked by the same firmness and integrity 
which he had displayed at the head of armies. Although 
some of his acts did not meet with universal approbation, 
he never lost the esteem and affection of the great body 
of the people, the general merits of his administration 
being too evident and the purity of his motives too well 




O 



FRENCH REVOLUTION. 527 

known, to permit any change of the public opinion 
towards him. Scarcely had he retired from office to the 
employments of a private life, when the votes of the na- 
tion again appointed him commander-in-chief of a pro- 
visional army, raised for the purpose of carrying on war 
against the leaders of the French revolutionary govern- 
ment. It fortunately happened that hostilities were con- 
fined to some naval engagements with privateers, as the 
disputes between the two powers were soon amicably ad- 
justed ; Washington, however, did not see their termina- 
tion, having died almost suddenly at Mount Vernon, on 
the fourteenth of December, 1799, in the sixty-eighth 
year of his age. 

There have been in the world men of more powerful 
genius, mightier conquerors than Washington; yet, if 
everything be well considered, if we call to mind the 
scantiness of his means, together with his undaunted and 
successful perseverance, few will be found who merited 
from their contemporaries as high encomiums as the 
American general did; still fewer who evinced as great 
magnanimity under the most distressing circumstances ; 
and none perhaps who, placed in the same or in the like 
situation, ever equalled him in integrity, disinterested- 
ness and patriotism. In this point of view, Washington 
seems to stand alone; in this chiefly must he appear to 
every one an extraordinary man; a man truly deserving of 
being forever called the Father of his country, truly wor- 
thy of the eternal gratitude of Americans, whose inde- 
pendence he secured by his military achievements, whose 
national strength he increased by his political wisdom, 
and whose prosperity he so successfully promoted by his 
unabated zeal, and the vast influence of his moral char- 
acter. 

FRE]VCH REVOL.UTIOI¥— A.D. 17§9-1795. 

Proximate causes. — While the newly-founded re- 
public of the United States was rapidly rising from em- 
barrassment to wealth and greatness, one of the most an- 
cient and powerful monarchies in Europe crumbled, as it 
were, to pieces, and disappeared for a time from the rank 
of civilized nations. France, which had been so instru- 
mental in assisting the Americans throughout their hard- 



528 MODERN HISTORY. 

ships and difficulties was now plunged in an abyss of 
confusion and anarchy unprecedented in the annals of 
the world. The proximate cause of this frightful revolu- 
tion is generally supposed to have been the disordered 
state of the finances, as it could be remedied neither by 
the measures of a vacillating ministry, nor by the personal 
sacrifices of the virtuous king, Louis XVI. To this may 
be added the desire of imitating the example of the 
United Colonies in their struggle for independence ; a de- 
sire conceived and cherished by those who, expecting to 
derive profit from a change of government, little con- 
sidered that the cause of America was widely different 
from that of France, and that, moreover, the same course 
which had, from a variety of circumstances, benefited 
one of these countries, might, on the contrary, produce 
the most pernicious eifects on the other. 

Remote causes. — But the chief, though remote 
cause of the French revolution, was that spirit of irre- 
ligion and infidelity which, from the regency of the duke 
of Orleans (1715-1723), had made such a deplorable pro- 
gress in France. This fatal seed, transplanted from 
England and Holland to the soil of their neighbor, re^ 
ceived there its full growth by the wicked exertions of 
such men as Voltaire, Diderot, and others of the same 
stamp. During a weak administration, under several 
faithless ministers, the most violent attacks were directed 
with impunity against religion and all lawful authority, 
against the altar and the throne. The contagion rapidly 
spread from the capital to the provinces; and, although a 
multitude of excellent writers victoriously refuted the in- 
fidelity concealed under an elegant style and the assumed 
name of philosophy, impious and infamous productions 
of every description continued to be issued to destroy, in 
the minds of their incautious readers, the germs of piety, 
of respect for the laws, and of every virtue. 

This anti-Christian conspiracy was carried on particu- 
larly during the latter part of the eighteenth century. 
Upheld by human pride and passions, it received an 
additional strength from its union with the Jansenists, a 
body of sectarians equally hostile to Church and State, 
who had then existed in France for upwards of a hundred 
years. Lastly, the evil was rendered in some measure 
desperate by the expulsion of the Jesuits, that society 



FRENCH REVOLUTION. 529 

of men so learned, so zealous, so eminently useful in de- 
fending religion, promoting piety, and training up youth 
in all good principles. 

The States-general. — Thus, throughout a nation 
hitherto so universally attached to her faith as well as to 
her sovereigns, numbers of persons permitted themselves 
to be seduced into all sorts of impious beliefs, and an 
unbounded desire for pernicious innovations. This was 
unfortunately the spirit which animated most of those 
who composed, in 1789, the famous assembly of the 
States-general, convened at Versailles for the purpose of 
devising means and adopting measures for the improve- 
ment of the finances. Their first step, at the opening of 
the session, was to oppose the excellent plans of King 
Louis XVI. ; and this was soon followed by the still bolder 
project of framing a new constitution for France. 

The immediate effects of this illegal enactment were, 
the equally illegal seizure of ecclesiastical property, the 
tender to the clergy of an oath wholly incompatible with 
the laws of the Church> and finally edicts of persecution 
against those who should refuse to do violence to their 
conscience for temporal gain. Of one hundred and 
thirty-five bishops, only four took the unlawful oath; and 
but a comparatively small number of the inferior clergy 
imitated their example, myriads of others preferring to 
lose everything upon earth rather than be false to their 
duty. Most of those who remained thus faithful, were 
forced to quit the kingdom, and fiy for refuge to Italy, 
Spain, Switzerland, Germany, or even to cross the seas, 
in order to reach the hospitable shores of England, Ireland 
or North America ; while others, who stayed in France, 
were daily exposed to imprisonment and death. 

Constituent Assembly. — By the leaders of the revo- 
lution, the nobility were not better treated than the 
bishops and priests. An immense number of persons, 
from the most distinguished classes of society, emigrated 
to foreign lands, for the double purpose of avoiding the 
dangers which threatened them, and of returning with a 
regular force to chastise the oppressors of their unhappy 
country. But the storm had already burst with too much 
violence. After removing the supporters of the throne, 
whom they called the abettors of tyranny, the real tyrants 
of France, under the successive names of national, constit- 



530. MODERN HISTORY. 

iienl, legislative assembly, and of national convention, eX' 
erted their utmost endeavors first in degrading, and after- 
wards in demolishing the throne itself. They skilfully 
took advantage of the many concessions of Louis, gradu- 
ally to limit his privileges, and of his reluctance to shed 
any blood in his defence, to oblige him, by the repeated 
and atrocious attacks of an infuriated populace, to sur- 
render himself and his family into their hands. 

Execution of Louis XVI. — This event sealed the 
fate of the unfortunate monarch. The tigers who 
thirsted for his blood, Marat, Danton, Eobespierre, and 
others of their party, now the most powerful in the capi- 
tal, lost no time in procuring his condemnation. It was 
in vain that Louis, brought before that iniquitous tri- 
bunal, easily refuted their absurd charges; in vain too, 
that eloquent advocates fully vindicated him; the death 
of the virtuous king was desired; capital punishment was 
decreed; and he met his fate on the twenty-first of Janu- 
ary (a.d. 1793), with the magnanimity of a Christian 
prince and the piety of a martyr.* In the ensuing Octo- 
ber, his royal consort, Marie Antoinette, and in May 1794, 
his angelic sister, Elizabeth, were also led to execution. 
One year later the young dauphin, Louis XVIL, died in 
prison of a disease contracted from close confinement, 
and from the barbarous treatment inflicted on him by 
the monsters who regarded neither rank nor virtue, 
neither sex nor age. Of all the members of that unfort- 
unate family whom the revolutionary storm had placed 
within their reach, the daughter of Louis XVI., after- 
wards Duchess of Angouleme, was the only one they did 
not think proper to sacrifice to their frantic fury. 

The reign of terror. — Massacres of priests and other 
innocent persons had been already committed in various 
quarters of Paris, even before the king's execution; his 
death seemed to be a signal for fresh and more extensive 
slaughters. The levelling fury of Eobespierre and his 

* Everyone knows the perfect resignation of Louis XVI. to his fate ; the 
noble tranquillity of his soul, marked by that profound sleep from which 
his valet-de-chambre was obliged to wake him a few hours before the exe- 
cution; the pure feelings of heavenly charity expressed in his last will; 
the glowing fervor with which he received the last consolations of relig- 
ion; and those sublime words which his confessor (Abbe Firmont Edge- 
worth) addressed to him at the foot of the scaffold: " Son of Saint Louis, 
ascend to heaven ! " 




STATUE OF LOUIS XVI. 



FEENCH REVOLUTION. 531 

accomplices now rapidly swept from the capital to the 
boundaries of the kingdom. A dark veil of terror and 
death covered all France; scaffolds were erected in various 
provinces and in almost every populous city; new tortures 
were devised for the defenders of religion and monarchy; 
and, from the year 1792 to 1794, blood continued to flow 
in every part of this unhappy country. Nor was this 
enough for the madness and impiety of the demagogues 
now in possession of the sovereign power in France; 
whatever appertained to the divine worship, became the 
peculiar object of their hatred; sacred things and places 
were either desecrated or destroyed; Sundays and festi- 
vals abolished; every mark of Christianity was obliterated; 
and instead of the hallowed rites and ceremonies of the 
Church was substituted the infamous worship of the 
goddess Reason. 

Such a state of things could not fail to excite feelings 
of horror in the breasts of those who had not lost all sense 
of humanity and religion. While a kind of stupor 
oppressed all ranks; while millions, either destitute of 
sufficient energy or deprived of adequate means of resist- 
ance, silently wept over the awful scenes of impiety and 
bloodshed by- which they were surrounded: several great 
cities, Lyons, Toulon, etc., made noble efforts to resist 
the oppressors of France, but in vain. The vigor of the 
national Convention, and the bravery of her armies easily 
baffled these ill-concerted, though generous exertions, 
and the result served only to expose their authors to the 
increased fury of the revolutionary tempest. 

The conflict between the abettors and the opponents of 
anarchy was still more remarkable in the western prov- 
inces of the kingdom, particularly in Vendee, whose 
religious and brave inhabitants had unanimously risen up 
in arms for the support of the ancient faith and govern- 
ment. The astonishing exploits of these heroic country- 
men more than once caused the reigning impiety to 
tremble; unfortunately, obstacles beyond their control 
impeded their progress. Their native land was given up 
to all the atrocities of revenge; the Vendeans fell before 
an enraged and constantly increasing foe; but it was only 
after having fought seventeen pitched battles, mostly 
with success, and destroyed or dispersed nearly three 
hundred thousand of the best republican troops. 



532 MODERN HISTORr. 

War between France and the first coalition. — In 

another and more distant quarter, the French emigrants 
were not idle. Having formed themselves into a regular, 
and gallant force under the command of the prince of 
Conde, they also evinced in various engagements that 
brilliant valor which always distinguished the French 
nobility; but their efforts, not being fully seconded by 
the foreign powers, proved equally unsuccessful. The 
Austrians and Prussians, who had first made a rapid 
advance and gained great advantages over the repub- 
licans, suddenly abandoned their enterprise, and, being 
defeated by General Dumouriez at Valmy and Jemmapes 
towards the close of 1793, evacuated the French terri- 
tory. 

The war however was not ended, but soon recom- 
menced with still greater fury than before, when the con- 
federacy against France, first formed by the Austrians 
and Prussians who, Just at that time, received a vast 
increase of power and territory from the dismemberment 
of Poland, was joined by Holland, England, Spain, and 
afterwards by Russia, which last country the genius of 
the Empress Catherine II., and her recent victories over 
the Poles and the Turks, had now rendered most power- 
ful. At the sight of this mighty coalition against the 
newly founded republic, one might naturally have antici- 
pated her speedy downfall, and it is true that her armies 
occasionally experienced severe checks and defeats: still, 
hers generally were the honors and the advantages of the 
field; almost everywhere, her troops, guided by able gen- 
erals, won the laurels of victory, and would have thrown 
imperishable glory round the French name, had they 
fought for a better cause. 

Thus, after the defeat of Dumouriez at Nerwinde in 
1793, Hoche and Pichegru succeeded in driving the allies 
beyond the Rhine. Jourdan overthrew another of their 
armies near Fleurus, after an obstinate and protracted 
engagement, during which he skilfully made use of bal- 
loons to discover all the movements of the ememy (a. d. 
1794). Belgium, Holland, and all the left side of the 
Rhine, being no longer protected by a sufficient number 
of troops, fell under the power of the victors. Such was, 
in 1795, the situation of affairs, when a still greater man 
appeared at the head of the Republican armies, who car- 



NAPOLEON" BONAPARTE, ETC. 533 

ried the military glory of France to the highest point, 
and, by a long series of military achievements, cast all 
preceding adventures into the shade. 

NAPOLEOM BOIKAPARTE, GENERAL. AND 

CONSUt.— A. ». 1796-1 §04. 

Napoleon Bonaparte was born at Ajaccio in Corsica, 
some say, in 1768, but, according to other accounts and 
his own opinion, on the fifteenth of August, 1769. 
Having gone successfully through a course of studies in 
the military school of Brienn«, he was appointed an 
officer in a corps of artillery, and when the French revo- 
lution broke out, warmly espoused its cause. He dis- 
tinguished himself, in 1793, at the siege of Toulon, 
whose capture by the republicans was owing chiefly to 
him; and still more so in 1795, when he made the 
national Convention, at the close of its career, victorious 
over the Parisian populace. For these services rendered 
to the republic, Bonaparte demanded as a reward, and 
obtained from the Directory which succeeded the Con- 
vention, the chief command of the army in Italy (a. d. 
1796). 

Brilliant campaign of Bonaparte in Italy. — In his 
very first campaign, he proved himself a consummate 
general. Finding the troops in a state of great destitu- 
tion and despondent, he first endeavored to animate their 
courage, and succeeded in infusing his own ardor into 
their breasts, by pointing out to them the fertile plains 
of Piedmont as reward for their valor. He then 
opened that brilliant campaign, in which a bold natural 
genius, improved by a profound study of the art of war, 
enabled him to fight with astonishing success agaiust the 
most experienced generals of the age. His peculiar mode 
of attacking consisted in rapidity of movement, concen- 
tration of forces and formidable charges upon a given 
point. Having, from the beginning, cut off all com- 
munication between the Austrian and Sardinian troops, 
he gained, in a few weeks, the victories of Montenotte, 
Millesimo, Mondovi and Lodi, conquered Lombardy, and 
laid siege to Mantua, the best fortified town in that part 
of Italy. 



534 MODEKTSr HISTORY. 

Peace of Campo Formio, Oct. i8, 1797. — The 

court of Vienna, sensible of the vast importance of that 
place, despatched numerous troops under able generals to 
its assistance; but their efforts were of no avail. One of 
the Austrian armies, led by the intrepid Wurmser, was 
signally defeated at Castiglione and Bassano; another, 
under the command of Alvinzi, was, after an obstinate 
conflict, driven from its formidable position at Areola; 
and another experienced a complete overthrow in the 
decisive battle of Rivoli. In this series of bloody engage- 
ments Bonaparte gave numerous instances of both tacti- 
cal ability and personal valor. He soon reaped the fruit 
of his exertions; Mantua, reduced to the last extremity, 
was obliged to surrender, and the French saw themselves 
undisputed masters of all northern Italy (a.d., 1797). 
The treaty of Campo Formio, concluded in the same 
year with Austria, secured this brilliant success; and, in 
virtue of other agreements, an end was put to the inde- 
pendence of the Venetian republic, and enormous con- 
tributions were levied on other Italian States in behalf of 
the conquerors. 

Napoleon's expedition into Egypt. — Bonaparte 
now proposed a grand expedition into the East, where he 
would be placed beyond the reach of any superior com- 
mand, and enabled to destroy the British power in India. 
The French Directory, who began to dread his influence 
in the government, and were glad to get rid of him in 
an honorable manner, willingly gave their consent to the 
projected expedition. Four hundred transports and 
thirteen ships of the line were assembled in the port of 
Toulon to convey to Egypt forty thousand warriors, 
together with a great number of learned men, and all the 
things requisite for the conquest, the exploration and the 
colonization of that distant country. 

This powerful armament sailed on the twentieth of 
May (a.d. 1798), and, after taking easy possession of 
Malta through the treachery or cowardice of some of the 
knights, safely reached the Egyptian shores. The troops 
were landed, and began the work of conquest by the cap- 
ture of Alexandria. 

The battle of the Pyramids. — Their subsequent 
victory over the Mamelukes in the celebrated battle of 
the Pyramids, made them masters of Cairo and Lower 



NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, ETC. 535 

Egypt. But tlie fleet, under admiral Brueys, was almost 
entirely destroyed in the bay of Aboukir by the English 
admiral Nelson; and the land forces were foiled in their 
attempt upon Acre in Palestine. Moreover, their ranks 
were daily thinned by disease or excessive fatigue; and 
though they still performed prodigies of valor; though 
they extended their conquests, and gained two other sig- 
nal victories, the one under Bonaparte, and the other 
under Kleber, his successor in command, they were at 
length unable to cope successfully with the combined 
forces of the English and Turks. A capitulation was 
granted, in virtue of which they were not only allowed 
to return, but even afforded the means of returning to 
their native country. 

Napoleon, first Consul. — Their departure from 
Egypt had been preceded by that of Bonaparte, whom 
the course of events in France had recalled to Paris. 
Seeing that his arrival there was greeted with general 
congratulation and rejoicing, he skilfully availed himself 
of these favorable manifestations, to overturn the unpop' 
ular government of the Directory; and, a new form of 
government having been set up, he was appointed its 
head and sovereign leader under the title of first consul 
(a.d. 1799). 

War of the second coalition. — During his absence, 
Italy had been the theatre of surprising revolutions. 
The French republicans, not satisfied with their recent 
conquests, had further indulged their ambition by invad- 
ing the Ecclesiastical State, taking possession of Eome, 
and dragging into exile the unoffending and venerable 
Pope Pius VI., who soon after died at Valence in France, 
at the age of eighty-two years. The kings of Naples and 
Sardinia were likewise driven from their continental 
dominions; and the whole peninsula now seemed pros- 
trate at the feet of the French; when suddenly, at the 
northern frontier, the hero of Russia, Suwarrow, made 
his appearance with an Austro-Russian army proud of 
fighting under such a leader, the irresistible foe of the 
Turks and the Poles. One campaign of this great man 
was sufficient to wrest from the French those fair Italian 
provinces, which they had acquired with so much labor 
and loss of life. General Moreau, who had previously 
won many laurels on the field of battle, and who now 



536 MODERN HISTORY. 

commanded an army of twenty-five thousand men, was 
driven back into his intrenchments at Cassano; Mac- 
donald lost twenty thousand of his soldiers in a hotly 
disputed battle near the river Trebia; and the entire 
defeat of another French array at Novi, after twelve 
hours of an obstinate and bloody conflict, gave the death 
blow to their supremacy in Italy. But the superiority of 
the Eussians was of short duration: it seemed as if 
Suwarrow had come for no other purpose than to facili- 
tate the election of a new pontiff: no sooner had he pre- 
pared the way for it by compelling the revolutionary 
troops to evacuate Italy, than, finding himself ill- 
seconded by the Austrians, he was obliged to retreat 
across the Alps before the superior force of General 
Massena; and it was only with the greatest difficulty and 
by incredible efforts that he succeeded in extricating the 
sad remnant of his once flourishing and victorious army. 

Battle of Marengo, June 14, 1800. — The road into 
the peninsula being thus again opened to the French, 
Bonaparte did not fail to seize the favorable occasion for 
the recovery of his former conquests. Treading in the 
bold steps of Hannibal, he fearlessly crossed with his 
army the most dangerous passes of the Alps, and in a few 
weeks reached Marengo, where the Austrians under Gen- 
eral Melas occupied a strong position. Here, on the four- 
teenth of June, 1800, a most obstinate and fierce battle 
was fought, which lasted from morning till night. 
Nearly the whole day, the French were on the point of 
being entirely defeated; but the timely arrival of General 
Dessaix with his division of fresh troops enabled them at 
length to gain a decisive victory, which made them once 
more masters of northern Italy. 

Peace of Lun6ville, Feb 9, 1801. — The success of 
their arms, about this time, was not less brilliant in Hol- 
land, where General Brune obliged the Anglo-Eussian 
army to evacuate the country; and in Germany, where 
Moreau had resumed his victorious career. During the 
whole of this campaign (a.d. 1800), that distinguished 
general performed exploits at least equal to those of Bona- 
parte himself. The, important victories of Hochstadt and 
Hohenlinden led him almost to the gates of Vienna; and 
the Austrian court, destitute of further resources, was 
obliged to conclude the disadvantageous peace of Lund- 



NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 537 

ville, which ceded the whole left bank of the Rhine to 
the French republic. Prussia, Russia, and Spain had 
already laid down their arms, so that England was left 
alone to continue the struggle. Her navy, it is true, 
remained sovereign of the seas, capturing the remaining 
squadrons of the French and their colonies, driving them 
from the island of Malta, and crippling, near Copen- 
hagen, the fleet of Denmark, which government had 
become favorable to the interests of France. Still, as 
these actions, brilliant though they were, did not strike 
at the continental superiority of Bonaparte, the continua- 
tion of the war seemed to be without an object. Negotia- 
tions were opened, and the two parties agreeing to restore 
several of their conquests, the final treaty was signed at 
Amiens, on the twenty-seventh of March, 1802, to the 
great joy of both the French and English. 

Napoleon's administration. — Bonaparte spent the 
short interval which elapsed between the cessation and 
the renewal of hostilities, in vigorous and very useful 
administration. In compliance with a concordat agreed 
upon between him and Pope Pius VII., he re-established 
religious worship in France; reorganized public instruc- 
tion; published a civil code; improved commercial facil- 
ities and greatly embellished Paris with new buildings 
and monuments. But he, at the same time greatly 
impaired his reputation by the severity with which he 
prosecuted as guilty of treason the two illustrious com- 
manders Moreau and Pichegru, one of whom was sent 
into exile, and the other was found dead in his prison 
before the conclusion of the trial. Still more odious was 
the judicial assassination of the Duke d'Enghien, a 
young and hopeful prince of the Bourbon family, who, 
contrary to all right, was arrested upon foreign territory, 
hurried to Paris, and, after a mock trial, shot during the 
night in the ditch of the castle of Viucennes. Finally, 
the measures adopted by the French government to crush 
entirely the insurrection, which had now lasted twelve 
years, of the blacks against the whites of San Domingo, 
proved likewise the more prejudicial to the first consul's 
glory, as it was. if not perfidious, at least ungenerons and 
imprudent. The chief leader of the insurgents being, 
notwithstanding his previous submission, arrested and 
sent ft captive to France, the exasperated blacks com- 



538 MODERN HISTORY. 

pleted with fire and sword the destruction of the French 
colony, and on its bloody ruins erected the new republic 
of Hayti. 

Napoleon I., Emperor of the French — Francis 
I., Emperor of Austria. — During all these transactions, 
Bonaparte was mainly intent on establishing his power on 
a firmer basis. After causing himself to be named consul 
for life, with liberty to appoint his successor, he finally 
resolved to assume the sceptre. Addresses were made by 
the civil and military bodies, offering him the imperial 
dignity, which he condescended to accept. He was 
crowned emperor of the French, in December 1804, by the 
pope himself, who, wishing to avoid the fatal conse- 
quences of a refusal, went to Paris for that purpose. 
Spain, Prussia, and all the other European powers, except 
England, accepted Napoleon's new rank, to which he 
soon added that of Mng of Italy; while the successor of 
Maria Theresa and of Charles V., Francis II., changed 
also his title of emperor of Germany, for that of emperor 
of Austria. 

NAPOL.EON BONAPARTE, EMPEROR. 
— A.D. 1§04-1S15. 

SiN"CE the treaty of Amiens, the rival cabinets of 
France and England had frequently disputed, either con- 
cerning the execution of the stipulated articles, or about 
other more or less important matters. Napoleon was par- 
ticularly offended at the delay of Great Britain in evacu- 
ating the island of Malta; the English, on their side, 
thought they had equal reason to complain of Napoleon's 
ambitious views and continual increase of power on the 
continent. War, therefore, was again declared; and for 
several years the world beheld the singular spectacle of 
the equally extraordinary success of the French on land, 
and of the English at sea. 

Nelson's victory at Trafalgar, Oct. 21, 1805.— It 
had been, for a long time, the earnest wish of Napoleon, 
to obtain at least a temporary superiority by sea in order 
to effect a descent upon England, and it was now one of 
the chief objects of his policy to secure the cooperation of 
Spain. He succeeded so far in his projects, as to assem- 
ble thirty-three ships of the line and seven frigates, 



NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, EMPEROR. 539 

under the command of Admirals Villeneuve and Gravina. 
The combined fleets sailed from Cadiz on the nineteenth 
of October (a,d. 1805), and on the twenty-first of the 
same month, met, off Cape Trafalgar, the British fleet 
commanded by Nelson. The English admiral had no 
more than twenty-seven sail of the line and four frigates; 
his inferiority in number of men was still more consider- 
able; but it was amply made up for by their superior skill 
and experience, and by his own unrivalled talents. 

As Nelson was desirous of battle, and Villeneuve 
unwilling to avoid it, the hostile fleets were soon engaged. 
The battle raged for nearly four hours with the greatest 
fury, the ships of the two combatants lying quite close 
to each other, and firing with the very muzzles of the 
cannon touching; yet, the superiority of the British sea- 
men was soon made manifest: nineteen of the enemy's 
vessels were captured with Admiral Villeneuve, and seven 
others were disabled. This was a signal and important 
victory, as the combined fleet of the French and Span- 
iards was almost totally destroyed; but it was a victory 
too dearly bought: for, besides a considerable loss of men 
Nelson received a musket ball in the breast, and died two 
hours after the termination of the battle. His remains 
were honored with a magnificent public funeral, a just 
token of gratitude for the eminent services which he had 
rendered to his country. 

Third coalition against France — The battle of 
Austerlitz, Dec. 2, 1805. — While the naval forces of 
France and Spain were annihilated by the great man, 
who thus died, like Epaminondas, in the moment of vic- 
tory. Napoleon, after vainly threatening England with 
invasion, made a decisive campaign against the Austro- 
Russians, her allies. Having, by a rapid advance, moved 
his troops into the heart of the enemy's country, he 
obliged the Austrian general Mack, at Ulm, to surrender 
with thirty or forty thousand men. Shortly after, he 
entered Vienna, and, pressing forward, soon overtook the 
army of the confederates, whom he attacked with all his 
forces near the village of Austerlitz. In this memorable 
action, which the soldiers called tlie battle 0/ the three 
emperoi'S, the superior genius and masterly movements of 
Napoleon gave him one of the most brilliant victories 
that the annals of war can present. It was with the 



540 MODERN HISTORY. 

greatest difficulty, that, rallying the remains of their 
routed armies, the two allied sovereigns effected their 
retreat. " The Kussiau monarch retired towards his own 
dominions, and Francis of Austria was obliged to sign the 
treaty of Presburg, by which he lost more than twenty 
thousand square miles of territory, and two and a half mil- 
lions of his subjects (a. d. 1805). 

The Battles of Jena, Friedland, etc. — The con- 
queror resolved, in the ensuing year, to chastise the king 
of Prussia, who, both before and after the overtlirow of 
the allies at Austerlitz, had been unfriendly to France. 
The battle of Jena (October, 1806), in which the Prus- 
sians lost fifty thousand men slain or taken prisoners, 
placed Berlin, their capital city, and nearly their whole 
kingdom at the mercy of the French. Bonaparte then 
marched a second time against the Russians, and, after 
the bloody and well-contested battle of Eylau, entirely 
defeated them at Friedland (June, 1807). This series of 
victories led to the treaty of Tilsit, by which the king of 
Prussia yielded a great part of his dominions to the 
victors; and both he and the emperor of Russia promised 
to support the favorite scheme of Napoleon, for closing 
the European ports against the vessels of Great Britain, 
and was on that account named the continental system. 

The confederation of the Rhine. — About this time 
also, Bonaparte formed the confederation of the Rhine, 
or a coalition of German princes favorable to his interests; 
and he raised the duchies of Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and 
Saxony to the rank of kingdoms, as a reward for the 
services which their sovereigns had, as allies, rendered 
the French during the recent campaigns. In order to 
prevent the Danes from imitating their example, the 
British government compelled them to surrender their 
whole fleet, consisting of sixteen ships of the line and fif- 
teen frigates, which were all conveyed to England. This 
high-handed act did little honor to the character of Great 
Britain, and, even in a political point of view, was per- 
haps more unfavorable than really advantageous to her 
cause, as it provoked the indignation and resentment of 
her most powerful ally, the emperor of Russia. 

War with Austria, 1809 — Napoleon's first defeat 
at Aspern and Esling, May 21, 1809. — War had 
scarcely ceased in one country, when it commenced in 



NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, EMPEROR. 541 

another. The Austrians, wishing to retrieve their recent 
losses, determined to oppose Napoleon again in the field. 
They made, for that purpose, truly gigantic exertions, 
raising their armies to the extraordinary number of five 
hundred and fifty thousand men; still, in spite of their 
unyielding courage and of the abilities of their chief com- 
mander, Archduke Charles, this new struggle proved 
fully as disastrous to their arms as any preceding conflict. 
The French poured with their usual rapidity over the 
German provinces, gained four victories within five days, 
and took Vienna for the second time. Their subsequent 
repulse at Esling cost them, it is true, thirty thousand 
brave soldiers with the intrepid Marshal Lannes, and 
exposed them to a complete overthrow; but the Austrian 
prince, though possessed of remarkable talents, was not 
as capable of improving his advantage, as his enemy was 
of remedying his disaster. 

Battle of Wagram, July 5-6, 1809 — Peace of 
Vienna. — By great energy, activity, and skill. Napoleon 
was soon in readiness to renew the attack, and, on the 
sixth of July, the dreadful battle of Wagram was fought, 
in which it is supposed that three hundred thousand men 
were engaged, and which terminated in the entire defeat 
of the Austrians. Their sovereign was compelled once 
more to sue for peace, nor could he obtain it except by 
making further concessions of a large extent of territory, 
and giving his daughter Maria Louisa in marriage to the 
victorious emperor (a.d. 1809). 

Napoleon had now reached the summit of power and 
glory. Having reared the edifice of his greatness by con- 
tinual and almost unexampled success in war; supported 
in that high station by formidable armies, excellent gen- 
erals, and the superiority of his talents; enjoying the sat- 
isfaction of having placed his brothers, Louis, Jerome, 
Joseph, and his brother-in-law, Miirat, upon the thrones 
of Holland, Westphalia, Spain, and Naples; his royal and 
imperial authority seemed to rest on the strongest basis 
that could be desired. Yet, this powerful conqueror, 
this mighty sovereign, was destined to experience the 
utmost severity of fortune, and that too, in a manner so 
much the more striking, as he began, just at the time of 
his splendid expedition of Wagram, to dig with his oAvn 
hands the pit into which he was soon to fall from his ele- 
vated station. 



643. MODERN HISTORY. 

Pope Pius VII. excommunicates Napoleon.— 

Elated with prosperity, and anxious to subdue all nations, 
Napoleon solicited the pope to close his harbors against 
British commerce, and become a party to the war against 
England and Austria. This Pius VII. positively and per- 
sistently refused; being, he answered, the Father of all 
Christian nations, he could not, consistently with that 
character, become the enemy of any one. The emperor 
was highly incensed by this courageous refusal, and, in 
order to gratify his ambition, determined on following a 
more audacious coul-se. By a decree dated at Vienna, 
the seventeeth of May, 1809, he declared the Ecclesias- 
tical State annexed to his empire; and, as this unwarrant- 
able proceeding was instantly punished by excommunica- 
tion, the French troops who had already taken possession 
of Eome, received an order to send the excellent pontiif 
into captivity and exile. This outrageous act filled up 
the measure of Napoleon's blind ingratitude, and, by 
provoking alike the justice of Grod and the indignation of 
all sensible men, was undoubtedly the chief among the 
remote causes of his subsequent downfall. 

The campaign in Spain. — Equally ungrateful tow- 
ards the Spaniards, his most faithful allies, Bonaparte 
invaded their country as well as Portugal, and, after hav- 
ing, partly by intrigues, and partly by compulsion, 
obtained the abdication of King Charles IV. and of his 
son Ferdinand, he placed his own brother Joseph upon 
the Spanish throne. The whole kingdom was overrun, 
and nearly all its fortified places were surprised or con- 
quered by different bodies of the French troops under the 
command of Murat, Ney, Massena, Suchet, Soult, Mar- 
mont, etc., and sometimes of Napoleon himself. These 
able commanders, well provided with all things necessary 
for a vigorous warfare, and almost constantly receiving 
strong reinforcements, gained easy victories over the 
brave, but astounded and inexperienced Spaniards. Still, 
the conquerors did not make such rapid progress without 
suffering great losses, and occasionally meeting with very 
serious disasters. Seventeen thousand of their troops 
were obliged to surrender at Baylen to General Castanos; 
their subsequent success at Saragossa, so nobly defended 
during two months by the heroic Palafox, cost them an 
immense multitude of their bravest warriors, and they 
completely failed in the siege of Cadiz. Moreover, in the 



NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, EMPEROR. 543 

midst of a courageous people, persons of all classes, of 
every age and condition, became soldiers for the defence 
of their liberties and country. Swarms of guerillas con- 
tinually harassed the march of the French armies, attack- 
ing their separate detachments, intercepting the convoys, 
and cutting off the stragglers. The territory was occu- 
pied, but the nation was not subdued; and Spain seemed 
to have become a vast and profound abyss destined to 
swallow up the numberless troops of Napoleon, as they 
made their appearance. 

The Duke of Wellington defeats the French 
troops. — Next to this unanimous effort of the Spanish 
population, nothing contributed more powerfully to rid 
the country of its invaders, than the efforts of the cele- 
brated Arthur Wellesley, afterwards Duke of Wellington. 
This great man first distinguished himself at the head of 
the troops sent from England to the relief of the Penin- 
sula. Being, after many exploits, appointed commander- 
in-chief of the Portuguese and Spanish, as he was already 
of the British forces, he was enabled to display his talent 
to greater advantage and vigorously to follow up his 
former success. Several times he had been compelled to 
retreat before the overwhelming numbers of the enemy, 
but he repeatedly regained the ground that had been lost, 
and after defeating the French at Talavera in 1809, at 
Busaco in 1810, and at Salamanca in 1812, he finally 
drove them from Spain by the signal victory of Vittoria 
(a.d. 1813). 

War with Russia — Burning of Moscow, Sept., 
l8l2. — Precisely at this time, northern and central 
Europe, uniting in one general league against Bonaparte, 
forever shook off his yoke. A little before, in 1812, 
having declared war again against the Russians, under 
the plea that they favored British commerce, he marched 
into their country with an army of nearly five hundred 
thousand men, French and allies, perfectly equipped and 
well disciplined. In the presence of such a host, the 
most formidable, it may be said, that the world ever 
beheld, the enemy, far inferior in numbers, wisely 
adopted the plan of acting on the defensive, and making 
a stand only at favorable positions. In its retreat, the 
Russian army laid waste all the country through which 
the invaders had to pass, and burnt the towns in which 



644 MODERN HISTORY. 

they might have found shelter. Even Moscow, the 
ancient capital of Russia, which the French at last 
reached after the bloody victories of Smolensk and 
Moscowa, was nobly sacrificed to save the empire; during 
the very first night after their arrival, the city was si- 
multaneously fired in several parts, and in a short time 
reduced to a heap of ruins. 

Napoleon's retreat. — Thus deprived of winter quar- 
ters and of necessary provisions, su.rrounded by an exas- 
perated enemy who had now collected his forces. Napo- 
leon, after in vain offering peace to the emperor Alex- 
ander, commenced a retreat on the nineteenth of October. 
He had not proceeded far, when famine began to rage 
among his wearied troops; the Russian army, hovering 
around them, iucessantly harassed and obstructed their 
march, especially at the crossing of rivers; winter set in 
with unusual severity; and the mortality from these 
various causes became so dreadful, that, when the cam- 
paign closed (on the thirteenth of December), it was 
found that upwards of two hundred and fifty thousand 
men had perished, besides nearly two hundred thousand 
made prisoners. 

The great war of Liberation, 1813-1814. — Thus 
ended the memorable Russian expedition, the first of 
Napoleon's undertakings in which he was completely 
defeated, and the further consequences of which were for 
him of the most disastrous character. Prussia and 
Sweden now joined the Russians against the French 
emperor, and Austria with Bavaria soon imitated their 
example.- Bonaparte, however, was not yet disposed to 
abate his high pretensions, and having, by astonishing 
exertions, recruited his army to about two hundred and 
eighty thousand men, he fearlessly encountered his still 
more numerous foes in the eventful campaign of Saxony 
(a.d. 1813). Such was even now the display of his mili- 
tary abilities and the courage of his troops, that he routed 
the allies at Lutzen, Bautzen, and Dresden with great 
slaughter, but without any permanent advantage. Their 
numbers always appeared the same, or rather to be daily 
increasing. 

The great battle of Leipsic, Oct. 16, 18, 19, 1813. 
— They attacked him again under the walls of Leipsic 
with three hundred thousand troops and nine hundred 



NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, EMPEROR. 545 

field pieces, while he could not concentrate at that point 
more than one hundred and seventy thousand men with 
seven hundred pieces of artillery. The conflict was one 
of the most awful during that tremendous war, and such 
as language cannot describe. For three days, the French 
maintained their position with undaunted courage, hav- 
ing, it is said, shot from their cannons the enormous 
number of*two hundred and fifty thousand balls; but, on 
the third day, abandoned by their Saxon allies, and 
overpowered by numbers, they were finally compelled to 
quit the field, with the dreadful loss of forty thousand 
men, besides a vast multitude of prisoners taken during 
the pursuit. Still, the vanquished preserved their usual 
courage, which they displayed at Hanau, by defeating 
the Bavarians who had dared to intercept their retreat. 
A free passage was thus opened for them to the French 
frontier; but their conquests in Germany were lost for- 
ever. 

Passage of the allies across the Rhine. — Napoleon 
was now deserted by all his allies, and obliged to face 
alone the European league formed against him. The 
beginning of the year 1814 beheld half a million of men, 
Austrians, Russians, Prussians, etc., under their respec- 
tive sovereigns, rush from all directions upon the French 
territory. They had previously issued a manifesto declar- 
ing their intention both to maintain France in all her 
rights as a nation, and to crush the military system of 
her ambitious ruler; a twofold object which their pru- 
dence and their decisive measures soon enabled them 
to attain. It was to no effect that Napoleon, by new ex- 
amples of activity and courage, defeated the allies 
at Brienne, Montereau, Champaubert, and Montmirail. 
Having made a better arrangement of their forces, they 
at length moved towards Paris, and arrived near that 
capital before the French emperor, who was engaged else- 
where, could come to its relief. 

Entrance of the allies into Paris, Mar. 31, 1814. 
' — After a vigorous, though short and hopeless defence of 
the heights of Montmartre, terms of capitulation were 
signed; and, on the thirty-first of March, the allied sov- 
ereigns, with fifty thousand chosen troops, made their 
solemn entry into Paris, amidst the general and contin- 
ued plaudits of the inhabitants, who received them more 



546 MODERN HISTORY. 

as deliverers than as conquerors. A provisional govern- 
ment was formed, and a decree passed by the Senate, de- 
claring that Napoleon Bonaparte had forfeited the throne. 
It was also decided that the Bourbon dynasty should be 
restored. France was allowed by the generosity of the 
allies not only to retain all her territory, but was given 
more. As to the fallen emperor, the island of E!ba, in 
the Mediterranean, was allotted him with an annual 
revenue of six millions of francs. 

Louis XVIII., 1814-1824. — The allied monarchssoon 
left Paris, where Louis XVIII., the brother of Louis XVI., 
arrived on the third of May, 1814, to tako the throne. 
The pope, after five years' captivity, liaa returned to 
Rome; Bonaparte had also departed fo Elba; and 
Europe, after so many and dreadful wars, began to enjoy 
a long desired and much needed repose, when the storm 
again burst upon it with renewed fury. The unexpected 
news arrived, that the dethroned emperor had escaped 
from his island and landed on the sh'^^'es of Provence 
with an escort of nine hundiod men. In fact, he was 
already on his way to Paris; the troops joined him from 
all quarters, and, on ^"he twentieth of March, 1815, he 
triumphantly entc. '.apital, which Louis XVIII. had 

left but a few homj ./biore for the northern frontier. 

Napoleon's campaign — "The hundred days," 
Mar, 20 tr June 29, 1815. — The intelligence of Napo- 
leon's return quickly reached the ears of the great Euro- 
pean potentates, then assembled at Vienna for the purpose 
of settling upon a sure basis the affairs of the continent. 
Surprised, but not dismayed, they declared that the 
ex-emperor of the French, by breaking the last treaty, 
" had placed himself without the pale of civil and social 
relations," and pledged themselves not to lay down their 
arms until he should be deprived of the power of ever 
again disturbing the tranquillity of the world. Bonaparte, 
on his side, was not idle in making adequate preparations 
for the approaching conflict. Having reorganized his 
army, he rapidly advanced towards the Belgian frontier, 
in order to attack the English under Wellington, and the 
Prussians under Blucher, before they could be joined by 
the Austrians and the Russians. His first operations 
were successful, the allies being obliged to make a retro- 
grade movement, and the Prussians in particular having 



NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, EMPEROR. 547 

suffered a severe check in the battle of Ligny. He now 
directed his main efforts against the English, who had 
occupied a strong position near Waterloo; and, on the 
eighteenth of June of the same year, 1815, was fought the 
decisive battle on which the peace of Europe and his 
own fate depended. 

Battle of Waterloo, June 18, 1815.— The two 
armies, under the command of such wonderful men as 
Napoleon and Wellington, presented the most imposing 
appearance: they were nearly equal as well in discipline, 
valor, and spirit, as in numbers, which amounted to about 
seventy-five thousand men on each side. How dreadful 
must have been the conflict between troops of this char- 
acter, every one may easily conceive. It commenced 
about noon with a tremendous cannonade, and was con- 
tinued many hours with almost frantic fury, the French 
infantry and cavalry making incessant and desperate 
charges, which were ail met with dauntless courage. 
Towards seven o'clock in the evening, Bonaparte ordered 
another and stronger attack upon the British line; his 
celebrated guard resolutely advanced in double column, 
but was received with such a galling fire from the enemy's 
artillery and musketry as to be soon compelled to give 
way, and had now to receive in their turn a charge from 
the English. Just at this decisive moment, the Prussians, 
having by a skilful march deceived Grouchy, who was 
opposed to them, joined their allies, and opened a heavy 
cannonade on the right wing and rear of the French. It 
was a moment of irretrievable confusion: those brave col- 
umns of Napoleon, just before so formidable, now broken 
and unable to rally, at last fled from that scene of car- 
nage where they left twenty thousand slain, and, being 
closely pursued by the Prussians, dispersed in every 
direction. Truly awful was the loss of the English also 
in this ever memorable battle, since it amounted to six 
hundred officers, eleven generals, and fifteen thousand 
men killed and wounded. Still, the victory of the allies 
was complete; all the artillery of the vanquished army, 
consisting of three hundred guns, fell into their hands, 
and the power of Bonaparte was now prostrated, to rise 
no more. 

Second capture of Paris, July 7, 1815. — Welling- 
ton, not being opposed in his march, soon appeared with 



548 MODERN HISTORY. 

his victorious troops in sight of Paris. That capital was 
again entered and occupied for a time by the confeder- 
ates; while the remnant of the imperial army was obliged 
to retreat beyond the river Loire, The Bourbons once 
more recovered their throne; but France was not so 
advantageously treated by the allied monarchs as she had 
been at the time of the first invasion: besides a variety of 
severe and humiliating conditions to which she had to 
submit, she was obliged to pay about seven hundred and 
fifty millions of francs as an indemnity for the expenses 
of the war. 

Napoleon transported to St. Helena.— In the 
meantime, Bonaparte, who had already left Paris, with- 
drew to Kochefort, a seaport on the western coast of 
France, in hopes of being able to effect his passage to 
America. That port was, however, too closely blockaded 
by English cruisers, to permit any escape; the emperor, 
theref re resolved at length to throw himself on the pro- 
tectio of the British government, and went on board 
their jhip of the line, the Bellerophon, stationed at a 
short distance from the shore. It was immediately deter- 
mined to send him to St. Helena, a remote island in the 
middle of the Atlantic, as a place where he could be kept 
in perfect security, without too much confinement or 
restraint. Here, in the society of a few devoted friends 
who had chosen to accompany him to the place of his 
exile, he lived about six years, spending much time and 
labor in dictating memoirs of his own life. The assist- 
ance of a priest and the consolations of religion, for which 
he had earnestly begged, consoled his last moments; and 
the fifth of May, 1821, closed the earthly career of that 
extraordinary man before whom Europe had so long trem- 
bled, and who, notwithstanding the sad reverses which 
clouded the evening of his life, is justly considered the 
most powerful genius and the greatest captain of the age. 

SECO^^D AHIERICAX war.— a. D. 1§12-1§15. 

War declared against England. — England was 
still engaged in her perilous and gigantic struggle against 
the emperor of the French, when, by a series of violations 
of the rights of maritime commerce, she again provoked 
the hostility of the Amei'icans. This may be called » 



SECOND AMERICAN WAR. 549 

political fault so much the greater, as the United States 
had, during the recent years, rapidly increased in popula- 
tion, wealth, and power, both through the industry of 
their inhabitants, the tide of immigration, and the admis- 
sion of many new states, Louisiana, Kentucky, Ohio, etc., 
to their confederacy. New causes of provocation occur- 
ring between the ships of the two nations, and the major- 
ity of the American people desiring war for the redress of 
their grievances. Congress openly declared it on the 
eighteenth of June (a. d. 1812). 

Unsuccessful invasions of Canada — final success 
of the American arms. — Its commencement was ver) 
unfavorable to the arms of the United States, as all 
attempts then made at the northern frontier to invade 
Canada were not only fruitless, but also attended with 
considerable loss of men and ammunition. However, the 
spirit of the people was not subdued, nor the army dis- 
heartened, and before the close of the year 1813, they 
began to reap the fruit of their perseverance by captur- 
ing, under the direction of Commodore Perry, the whole 
British fleet on lake Erie, and gaining, under General 
Harrison, the victory of the Thames, by which were re- 
covered the posts previously surrendered to the enemy. 
Another victory on land near the cataract of Niagara, 
and the destruction of another British flotilla on lake 
Champlain, gave the Americans a decided superiority in 
this region, at least with regard to the defence and pro- 
tection of their own territory. 

Battle of North Point, Sept. Ii, 1814.— Their sea- 
fights were also generally successful, so much so, that 
almost every week brought the tidings of some brilliant 
capture made, or some splendid exploit achieved by the 
spirit and intrepidity of American seamen; but success 
upon the land was more equally divided. Five or six 
thousand troops under General Eoss, having reached the 
vicinity of Washington, routed the American force, 
amounting to seven or eight thousand men, including 
militia. The city was abandoned by the president and 
the heads of departments, and soon after entered by the 
conquerors, who did not, however, occupy it more than 
one day. Elated with success, they resolved to undertake 
also the capture of Baltimore, intending to make that 
important place their winter quarters. Their landing at 



550 MODERN HISTORY. 

North Point, on the eleventh of September, 1814, met 
with little or no opposition; but their general Eoss being 
killed, on the twelfth, in his advance towards the city, 
and all the attacks made by his vessels and troops on Fort 
McHenry being bravely repulsed, they were compelled to 
abandon the enterprise. 

Defeat of the English at New Orleans. — The 
English directed now their main efforts against the 
Southern States. New Orleans being their principal 
object, a powerful fleet was fitted out for an attack on 
this opulent city. Fortunately, an able and experienced 
commander, one already distinguished for his campaigns 
in other parts of the Union, General Jackson, was there 
to oppose the enemy, Besides his regular troops and the 
militia of the neighboring States, he required every 
citizen who could bear arms, to take an active part in the 
military operations on which the safety of all depended. 
The fortifications were strengthened; an extensive line of 
works was erected four miles below the town, well fur- 
nished with artillery; and, the better to protect his 
troops from the fire of the assailants, Jackson conceived 
the happy idea of covering the intrenchments with a 
great number of cotton bales.^ In this favorable position, 
he resolutely defied every attack of the enemy. 

In the latter part of December, of the year 1814, the 
English, under the cover of their batteries, made several 
attempts to carry by storm the fortifications before" them; 
but they were invariably repulsed by the superior fire of 
the American artillery. The final attack on the main 
works, was reserved for the eighth of January following. 
It lasted about one hour and a half, during which the 
valor of the assailants only served to expose them without 
adequate defence to the incessant and aestructive fire 
from the artillery and musketry of the besieged; while 
the breast-works of cotton-bales, which no ball could pen- 
etrate, afforded them complete protection. The British 
were obliged to retire from the sanguinary conflict with 
the loss of two thousand six hundred men, wounded, cap- 
tured, or slain, including their general, Pakenham, and, 
their chief officers; while the victorious Americans had 
not lost, in this decisive action, more than six killed and 
seven wounded. 

The news of this important victory filled the whole 

iThe traditional account of the cotton bales is no longer accepted 
to explain Jackson's great victory. The researches of recent years 
ascribe it to his efficient artillery, which did frightful execution in the 
British ranks. 



VIEW OF THE CIVILIZED WOELD, ETC. 551 

country with exultation, and was the closing event of the 
second American war. Shortly after, intelligence was 
received from Europe of the peace concluded by the 
American and English commissioners assembled at Ghent 
for that purpose. The treaty, already signed by the 
court of England, was ratified by the President and 
Senate of the United States in February (a.d, 1815); and 
thus, in the same year, with the interval of a few months, 
peace was re-established in America by the treaty of 
Ghent, and in Europe by the second fall of Bonaparte. 

VIEW OF THE CIVILIZED WORLD AFTER 
THE CON€}RESS OF VIERfXA, 1SI5. 

It may be said that the acts of the Congress of Vienna 
established the basis on which the more recent events up 
to 1902 have to be explained and understood, so that it 
seems not superfluous to summarize briefly what was done 
by this august assembly of monarchs and prime-minis- 
ters. 

1. The Austrian and Prussian monarchies were 
restored. The former, Austria, received besides the 
Lombardo - Venetian Kingdom (conferred upon her by 
the treaty of Campo Formic) the Illyrian provinces, viz., 
Illyria and Dalmatia, Salzburg and Galicia (part of the 
old Kingdom of Poland), while the latter, Prussia, 
received part of the Grand-Duchy of Warsaw, part of 
Pomerania with Riigen and its old possessions in West- 
phalia, also part of Saxony as compensation for what it 
ceded to Bavaria. 

2. The Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed by 
uniting the republic of Holland with Austrian Belgium 
under the former hereditary Prince, as King William I. 

3. The German Confederacy was created by the accept- 
ance of the " Bundesakte " on June 10, 1815, consisting 
of 34 monarchical states, and the four free cities with 
the seat of the " Bundesrath " at Frankfort-on-the-Main. 

4. Russia received the greater part of the Grand-Duchy 
of Warsaw as Kingdom of Poland. 

5. England retained Malta, Heligoland and the Protec- 
torate over the seven Ionian islands, which latter were 
ceded to Greece by the treaties of 1863 and 1864. 

6. Sweden retained Norway. 



552 MODERN HISTORY. 7? JIT 

7. The nineteen Cantons of Switzerland were increased 
to twenty-two. 

8. The old dynasties were restored in Spain, Sardinia, 
Tuscany, Modena, and the Papal States. 

The leading powers appeared generally desirous of 
enjoying in repose the laurels which their respective 
countries had won in the field, and to contend for the 
palm of national pre-eminence only by the arts of peace- 
ful and prosperous industry. 

To Great Britain, above all, belonged the honor of 
arresting the course of the French revolutionary armies 
and of Napoleon's ambitious career. Notwithstanding 
the heavy taxes laid on her citizens, and the prodigious 
amount of her national debt, increased already to about 
four billions of dollars, she seemed to have attained the 
height of power and political influence, chiefly by the 
superiority of her naval force. In 1827, the world beheld 
her successfully protecting the independence of Greece 
against the Turks, and afterwards the Turks themselves 
against the encroachments of the new Egyptian dynasty; 
defending her immense possessions in the East and West; 
chastising the pirates of the Mediterranean; attacking 
the Chinese, and compelling them to conclude a disad- 
vantageous 'peace, etc. Among the most remarkable of 
her civil acts, was the act of emancipation from civil dis- 
abilities and persecuting laws, granted to her Catholic 
subjects in 1829, an example of moderation and justice, 
too long withheld and yet highly worthy of imitation, 
but which, it seems, was little valued and still less fol- 
lowed by the King of Prussia, Frederic William III., 
and especially by the Russian autocrat Nicholas. 

Like Great Britain, France continued, after so many 
disturbances and storms, to occupy that high national 
rank which her advantageous position, her vast agricul- 
tural and industrial resources, and the lofty spirit of her 
people entitled her to hold among the European powers. 
Neither the clashing of parties, nor the substitution of 
the Orleans in the place of the Bourbon dynasty, pre- 
vented her from enhancing her military glory. Not only 
did she fully share with England and Russia in the vic- 
tory gained at Navarino over the Turks; but the success- 
ful expedition of Spain under Louis XVIll., the still 
more brilliant conquest of Algiers under Charles X., the 



VIEW OF THE CIVILIZED WORLD, ETC. 553 

siege of Antwerp and the capture of Vera Cruz under 
Louis Philippe, again showed to the world, what, even 
after the disasters of Napoleon's last campaigns, could be 
effected by French valor, skill, and discipline. Notwith- 
standing a thousand difficulties, Louis Philippe held the 
reigns of government with such firmness and prudence as 
to attract the admiration of even his enemies. Yet, all 
his talents and skill were not able to reconcile the differ- 
ent political parties into which the French people were 
divided, nor save his own government from a strong 
opposition that threatened a new revolution in France. 

Austria, Russia, and Prussia, which had suffered most 
from the wars of Bonaparte, not only repaired their 
losses, but even acquired in the final settlement of their 
claims, a greater extent of territory. Among the chief 
European States, Spain was the most unfortunate. In 
consequence of the impolitic measures of King Ferdinand 
VIL, and a variety of other causes, revolutions and civil 
wars contini>ed almost without interruption, up to the 
downfall of the tyrannical regent Espartero (1843), to 
desolate that noble country, the land of chivalry and 
heroism, formerly so greatly celebrated for her national 
and political strength, and so long placed at the head of 
European civilization. Nor was this the only misfortune 
that befel the Spaniards. All their colonies in the New 
World, except Cuba and Porto Rico, successively threw 
off their allegiance to the mother country, and estab- 
lished independent governments, viz. : Buenos Ayres, in 
1816; Chili, 1818; Peru and Bolivia, 1821-1824; Colons 
bia, towards 1820, divided into three separate States in 
1831, Guatemala and Mexico, 1820-1824. AU thes« 
became so many Confederacies or Republics, from which 
others have sprung up since; but none of them reached a 
flourishing and powerful position approaching in the 
least to that of the United North American States. 

Here, notwithstanding occasional embarrassment in the 
finances, the country had constantly advanced in popula- 
tion and importance. The number of its inhaoitants, 
owing to the incessant influx of emigrants from Europe, 
had become, by 1844, five times greater than it was sixty 
years before, at the close of the war of independence. 
Thirteen new States had been added to the thirteen 
which first composed the Union, while their neighbors. 



554 MODERN HISTORY. 

the Texans, had just applied to be also received into the 
great Union, Besides, the prosperous condition of agri- 
culture and manufactures; the steady development of 
foreign commerce and inland trade, together with the 
extent and resources of the land, the wisdom hitherto 
displayed by its chief rulers, and the active, industrious 
and enterprising spirit of the people, left, even at that 
epoch, but little room to doubt that the United States 
were destined to possess a considerable share of influence 
in the future destinies of the civilized world. 

AWKEXATION OF TEXAS.— MEXICAN WAR AND 
ITS CONSEqUENCES.— A.D. 1845-1$4S. 

The proposed annexation of Texas to the United 
States had, for several years, met with little encourage- 
ment from the cabinet at Washington. The scheme, 
however, began to be actively advocated during the 
latter part of Mr. Tyler's presidency; yet, on account of 
new difficulties, it was not carried into effect till 1845, 
the first year of President Polk's administration. Dur- 
ing the course of that year the terms of annexation were 
settled b}'^ both parties, and Texas was declared a State of 
the American union. It had won its independence from 
Mexico in 1836; but the boundary between them was 
still in dispute, and the United States sent troops to pro- 
tect the claims of Texas. 

This momentous transaction, irrevocably depriving 
the Mexicans of a vast territory, was not concluded with- 
out loud protests on their part; they naturally com- 
plained of it, through their ministers and ambassadors, 
as an infringement of their rights. They appealed to the 
treaty of friendship existing between the two nations, 
and openly denounced the annexation of Texas, and its 
occupation by an American force as a violation of that 
treaty. So strong, indeed, was this feeling among them, 
that their government, under President Herrera, having 
shown a disposition to settle their differences with the 
American government in a peaceful manner, was sud- 
denly overthrown, to make room for the presidency of 
General Paredes. Troops were assembled and stationed 
on the frontier, to the number of about eight thousand, 
under the command of General Arista. 



ANNEXATION OF TEXAS, ETC. 555 

The Americans had taken similar action and their 
troops had already advanced to occupy the disputed terri- 
tory. The first action that took place between the 
hostile parties, was an encounter, in which the Americans 
lost sixty-three dragoons, killed, wounded, or prisoners. 
A few days later, a body of Texans was surprised in their 
camp, and several were slain or wounded. These begin- 
nings seemed very inauspicious for the American cause; 
but things wore a quite different aspect when General 
Taylor, being appointed commander-in-chief for that dis- 
tant theatre of the war, appeared in person on the field, 
and was enabled to fight regular battles. 

Battle of Palo Alto. — This able leader having, after 
his arrival in the Texan territory, been stationed succes- 
sively in various places, finally took up his position near 
the Rio Grande (also called Rio Bravo del Norte), within 
cannon-shot of the city of Matamoras. He had not how- 
ever completed his intrenchments, when he was informed 
that Point Isabel, where he had left a large supply of 
provisions and ammunition, was seriously threatened by 
the Mexicans. With the main part of his army, he 
quickly retraced his steps towards that important point, 
to prevent it from falling into the hands of the enemy. 
Having attained his object, and garrisoned the place with 
fresh troops, he again set out for Matamoras, and, on the 
second day of his march (8th of May, 1846), discovered 
near Palo Alto the Mexican forces drawn up in battle 
array, and waiting for his approach. Although his army 
did not exceed two thousand three hundred men, while 
that of the Mexicans amounted, it is believed, to nearly 
seven thousand, he did not decline the combat. On the 
side of the Americans, it was carried on chiefly by artil- 
lery, and such was the superiority of their fire that, after 
an action of about five hours, the enemy's columns were 
thrown into disorder and driven back from their posi- 
tion.* General Arista retreated during the night, and 
occupied a new and favorable position at Resaca de la 
Palma, a few miles distant from Palo Alto. On the fol- 
lowing day, as the two hostile armies met again, another 
engagement immediately ensued. 

The Mexican artillery commenced the action, and 

* Report of General Taylor, dated May 9, 1846. 



556 MODERN HISTORY. 

inflicted severe loss on the American lines. It became 
necessary to dislodge the enemy from the ground which 
they occupied; this was done by a succession of skilful 
movements and vigorous charges. Their artillery was 
silenced; La Vega, one of their best generals, was made 
prisoner; and their ranks now broken on all sides, were no 
longer able to bear the well-directed fire continually 
poured upon them by the American musketry and artil- 
lery. They fled from the field precipitately, and being 
warmly pursued, continued their flight till they placed 
the Rio Grande between themselves and their pursuers. 
No cowardice, however, no feebleness should be imputed 
to them. They had behaved and fought well, and they 
were defeated only because, in the natural course of 
events, mere courage must yield to at least equal valor 
aided by superior bodily strength, military skill, science 
and discipline. 

*'In these engagements," says a well-informed his- 
torian, " the commander of the American forces, General 
Zachary Taylor, displayed the utmost coolness and brav- 
ery — exposing himself in the most dangerous positions, 
and encoura_ging his troops by his heroic example. After 
the battles were ended, his attention to the wounded and 
the dying, whether friend or foe, evinced that sympathy 
for suffering humanity, which is ever inseparable from 
true courage. ""* To this merited praise, we must add 
that General Taylor, in his reports of the campaign, 
evinced not less modesty in speaking of himself, than 
sincerity in extolling the bravery of his officers and sol- 
diers. 

During these operations of the main body of the army, 
a detachment previously left for the defence of the field- 
work opposite Matamoras, equally distinguished them- 
selves by their gallant behavior. They lost, it is true, 
their intrepid commander. Major Brown; yet they suc- 
cessfully sustained a severe cannonade and bombardment 
which continued one hundred and sixty-eight hours, till 
at length the fort was relieved, and the siege raised, by 
the arrival of Taylor's army immediately after the victo- 
ries of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. 

Capture of Monterey. — So much success obtained 

* Mansfield, Mexican War, ch. ii. pp. 38, 39. 



ANNEXATION OF TEXAS, ETC. 557 

withiu so short a time inspired the Americans not only 
with great joy and confidence, but also with a violent 
thirst for new conquests. No longer satisfied with the 
possession of Texas, they now prepared to penetrate into 
the heart of the Mexican territory, particularly as valu- 
able reinforcements had been received, and the effective 
troops, independently of garrisons left in some places, 
amounted to nearly seven thousand men, full of hope and 
courage. They advanced in three divisions towards the 
south, and on the 19th of September, they arrived in 
sight of Monterey (the capital of New Leon, having met 
during their march no resistance except from skirmishing 
parties of Mexican cavalry. 

Monterey is described by historians as an important 
place, well fortifi.ed both by nature and art. The garri- 
son, under the command of Pedro Ampudia, consisted, it 
is said, of about seven thousand regular troops, and 
two or three thousand irregulars, being consequently 
more numerous than the whole besieging army. Not- 
withstanding these strong defences, General Taylor 
thought it possible to carry the city by storm, by artil= 
lery and the bayonet. His hopes were realized. 

The attack began on the 30th of September, and was 
renewed during three successive days. The besiegers 
were occasionally repulsed at some points; but several 
divisions gained ground, till at length, they succeeded in 
carrying the outer posts and fortifications, and in 
occupying several parts of the city. 

As the Mexicans, however, had offered a brave resist- 
ance, and their artillery in particular had inflicted great 
loss on the Americans, the final success of the latter was 
not obtained without considerable loss. The attack on 
the citadel, if attempted, threatened to cost them the 
lives of many other brave soldiers. This consideration, 
added to other cogent reasons, induced the commander- 
in-chief to lend a willing ear to the proposals made, on 
the 24th of September, by General Ampudia. This 
officer offered to surrender the city and the citadel, on 
favorable and honorable terms. They were granted, and 
the Mexican troops withdrew from the place with all the 
honors of war. 

The surrender of Monterey opened a large field to the 
enterprising spirit of the Americans; during the next 



558 MODERN HISTORY. 

three months they subdued a vast extent of country, and 
occupied the important places of Saltillo, Tampico, and 
Victoria. Nor was the work of conquest carried on 
merely in this portion of the Mexican republic. Other 
expeditions had, in the interim, been set on foot by the 
cabinet at Washington, for the purpose of detaching from 
the central government of Mexico its northern and north- 
western provinces. These expeditions were placed under 
the command of General Wool, on the one hand, and, on 
the other, of General Kearney, assisted by the intrepid 
Colonel Doniphan. They did not, at the time, gain any 
material advantage, yet they also contributed to show the 
power of American energy and valor, and subdued a very 
considerable, though almost uninhabited, territory. 

Success of the American arms on the Pacific 
coast. — About the same time, or even before the events 
just related, similar events took place in California. 
These were accomplished through Captain Fremont, 
an officer equally distinguished for bold enterprise and 
scientific attainments. With less than two hundred rifle- 
men, he defeated and drove before him all the Mexicans 
on his way, and reinforced by Commodore Stockton, 
entered the Californian capital in the month of August, 
1846. Thus was completed in a short campaign, and 
almost without bloodshed, the conquest of California. 

Battle of Buena Vista, Feb'y, 1847. —However 
surprising these exploits, still greater and more impor- 
tant were performed by General Taylor. He was now far 
advanced in his march across Mexico, when he received 
information of the approach of a hostile force, amount- 
ing to at least twenty thousand men. To this great 
number the American general could hardly oppose five 
thousand soldiers, as his army had been reduced by send- 
ing a very considerable portion of his forces to fight 
under General Scott, but, as compensation for this great 
disparity, he possessed brave and skilful officers, excellent 
artillery, and a strong position, selected by himself, on 
the heights of Buena Vista. 

The two armies were in sight of each other on the 
33d of February, 1847. The celebrated leader, Santa 
Anna, then at the head of the Mexican forces, was so 
confident of victory, that, before commencing the attack, 
he sent a message to General Taylor, summoning him to 



ANNEXATION OF TEXAS, ETC. 559 

surrender unconditionally. Of course no satisfactory 
answer was returned, and thB conflict began on the same 
day, too late however in the evening for any material 
result; the decisive action was reserved for the following 
day, the 23d, a day forever memorable in the annals of 
American warfare. 

The battle lasted from seven in the morning till six in 
the evening, which alone shows how warmly it was con- 
tested. Twice during the day, the Mexicans, by their 
superior numbers, their bravery, and the generalship 
of their commander-in-chief, obtained a considerable, 
although only partial and transient advantage. March- 
ing on to the attack with determined vigor, they out- 
flanked the left and going to the rear of their opponents^ 
forced some regiments to fall back with great loss and in 
disorder, and, occupying their position, placed the whole 
American army in imminent peril. But the heroic calm- 
ness of General Taylor, the wisdom of his orders, their 
prompt execution, the steady fire of his artillery, which 
produced dreadful havoc among the dense masses of 
the assailants, and the stern intrepidity of a large num- 
ber of his troops, at length won the day, and left him in 
possession of the field.* 

The Mexicans, thus foiled in their attempt to carry 
the American position, retreated during the night, hav- 
ing lost according to even Santa Anna's account, more 
than fifteen hundred men killed and wounded, while the 
remainder, exposed to painful privations and given up 
to despondency scattered themselves in different direc- 
tions, either following their officers, or altogether aban- 
doning their standards. Hence the issue of the battle of 
Buena Vista was of immense advantage to the Americans; 
it left them absolute masters of the field, secured for 



*The Mexican general, in his report of the battle of Buena Vista, 
repeatedly intimates that victory had been on his side ; but these expres- 
sions cannot be understood to mean any thing else than the momentary 
successes which he obtained at different parts of the day. From his own 
account, the ultimate result was certainly against him. Independently 
of the disappointment and discontent which characterize his letter, and 
bespeak the vanquished rather than the victorious general, Santa Anna 
candidly admits, 1st, that he could not, as he intended, drive the Ameri- 
cans from their last intrenchment, and 2d, that no later than the 
ensuing night, he was compelled by circumstances to withdraw from the 
field of battle. Does not this amount to an implicit acknowledgment ol 
failure on bis part, and ultimate success to the Americans ? 



560 MODERN HISTORT. 

them the frontier of the Kio Grande, and while it crowned 
their exploits on that side, spread terror and dismay 
through the Mexican nation. 

The war was now mainly by orders from the American 
government, to be carried on in another part of the coun- 
try. About this time, General Scott, who had hitherto 
been actively engaged in making the necessary arrange- 
ments for the troops, arrived from Washington to take in 
person a still more active share in the war. He was not 
to change General Taylor's plan of operations; but he 
had been appointed to act as commander-in-chief, and to 
have the direction of the main expedition against Mexico. 

Capitulation of Vera Cruz. — General Scott reached 
by sea the frontiers of the Mexican republic. Having 
collected twelve thousand men, and being provided with 
everything necessary for a siege, he landed them without 
any loss, at a short distance from Vera Cruz. The bom- 
bardment of this city began on the 22d of March, 1847, 
and was continued for four days in succession, with awful 
activity and terrible effect. All that time, the defence 
of the Mexicans was spirited and obstinate; but after the 
26th, at the sight of the immense havoc that had been 
already produced, they at length, in order to avoid entire 
destruction, resolved to surrender. Two days later, the 
articles of capitulation were signed. Full protection was 
secured to the inhabitants; the honors of war were granted 
to the garrison; the Mexican troops, upon these terms, 
evacuated the place, and the American flag waved over 
the city of Vera Cruz and its renowned fortress, the Cas- 
tle of San Juan de Ulloa. 

As soon as the necessary preparation could be made, 
the victorious army advanced into the Mexican territory, 
in the direction of Jalapa; but, before they reached this 
place, a new and formidable obstacle presented itself. It 
was necessary to cross a ridge of high mountains, and the 
almost impregnable heights of Cerro Gordo, fortified both 
by nature and art. Here again stood Santa Anna, ready 
to oppose their passage. After his repulse at Buena 
Vista, this general had rapidly traversed the central prov^ 
inces with a considerable portion of his troops, and now, 
at the head of fifteen thousand men, sought to defend a 
position naturally so strong, with batteries and intrench- 
ments. . ' 



ANNEXATION OF TEXAS, ETC. 561 

Battle of Cerro Gordo. — It seemed rashness to 
assault a position of tliis kind; yet so urgent was the 
necessity of an attempt, and so great the cofiifidence of 
General Scott in the valor of his troops, that the attack 
was resolved upon for the ibth of April. The orders to 
the several divisions of the army, and the directions for 
their intended movements, were given with almost pro- 
phetic exactness; and the execution on the part of the 
officers and soldiers was equally admirable. Those in 
front were, it is true, comj)elled, after bravely fighting, 
to withdraw before the Mexican batteries; but their gal- 
lant effort was not altogether fruitless, as it occupied the 
enemy's attention on that side. Those in flank, although 
likewise exposed to a murderous fire of artillery and mus- 
ketry, ascended the long and difficult slope of Cerro 
Gordo with the utmost steadiness, reached the breast- 
works of that fortress, drove the Mexicans from them, 
planted their colors, and after some minutes more of 
sharp firing, finished the conquest with the bayonet. 

This memorable action cost the Americans about two 
hundred and fifty men killed or wounded, among whom 
were several officers of distinction. In return for this 
loss, they had obtained a complete triumph; and so great 
a quantity of large guns, stands of arms and ammunition, 
fell into their hands, that they were really embarrassed 
by the results of victory. The Mexicans, besides, lost a 
great number of slain and wounded, and three thousand 
prisoners, together with five of their generals. The rest 
of their troops, eight thousand in number, under the 
command of Santa Anna, fled precipitately in the direc- 
tion of Jalapa. 

The city of Puebla entered by American troops 
in May, 1847. — The principal effect of the battle and 
capture of Cerro Gordo, very similar to that which fol- 
lowed the capture of Monterey, was to open for the 
Americans a free road towards the Mexican capital. 
For some weeks they advanced into the country with lit- 
tle or no opposition, taking possession, as they went on, 
of all the castles and towns in their way, amoug others of 
the ancient and populous city of Puebla, situated nearly 
midway between Vera Cruz and Mexico. That city was 
entered towards the middle of May, 1847, by the first 
division of the army iinder General Worth^^a brave and 



562 MODERN HISTORY. 

skilful officer, who, after having greatly distinguished 
himself under General Taylor, continued to serve under. 
General Scott. 

Thus, within the short space of two months, the city 
of Vera Cruz had been compelled to surrender; the famed 
castle of San Juan de Ulloa was also taken; the almost 
impregnable tower of Cerro Gordo was carried by storm; 
the town of Jalapa entered; the strong fortress of Perote 
captured, and Puebla occupied. Ten thousand Mexicans 
made prisoners of war, and a vast amount of ammunition, 
splendid cannon and stand of arms, were the spoils of the 
victories won by the American troops in a campaign of 
only eight or nine weeks. History presents but few 
instances of achievements at the same time so brilliant 
and so rapid. 

But the American army itself had met with severe 
losses, and its numbers were greatly reduced, not only by 
death on the field of battle, but also by fatigue, disease, 
or desertion, and by the departure of several corps, after 
one year of service. This obliged General Scott to reside 
for some months in the city of Puebla, in expectation of 
new reinforcements. When these arrived, and his army 
was again placed on a respectable footing, he resumed his 
march towards Mexico; on the 18th of August, his forces 
amounting to about ten thousand men, were concentrated 
near San Augustin, nine miles south of that capital . 

Capture of the city of Mexico in Sept., 1847. — On 
the 20th of August, the Americans attacked all the forti- 
fied posts occupied by the enemy in their neighborhood, . 
and notwithstanding the intrenchments, and the numer- 
ical superiority of the Mexicans, carried them all with the 
sword and the bayonet. The well-contested battle of 
Ohurubusco, fought in the evening of the same memor- 
able day, completed the success of the previous partial 
actions. It lasted three hours, with terrible and inces- 
sant discharges of musketry and artillery from both sides. 
At last the Americans conquered, and the Mexicans were 
defeated in every part of the field, with the loss of several 
thousand men killed, wounded, or prisoners. 

To prevent further bloodshed, negotiations for a capit- 
ulation were opened, but they failed, and General Scott 
ordered the final attack. In spite of new dangers, occa- 
sioned both by the nature of the ground and by various 



ANNEXATION OF TEXAS, ETC. 563 

fortifications in the neighborhood and at the entrance of 
Mexico, the American troops made their advance with 
but little interruption. This indeed required strenuous 
efforts, and cost the lives of many brave officers and sol- 
diers, especially in the storming of the formidable de- 
fences of Chapultepec, Molino del Rey and Casa de Mata; 
yet every obstacle yielded to their undaunted energy, and 
a series of well-directed and successful attacks, during 
the space of forty-eight hours, at last made them masters 
of the great Mexican capital (September, 1847 *). 

Conclusion of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. 
— The Mexicans had, up to this moment, entertained the 
hope of driving the American forces from their territory. 
This hope must now have A'^anished before the stern evi- 
dence of facts. The federal government and General 
Santa Anna fled; a deputation of the city council was 
sent to the American leader, and negotiations were begun 
to treat of peace. The terms, being settled between the 
commissioners of each party, were forwarded to the gov- 
ernment at Washington, and here they underwent some 
alterations and amendments, which the Mexican congress 
accepted without much difficulty. After the ratification 
had taken place on their part, " the Amei'ican commis- 
sioners officially informed the secretary of state that the 
treaty was complete, and on the 19th of June, 1848, two 
years and two months from the commencement of the 
war, the American people were formally notified that there 
was peace between Mexico and the United States." f 

The war had cost the lives of nearly twenty thousand 
Americans, who either fell in battle, or died of disease, 
while the cost amounted to upwards of one hundred and 
fifty millions of dollars; to which must be added the sum 
of fifteen millions of dollars to be paid to the Mexican 
republic, as an indemnification for their cession and loss 
of several extensive provinces. It is true that a vast ter- 
ritory had thus been acquired by the United States, and 
it cannot be denied that a surface of six hundred and 
thirty thousand square miles, including Upper California 
and New Mexico, was a valuable acquisition; yet as the 



* See the official report of the commander-in-chief, General Scott, dated 
September 18, 1847, from the National Palace of Mexico. 
f Mansfield, Mexican War, p. 332. 



564 MODERN HISTORY. 

greater part of this immense tract of country was unpro- 
ductive and uninhabited, it could scarcely have been con- 
sidered a sufficient compensation for the vast expenditure 
of money and life, had it not been for the paramount 
advantages that were to arise from it, with regard to 
commerce and civilization. A great movement imme- 
diately took place towards these newly acquired posses- 
sions. Multitudes of emigrants hurried to the shores of 
the Pacific, for the purpose of working the golden mines 
of Upper California. Settlements were made, and the 
population increased with wonderful rapidity, not only in 
California, but in New Mexico and Texas. 

Such was the immediate efiEect of the Mexican treaty 
on the American people. As for the two distinguished 
men who acted the chief parts in the war, General Scott 
and General Taylor, they found a proper reward for their 
brilliant achievements in the esteem and gratitude of their 
fellow-eitizens. The former enjoyed the honor of being 
considered one of the best generals of his time, and the 
latter, besides a similar reputation attached to his name, 
was raised, soon after the conclusion of the war, to the 
first dignity of his country, that of President of the 
United States. He died in the exercise of his functions, 
on the 9th of July, 1850. 

PISTVRBANCES AND REVOLUTIOBIS IS 
EUROPE.*— A.I>. 1§48-I§50. 

While the United States were thus rapidly rising in 
power and in extent of territory, Europe was given up to 
a series of political disturbances and revolutions. In vari- 
ous parts of the continent, either discontent under the 



* The reader will easily perceive that the revolutionists of Europe are 
pot viewed, here, in the same favorable light as they are by many persons 
on this side of the Atlantic. Want of sufficient acquaintance with the 
real state of things may be pleaded as an excuse for these persons ; yet it 
is surprising that those European Socialists, Red Republicans, etc., should 
be considered the friends of liberal and free institutions, merely because 
they have continually in their mouths the words liberty and republican- 
ism, while their real object, generally speaking, is no other than dis- 
order, anarchy, plunder, and spoliation ; even frequently assassination 
and bloodshedf ; in a word, oppression of others, and for themselves unre- 
strained license to commit every species of evil. This, in fact, is what 
their conduct and actions have sumcientiy given us to understand: " By 
their fruits you shall know them." 



DISTURBANCES IN" EUROPE. 565 

pressure of misery, or more frequently, a spirit of restless- 
ness and insubordination, and an inordinate desire for 
social changes, gave rise to many violent outbreaks against 
governments. Besides several incidents of this kind that 
occurred in Switzerhmd, Germany, Prussia, etc., such was 
the case particularly with France, the Austrian domin- 
ions, and the different states of Italy. 

France. — After the death of Louis XVIII. who was 
indebted for the throne to the foreign powers which had 
overthrown the first empire, his brother Charles X. suc- 
ceeded him in 1824. The unpopularity of his govern- 
ment caused the so-called July Revolution in July, 1830, 
in consequence of which he abdicated for himself and his 
son, the duke of Angouleme, in favor of his grandson 
Henry, duke of Bordeaux (known as Count of Chambord), 
the son of Charles, duke of Berry, who had been mur- 
dered in 1830. The French peers, however, and the 
deputies had decided upon Louis Philippe, who belonged to 
the younger line of Orleans, who was raised to the throne 
as "King of the French." Neither the successful expe- 
dition against Algiers, which ended by the capture of 
Abd el Kadir by Lamoriciere in 1847, nor the Soult- 
Guizot ministry was able to prevent the outbreak of the 
Revolution of February 22, 1848. Louis Philippe abdi- 
cated in favor of his grandson, the Count of Paris and 
retired to England where he died in 1850. France, being 
declared a second time a republic, became now the theatre 
of bloody barricade fights under the so-called provisional 
government. 

The chief acts of this government were, on the one 
hand, an enormous increase of taxes, and on the other, 
the convocation of a national assembly, or congress, to 
be composed of representatives from all parts of France, 
and whose chief object was the framing of a new consti- 
tution for the country. This was accordingly done, and 
the session voted for a republican form of government, in 
which the legislative power should reside in a national 
assembly, consisting of seven hundred representatives- 
elected for three years, and the executive power in a pres- 
ident, chosen for four years by a majority of the people. 

But these regulations did not satisfy a certain class of 
men, who, under the name of Red Republicans or Social- 
ists, wished to destroy every distinction of rank, every 



566 MODERN HISTORY. 

inequality of fortune, and, contrary to all regulations of 
property, aimed at enriching one-half of the people, and 
themselves first of all, at the expense of the other half. 
The followers of this party resting their hopes much 
more on continual changes of government than on any 
regular state of things, prepared to make, in the very 
centre of Paris, a mighty effort to frustrate the plans of 
the national assembly, bring the city under their own 
control, and effect a new revolution. 

Numerous and well-organized forces, supplies of guns 
and ammunition, a well-combined plan of attack, skilful 
leaders, barricades and other fortifications, all contrib- 
uted to render the Parisian insurrection of June, 1848, 
one of the most formidable attempts that ever threatened 
the existence of social order. It required all the devoted- 
ness of the well-meaning citizens and troops, all the 
energy of General Cavaignac and other brave comman- 
ders, and three days of hard fighting and much blood- 
shed, to suppress entirely this terrible manifestation of 
the socialist party. Among all the victims of those days, 
the most conspicuous was M. Affre, archbishop of Paris, 
who, in his earnest desire to imitate the good shepherd 
that gives his life for his sheep, fell mortally wounded 
near a barricade, while endeavoring to pacify the mis- 
guided portion of his flock, and to effect a reconciliation. 

The recent victory over the insurgents had done great 
honor to General Cavaignac, and raised him high in the 
esteem of the nation. Hence he appeared as a candidate 
for the presidency, and with great probability of success; 
but the tide of popular favor took another direction. 
Whether out of respect for the name of Napoleon, or 
through the hope of returning to a princely form of gov- 
ernment, Louis Napoleon, a nephew of the great emperor 
of France, was elected, in December, 1848, president of 
the French republic. 

Austria. — The revolutionary spirit pervaded, to a 
greater or less extent, Vienna, Prague, and other cities, 
together with Hungary, Lombardy, and other provinces. 
So violent indeed was the storm at a certain period, that 
the Emperor Ferdinand abdicated his crown, and ex- 
ecuted his resolution towards the close of the year 1848, 
in behalf of his nephew, the Archduke Francis Joseph 
who ascended the throne as Emperor Francis Joseph I. 



I 



DISTURBANCES IN EUROPE. 567 

The court, however, while yielding something to the 
exigency of the times, did not sink under the weight of 
so many difficulties. With a firmness and energy worthy 
of the Austrian character, the government levied numer- 
ous troops, and, by persevering in their efforts, gradually 
succeeded in suppressing the insurrection in all the 
places and countries just mentioned. 

The struggle was long and obstinately maintained, both 
in Hungary and Northern Italy. Led by the distinguished 
orator, Kossuth, the Hungarians had revolted, and de- 
clared their independence. A memorable struggle now 
followed (1848-1849), in which the patriotic Hungarians 
made a noble fight for freedom, but were at last over- 
powered and crushed by the combined Austrian and Rus- 
sian armies. The Czar had been induced to aid in the 
suppression of the revolt, through fear that the example 
of successful rebellion on his frontier might be a danger- 
ous incitement to his own discontented subjects. 

The war in Northern Italy was not less decisive in 
favor of Austria. It seemed at first that the insurgents 
of Lombardy, aided by the chivalrous king of Sardinia, 
Charles Albert, would carry everything before them, and 
expel forever those whom they called foreigners from 
their terriority; but their triumph was very short, and 
their joy quickly taken away by subsequent reverses. 
Numerous armies of Austrians, pouring in from the Alps, 
soon restored the imperial power throughout Lombardy, 
and Charles Albert was not only disappointed in his lofty 
designs of conquest and aggrandizement, but even taught, 
by several defeats, to tremble for his own kingdom (a.d. 
1848). 

An armistice, however, was granted him by the con- 
querors. But as the two parties could not, in the inter- 
val, come to a settlement of their differences, prepara- 
tions were made on both sides for a renewal of hostilities. 
There now existed a still greater disproportion between 
them than before, and the king of Sardinia, well aware of 
it, recommenced the struggle much against his own judg- 
ment, and compelled, as it were, by the earnest wishes of 
imprudent counsellors and subjects. The common feel- 
ing on the opposite side was quite the reverse; the armies 
of Austria, and their able commander-in-chief. Marshal 



568 MODEKN HISTORY. 

Kadetski, were animated by the recollection of past suc- 
cess, and marched to the field of battle confident of 
future triumphs. 

Eadetski left Milan at the head of forty thousand men, 
on the 13th of March, 1849, and crossed the Ticino on 
the 20th, by the bridge at Vigevano. At that place he 
met with some slight resistance from the Piedmontese, 
but not of such a nature as to impede his progress; he 
therefore immediately advanced to Mortara, and, while 
with the main body of his troops he went on towards Ver- 
celli, so disposed his left wing as to intercept one-half of 
the Piedmontese army. By this sudden and bold ad- 
vance of their enemy, two of their divisions were sepa- 
rated from the rest, and Charles Albert, who commanded 
in person the other portion of the Sardinian army, was 
forced to give battle upon very unequal terms. He had 
scarcely any artillery, while the Austrians had upwards of 
a hundred field pieces, which enabled them to destroy 
thousands of the Piedmontese with grape-shot; hence the 
latter were entirely defeated, and compelled to retire pre- 
cipitately towards Turin. This battle was fought on the 
22d of March, nine days after the departure of Radetski 
from Milan. 

On the following day, the two parties again met near 
Novara, where the Austrians gained a second victory 
still more signal and complete than the first. The Pied- 
montese made a still greater resistance than in the pre- 
vious battle, and their loss was frightful, not being 
less, it is thought, than fifteen thousand men killed. 
The rest of their troops w«re driven in every direction j 
Charles Albert himself, after having during the conflict 
given proofs of the most determined courage, fled into 
Switzerland, and thence into Spain, not however till he 
had abdicated his crown in favor of his son Victor. Such 
was the result of those dreams of ambition, which had 
prompted him to believe that he might gain possession 
of all Northern Italy. 

Marshal Radetski returned in triumph to Milan, after 
an absence of only eleven days, during which he had 
achieved one of the most glorious exploits of modern 
times. His victory proved a decisive one, and put an 
end to the war. In August following, a treaty was con- 







Scale uf Miles 
12 Longitude East 14 from Greeowlcb 16 



DISTURBANCES IN EUROPE. 569 

eluded between the two states upon terms favorable to 
Austria, without, however, derogating from the honor of 
the Sardinian government. 

Great disturbances and alarming insurrections had like- 
wise occurred in the south of Italy, but all were also sup- 
pressed by the vigor and energy of the Neapolitan court. 
Indeed, the obstinate resistance of several cities espe- 
cially in Sicily (for instance, Catania, Messina, and Syra- 
cuse), merely served to provoke against them measures of 
greater severity. 

The Papal States — Owing to a variety of circum- 
stances, affairs had not been so soon and so easily settled 
at Rome. Long before this, the enlightened and benev- 
olent pontiff, Pius IX., had taken the lead of all contem- 
porary sovereigns in granting liberal institutions to his 
people, and in doing for them whatever could reasonably 
be attempted for their prosperity and happiness. This 
beneficence at first excited universal applause and enthu- 
siasm ; when, through the vile intrigues and machina- 
tions of his enemies, these just sentiments towards the 
pope were in a short time changed by revolt and ingrati- 
tude. There is no kind of outrage that was not perpe- 
trated against his paternal authority by these enemies of 
order and virtue, whether natives of Rome or foreigners, 
the very dregs of European society. As their only ob- 
ject was to promote their own interest, even at the sacri- 
fice of public and private tranquillity, the most abusive 
language, misrepresentations, calumnies, plots and assas- 
sinations, became at Rome the order of the day. Cow- 
ardice, or treason and rebellion, deprived the pope of 
every means of stopping these disorders; nay, his prime 
minister, Count Rossi, was publicly murdered, and he 
himself being attacked and imprisoned, as it were, in his 
own palace, was more and more exposed to the savage 
clamors and attempts of an infuriated rabble. At length, 
by the skilful management of the Bavarian and French 
ambassadors, he happily escaped from Rome, and travel- 
ling in haste, reached Gaeta, in the kingdom of Naples, 
where he met with the most cordial reception from both 
the king and the king's family and subjects (November, 
1848). 

The first solemn act performed by the pontiff in his ex- 
ile was one of apostolic vigor. On the first of January^ 



570 MODERN HISTORY. 

1849, he excommunicated the usurpers of his power and 
the oppressors of his people, and, as this measure had 
little effect on persons who were total strangers to relig- 
ion, honor, and humanity, he appealed, in order to check 
the course of their impious excesses, to the intervention 
of the Catholic powers. The appeal was readily responded 
to. While the Austrians, Neapolitans and Spaniards sent 
bodies of troops to the different provinces of the Ecclesias- 
tical State, to re-establish in them the pope's authority, a 
French army, having landed at Civita Vecchia, fearlessly 
marched against Eome irself, defended as it was by forti- 
fications, barricades, and, it is said, twenty-eight thousand 
Socialists, Eomans and foreigners. The French met at 
first a trifling check, which merely taught them to be 
more cautious in their advance. The skill of General 
Oudinot and the bravery of his troops soon bore every- 
thing before them, and by destroying the works and car- 
rying the strongest positions of the enemy, forced the 
city to an unconditional surrender, on the 29th of June, 
1849. On the 2d of July, the victorious general entered 
it at the head of his army, and immediately proclaimed 
the restoration of the pontifical government; yet the 
pope's return to Eome was still postponed, and did not 
take place till the following April. 

It fortunately happened in the following year, through 
a special intervention of the Providence of God, moved 
by the prayers of His people, that while another and 
frightful storm was gathering on all sides, the President 
of the French Eepublic, Napoleon, by suddenly concen- 
trating the ruling policy in his hands, crippled the power 
of Socialism in France. Dissensions having arisen be- 
tween the President and the Legislative Assembly, he 
suddenly dissolved that body, placed its leaders under 
arrest, and then appealed to the country to endorse what 
he had done. By a most extraordinary vote of 7,437,216, 
to 640,737, the nation approved of the President's coup 
d'etat, and rewarded him for it by electing him President 
for ten years, which was virtually making him dictator. 
The next year (1852) he was made Emperor and took the 
title of Napoleon III.* 

* The young duke of Reichstadt, son of the first Napoleon, is supposed, 
under the new dynasty, to have been, by right, Emperor Napoleon II. 



CRIMEAN WAR. 573 



CRIMEAN WAR.— A.D. 1§54-1§56. 

In the year 1853, the East of Europe became again 
the theatre of momentous events. The Eussian Czar, 
Nicholas, proud of his colossal power, and ill concealing 
his ambition under the plea of protecting the Greek sub- 
jects of the Ottoman empire,* declared war against the 
Turks, and himself opened the contest by invading the 
Danubian Provinces of the Turkish territory. Though 
the Kussians had in the main been unsuccessful at first, 
and had even suffered great los&, especially at Giurgevo 
and before the walls of Silistria, the other great powers of 
Europe took the alarm, on seeing endangered the integ- 
rity of Turkey, the maintenance of which seemed neces- 
sary for the preservation of the balance of power in 
Europe. England and France, Prussia and Austria 
offered to mediate, but without success, and the war 
between the two empires continued. Accordingly, in the 
spring of the year 1854, Engiand, under Queen Victoria, 
and France, under Napoleon III., espoused the cause of 
the Sultan. 

Landing at Eupatoria — Battles of Alma^ 
Storming of the Malakoff. — The allies having com- 
pelled the Eussians to withdraw from the Danubian Prov- 
inces, began, in their turn, a war of aggression. They 
resolved to take possession of Sebastopol, which was the 
seat of the Eussian power in the Crimean peninsula. On 
the 14th of September, the French, English and Turks 
landed at Eupatoria without meeting any resistance; and 
on the 20th, the battle of Alma opened for them the way 
to Sebastopol. The siege of that stronghold Avas one of 
the most memorable in history. Terrible was the attack 
by land and by sea, most courageous was the defence. 
The eyes of all Europe were turned towards Sebastopol, 
and all the efforts of the belligerents were concentrated at 
that point. The Czar sent thither constant reinforce- 
ments; the Western powers did the same. Every spot of 
ground in the neighborhood of the city witnessed some 

* Strange to say, the emperor Nicholas pretended to vindicate the rights 
of his co-religionists, whom the Turkish government did not persecute, 
while he himself cruelly oppressed numbers of his unoffending Catholic 
subjects. 



572 MODERN HISTORY. 

wonderful display of fortitude and valor. The siege in 
which the Sardinians took part in January, 1855, lasted, 
with almost daily encounters, until the beginning of 
September. The allies, then, thinking their work suffi- 
ciently advanced, fixed on the 8th of that month for a 
general assault. They opened it by a terrible bombard- 
ment, which began on the 5th, and was continued for 
three days and three nights. When the batteries ceased 
thundering, the besiegers rivalling one another in courage, 
precipitated themselves with astonishing intrepidity upon 
the defences of the enemy. Yet, it was not till after 
prodigies of valor, after being repulsed in six previous 
assaults, that the French succeeded in taking the MalakofE 
tower, which commanded the southern part of the city, 
and was the principal defence of Sebastopol. Before 
retiring. Prince GortschakoJf, the Eussian commander, 
sank his fleet, blew up those portions both of the fortifi- 
cations and of the town, which he was compelled to 
abandon, and fortified the northern part of Sebastopol. 
Here he continued for some time desperately to resist the 
most determined attacks; and when no longer able to 
withstand the combined efforts of his enemies, he made a 
skilful retreat, which enabled him to avoid a surrender. 

The treaty of Paris of 1856. — Sebastopol had be- 
come by this time a heap of ruins. Her fall was the 
occasion first of an armistice, then of the treaty of Paris, 
which was signed on the 30th of March, 1856. By this 
treaty, the Sultan confirmed the rights of his Christian 
subjects; Eussia renounced all protectorate over the 
Danubian Provinces; the navigation of the Danube was 
declared free from source to mouth; the Black Sea, of 
which Eussia had been the sole mistress since the destruc- 
tion of the Turkish navy at Navarino, became neutral, 
and was henceforth not to be entered by any vessel of 
war; nor could any fort be, in future, erected on its bor- 
ders. Such were the conditions to which Alexander II., 
who had succeeded his father, Nicholas, during the siege, 
was forced to submit; conditions which took from Eussia 
her most powerful means of action against Turkey, 
and made her lose all the advantages which it had 
taken her half a century to acquire. But, later on, 
after having terminated a terrible thirty years' war 
against the Circassians, utterly prostrated Poland, and 



THE ITALIAN WAR, ETC. 573 

apparently formed a very close alliance with the United 
States, she seemed to renew the prosecution of her 
long meditated projects of aggi'andizeaieut at the ex- 
pense of Tiirliey. It was doubtful whether the Western 
powers would ever again be sufficiently united and strong 
to stop the execution of an expansion so important in its 
results as to liave elicited from Napoleon I. this noted 
saying: '' Kussia at Constantinople would become the 
mistress of the world." 



THE ITALIAN IVAR AXD ITS COIVSEQUEMCES. 
A.D. 1 §59-1861. 

Cause of the war. — The influence of Austria had 
become preponderant in Italy since 1849. She had a 
powerful army in her Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom; her 
troops occupied the Legations; she saw either Austrian 
archdukes or faithful allies in all the secular princes of 
the peninsula, excepting Victor Emmanuel II., King of 
Sardinia. Assured of the friendship of England, and 
trusting in the assistance of Napoleon III., Victor Em- 
manuel, whose policy was now directed by count Cavour, 
resolved to employ every means, not only to ruin the 
Austrian power in Italy, but also to take advantage of 
all the discontents, legitimate or otherwise, of the penin- 
sula. For some time, he had been arming for this object, 
and had called to his aid volunteers from every other 
State of Italy. The emperor of Austria complained of 
such measures, and demanded the cessation of these prep- 
arations and the discharge of the volunteers. His pro- 
tests being unheeded, he ordered his army to cross the 
Ticino and invaded the Sardinian territory. 

Napoleon III. joins Italy against Austria. — Aus- 
tria had already been advised of the consequences of this 
step, and Napoleon III. now marciied his army into Italy, 
and placed himself at its head to direct the operations of 
the campaign. Then began a short but bloody war, in 
which both parties displayed the most heroic valor. The 
result of the great battle of Magenta, near the Ticino 
(June 14, 1859), was, for some time in doubt ; finally the 
Austrians retreated and evacuated Milan. A second and 
more desperate engagement took place on the right bank 
of the Mincio, near Solferino (June 24), and lasted> 



574 MODERN HISTORY. 

with varying success, from four o'clock in the morning 
till eight in the evening. The presence of their three 
sovereigns greatly animated the combatants. To the 
horrors of the conflict were added those of the elements. 
At four o'clock in the evening, a terrific hurricane swept 
over the two armies, and compelled them to suspend their 
bloody work. But the storm was hardly over, when the 
battle recommenced at all points with the same fury. At 
length, the Austrians who had engaged in the conflict 
with two hundred and twenty thousand men, and had 
suffered greater losses than their opponents, ceased fight- 
ing, recrossed the Mincio, and effected their retreat in 
good order, the enemy not daring to molest them. 
Though defeated, they had lost neither courage nor con- 
fidence, and they took a strong position in the vicinity of 
Verona. 

This still formidable aspect of the vanquished, the dif- 
ficulty of storming the fortresses that protected Venetia, 
the fear of seeing all Germany side with Austria, induced 
the victors promptly to make sure of Lombardy, already 
occupied by them, even at the price of abandoning their 
long-cherished plan of driving the Austrians from the 
whole peninsula. Therefore, on July 7, Napoleon sent 
an autograph letter to Francis-Joseph, and offered a truce 
to last till the loth of August, which was accepted. 
The two emperors having met at Villafranca, resolved to 
conclude a peace, and agreed upon the chief points of the 
treaty. A more detailed discussion of these points took 
place at Zurich, whither the interested parties sent their 
plenipotentiaries. Napoleon secured the delivery of 
Lombardy to the King of Sardinia, and some months 
after, received in return Savoy and the County of Nice. 

Italy's union — Spoliation of the Papal see. — But 
these were not the only results of the Italian war. The 
defeat of the Austrians had allowed the revolutionists to 
begin, immediately after the battle of Magenta, that 
transformation of Italy, which deprived several sovereigns 
of their dominions, and united the whole peninsula under 
the sway of the late King of Sardinia, now King of Italy. 
This unification its authors have tried to represent as the 
result of the free consent of the people; but it should 
rather be considered the work of a few men bribed by 
money to ask for annexation to Piedmont, while the 



THE ITALIAN WAR, ETC. 575 

majority of the population were forcibly reduced to 
silence. The papal dominions were among the first that 
experienced the elfect of such means, openly used or 
encouraged by the Sardinian government, and derisively 
styled moral. The Austrian garrison had no sooner with- 
drawn from Bologna, than the revolutionists in that city 
proclaimed as dictator, Victor Emmanuel, who ultimately 
united to his kingdom, in March, 1860, not only Bologna 
with all Romagna, a part of the papal territory; but, at 
the same time, the Duchies of Parma and Modena, and 
the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. Pius IX., seeing his pro- 
tests against these usurpations unavailing, and his appeals 
to the Catholic powers for assistance unheeded, now called 
upon the faithful throughout Europe, to furnish him 
with the means of preventing any further progress of the 
revolution in the provinces still remaining under his 
authority. At his invitation, a French general of high 
reputation, De Lamorici^re, generously undertook the 
difficult task of forming an efficient army. Attracted by 
the name of the hero and the holiness of the cause, young 
men of most distinguished families came in considerable 
numbers from all parts, to enlist under the standard 
of the Pope. But suddenly and without any declara- 
tion of war, a Sardinian army of sixty thousand men, 
well provided with artillery and headed by General 
Cialdini, crossed (Sept. 1860) the Roman frontiers, in- 
vaded the Marches, and at Castelfidardo, near Loretto, 
fell upon the heroic band of pontifical volunteers, who, 
overpowered by numbers, were either killed or captured. 
Their commander, De Lamoriciere, succeeded in escaping 
to Ancona. But this city, deprived of all succor, and 
shelled by the Sardinian fleet, was forced after a few days* 
siege to surrender. With Ancona the Holy See lost the 
Marches and Umbria, that is to say, the remainder of her 
possessions, with the exception of a narrow territory along 
the Mediterranean, including the cities of Rome and 
Civita Vecchia with an aggregate population of about half 
a million of inhabitants. 

The kingdom of Naples incorporated in Italy. — 
Meanwhile the revolution was progressing in other parts 
of Italy. In the beginning of May (I860,) Garibaldi, 
secretly assisted by England, landed in Sicily with two 
thousand volunteers; and secured the success of a revolt. 



~576 MODERN HISTOKY. 

which had just broken out in that island. This being 
accomplished, he recrossed the sea to snatch from Francis 
II., the youthful king of the Two-Sicilies, his continental 
possessions. Treason, always in advance of the advein- 
turer, opened the pities to him; and, without striking a 
blow, he entered Naples on the 7th of September. Then 
Cialdini, with the same army that had crushed the papal 
forces, at CasteljEidardo, hastened to his assistance, and 
laid siege to Gaeta, which was bravely defended by Fran- 
cis II. That : city, however, being at length forced to 
surrender (13th of February, 1861,) Francis retired to 
Kome on board of a French vessel. A few days after- 
wards, the first Italian parliament, composed of deputies 
from all Italy,, except Venetia and what remained of the 
States of the Church, assembled at Turin and proclaimed 
Victor Emmanuel II., King of Italy. 

Rome becomes the Seat of the Italian Govern- 
ment, and the Pope a prisoner in the Vatican.— 
Venetia and Rome were still wanting to the new King- 
dom of Italy. The efforts of Victor Emmanuel II. were 
therefore directed towards the acquisition of these two 
pro;^inGes. He accordingly joined Prussia in its war against 
Austria in 1866, and though himself defeated on land in 
the battle of Custozza on June 24, and at sea in the naval 
battle of Lissa on July 20, the defeat of Austria by Prus- 
sia obtained for him through Napoleon III., the province 
of Venetia. In 1867 Italian freebooters organized an expe- 
dition against Rome, the success of which induced Napo- 
leon III. to send an army to Italy, where he gained a 
victory over them at Mentana. But the recalling of the 
French troops from Rome in 1870 oifered to Victor Em- 
manuel an opportunity to annex the rest of the Papal do- 
minions and transfer the seat of the Government to Rome. 
It is true a " law of guarantees " was soon enacted by which 
the sovereign rights of the Pope to the Vatican and Lat- 
eran Palace and also Castle Gandolfo were recognized and 
an annual allowance made to the Holy Father, but this 
■unjustifiable usurpation and violation of international law 
has not been acceded to by Pope Pius IX., nor by his suc- 
cessor Leo XIII., who continued to reside simply as a pris- 
oner in Rome and refused to accept the revenue which 
the Italian Government was but too anxious to have 
liim receive. Since then this abnormal state of affairs con^ 



EUROPE A>f EXPEDITION TO CHINA, ETC. 57? 

tinues, but the Holy See upholds its sacred rights, and in 
spite of being imj)risoned. Pope Leo XIII. succeeded in 
gaining such a position of influence that the New German 
Empire under Prince Bismarck chose him as the arbi- 
trator in a difficulty between Germany and Spain and 
has, moreover, found it to its own best interests to put an 
end to the '* CulturkampE " by the abolition of the so- 
called " Falk-laws." Thus Providence preserves the See 
of St. Peter amidst the persecutions of every age. In 
1878 Victor Emmanuel died, and his son Humbert as- 
cended the throne. 



EUROPEAN EXPEDITIONS TO CHINA, COCHIN- 
CHINA, AND MEXICO.— A.D. I§57-1§66. 

Occupation of Canton — The treaty of Tien- 
Ts'n. — In 1857, England and France undertook together 
an expedition against China, the former to avenge inju- 
ries done to her navy, the latter, the death of several of 
her missionaries. The capture of Canton and the threat- 
ening advance of the allies towards Pekin, forced the 
Chinese to sign at Tien-Tsin (June, 1858), a treaty, 
which gave the two Western powers the right of having 
an ambassador at Pekin; opened five new ports to Euro- 
pean commerce; and guaranteed the free exercise of the 
Christian religion in the whole empire. In the following 
year, a renewal of hostilities by the Chinese once more 
compelled the allies to send against them considerable 
reinforcements. Their combined forces, triumphing over 
all resistance, boldly advanced under the very walls of 
Pekin, and entered the city on the 13th of October, 1860. 
The Tien-Tsin treaty was then ratified; the Chinese 
promised, besides, to restore to the Christians their relig- 
ious establishments, to open three ports more, and pay a 
war indemnity of sixty millions of francs to each of the 
victorious powers. 

The expedition against Annam ended by the 
treaty of Saigon, 1862. — This happy completion of 
the Chinese expedition enabled France to terminate 
another, which she had undertaken with Spain, in 1858, 
against Tu-Duc, emperor of Annam, in order to chastise 
him for his cruelties towards European missionaries. 



578 MODERN HISTORY. 

and for insults to the French navy. The French and 
Spaniards had succeeded, soon after their arrival, in tak- 
ing the cities of Touran and Saigon; but events in 
China interrupted operations. However, as soon as Na- 
poleon could spare a part of the forces which he had sent 
against the Chinese, he ordered them to resume active 
hostilities against the Annamites. The success of his 
troops compelled Tu-Duc to sign the treaty of Saigon, 
June, 1862, which ceded three provinces to France and 
agreed to an indemnity for the expenses of the war, the 
opening of three ports in Tongking, and the free ex- 
ercise of the Christian religion in the whole empire of 
Annam. Spain took no part in this latter expedition; 
but employing her energies in a field of action nearer 
home, and, in spite of her domestic troubles, in a short 
and glorious war against Morocco (1859) taught the Mo- 
hammedans to respect the life and religion of the Chris- 
tians, and secured for herself pecuniary and territorial 
indemnities. Moreover, in concert with England and 
France, she sent, soon after, troops to Mexico. 

The Mexican expedition and the treaty of 
London of i86l. — After the war between the United 
States and Mexico, the latter country, which had scarcely 
enjoyed a year of repose since the proclamation of her 
independence, was again greatly disturbed. Her internal 
dissensions were narrowed down to a fierce contest between 
tlie Church or conservative party and the liberals, whose 
aim was to abolish the special privileges of the clergy. 
A last struggle between President Miramon, chief of the 
conservative party, and Juarez, chief of the liberals, 
raised the latter to the Presidency (January, 1861). 
Juarez immediately began to persecute the Church and 
organize a wholesale pillage of her properties. Without 
any regard for international law or previous treaties, he 
suspended or annulled such obligations as had been con- 
tracted by the preceding government of Mexico towards 
European governments. England, Spain, and France, 
whose honor and interests had been more particularly in- 
jured by his repeated acts of bad faith, signed a treaty 
known as the London Convention (30th of October, 
1861), and resolved to act together against him. 

The French troops in Mexico — Maximilian, Em- 
peror of Mexico. — Before their troops had gone further 



CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES. 579 

than the eastern coasts of Mexico, misunderstandings 
arose among the three European powers. England and 
Spain accepted money indemnities and withdrew their 
forces. Napoleon, however, persisted in carrying out un- 
aided the original plan, reinforced his troops, and openly 
declared his intention of restoring order in the country 
and of furnishing it with the means of establishing a 
solid government. The French army, under General 
Forey, captured Puebla after a siege of two months 
(17th of May, 1803), and made its entrance into the 
city of Mexico in tlie following June. An assembly of 
Notables then convened in that capital; and at once, 
without debate, declared unanimously for an imperial 
government. The Archduke Maximilian of Austria was 
at the same time proclaimed emperor. 

Maximilian's heroic death in 1867. — When this 
young and ambitious prince arrived in 1864 in Mexico, 
only about one half of the country had been conquered. 
Juarez had retired into the Northern provinces and the 
United States recognised the Eepublic under him, de- 
manding at the same time that the French troops be with- 
drawn from Mexico. Emperor Napoleon III. acceded to 
this demand, and Emperor Maximilian, though gifted 
with excellent abilities, found it impossible to reconcile 
the claims of the liberals and conservatives, the imperial 
and the republican parties. With but few troops he con- 
tinued the war, until surrounded in Queretaro, and by 
treachery captured. Juarez ordered him to be tried by 
a court-martial, and on June 19, 1867, the noble emperor, 
with two of his faithful generals, was shot in Queretaro. 
His body was afterward, by an Austrian squadron under 
Admiral Tegethoff, conveyed to Trieste, and finally in- 
terred in the vault of the church of the Capuchins in 
Vienna, where the members of the imperial family have 
been buried since 1633. 



CIVIL. WAR IIV THE UNITED STATES. 
A.D. IS61-1865. 

The Southern Confederacy formed under Jeffer- 
son Davis. — While the United States were advancing 
with rapid strides in population, wealth, and power, and 
presenting to the world the spectacle of a material pro- 



580 MODERN HISTORY. 

gress truly unparalleled in history, they suddenly became 
the theatre of a gigantic civil war, which had its cause in 
the institution of domestic slavery. A large number of 
persons, particularly in the Northern States, had always 
regarded slavery as a blot on the escutcheon of the Re- 
public, and towards the year 1832, commenced a political 
agitation for its abolition, which was followed by a coun- 
ter-agitation for its maintenance. Two parties were thus 
formed; and on the election of Abraham Lincoln to the 
Presidency (Nov. 4, 1860), the pro-slavery party consider- 
ing their interests insecure under his administratiou, re- 
solved to carry out their long-threatened project of seces- 
sion. Before the inauguration of the new President, and 
notwithstanding his promises to maintain the laws of the 
Union, the seven slave-holding States of South Carolina, 
Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and 
Texas (they were soon joined by the States of Virginia, 
Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee) formed them- 
selves into a separate Confederacy, and elected Jeffer- 
son Davis, President. They hastened moreover to take 
possession of all the forts and public property within 
their limits. Major Anderson having refused to deliver 
up Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor, was, on the 12th 
of April, 1861, attacked by five Confederate batteries 
under the command of General Beauregard. The fort 
surrendered on the afternoon of the 13th, and was evacu- 
ated on Sunday, the 14th. Uncontrollable excitement 
now filled the country, at this signal of war. 

As the news flashed over the telegraphic wires, it was 
instantly followed by the summons of the President, '* to 
arms." On the night of the 14th was issued his proc- 
lamation, ordering seventy-five thousand men into the 
fi.eld for the defence of the Union. 

The battle of Bull Run. — In July, General McDow- 
ell, having command of the Federal force assembled 
around Washington, began to march upon Eichmond, in 
Virginia, which had lately become the capital of the new 
Confederacy. He soon met with a portion of the Confed- 
erate troops, under the command of General Beauregard. 
On the 21st of July, a serious conflict between the two 
armies took place near a small creek named Bull Run, 
and terminated in the complete rout of the Union forces. 
This defeat at once aroused the Northern States to more 



CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES. 581 

energetic action, and to a keener sense of the magnitude 
of the struggle in which they were engaged. Congress 
immediately took efficacious measures to levy an immense 
army, and so great were the exertions made to promote 
volunteering, so liberal were the bounties offered to those 
who enlisted, that the number of troops in the. field, by 
the beginning of the year 1862, exceeded four hundred 
and fifty thousand.* The Southerners, on their side, 
prepared for war with no less ardor. The success of Bull 
Eun had awakened among them such a spirit of enthu- 
siasm, and such confidence in the, ultimate triumph of tlie 
Confederacy, that volunteers offered themselves in very 
large numbers. They were, however, found insufficient 
to resist the various corps of Federals, which operated 
simultaneously in Virginia, West Virginia, Tennessee, 
North Carolina, and Kentucky. The Confederate Con- 
gress then passed (April, 1862) an act of conscription, 
which declared every man, with a few exceptions, between 
the ages of eighteen and thirty-five years, a soldier. This 
measure, it wa» supposed would secure a sufficient num- 
ber of men to repel successfully every assault of the 
enemy. By that time, the campaign had been fairly in- 
augurated and some important events had already taken 
place. 

Surrender of Fort Donelson to U. S. Grant- 
Battle of Shiloh. — Fort Donelson on the Cumberland 
river was attacked in February by General Grant. For 
several days, the Confederate garrison obstinately de- 
fended every approach to the Fort. But, on the third 
day, the outer works were stormed by the Union troops, 
and the main redoubt that commanded the principal for- 
tress, was carried. Early on the following morning, 
white flags of truce were discovered floating on the Con- 
federate works. A correspondence opened between Gen- 
erals Buckner and Grant. The result was the uncondi^ 
tional surrender to General Grant, of all the munitions ol 
war and of thirteen thousand Confederate prisoners. 
Within two months of this brilliant affair^ the now vic- 



* The Federal forces amounted to a still greater number at the subse- 
quent epochs, especially towards the end of the war ; while it is said that 
the Confederates, owing to their smaller population and the embarrassed 
condition of their public finances, had hardly at any time more than three 
hundred thousand men in the field. 



582 MODERN HISTORY. 

torious army of the North, in its turn, found itself in a 
very perilous situation. While it lay encamped at Pitts- 
burg Landing, awaiting the arrival of a Federal corps 
under Gfeneral Buell, Generals Beauregard, and A. S. 
Johnston resolved to profit by their present numerical 
superiority to fall upon the enemy, before the arrival of 
the expected succor. They accordingly attacked with 
great vigor the position of General Grant, made them- 
selves masters of a part of his camp, and secured many 
prisoners. Darkness, however, by putting an end to the 
contest, changed the fortune of the combatants. The 
Union army having been reinforced by fresh troops from 
the army of the Ohio, recovered, on the next day, a por- 
tion of the captured artillery, and compelled the Confed- 
erates to give way and retreat. The slaughter on both 
sides was terrific, but the Union forces sustained the 
heaviest losses. A few days after this bloody battle, the 
country learned of the capture of New Orleans, by a com- 
bined force under Commodore Farragut and General 
Butler. 

McClellan's Peninsular campaign. — Towards the 
middle of March, 1862, General McClellan, now com- 
mander of the army of the Potomac, embarked his troops 
at Alexandria, with the intention of making a sure and 
rapid movement upon Kichmond. Not having the entire 
control of the James river, he landed his army at Fortress 
Monroe, and began to advance from that point towards 
the enemy's capital. The Confederate works before 
Yorktown soon arrested his march, and it was not till 
after the delay of a month, that he succeeded in securing 
that strong position. In spite of fresh obstacles, and 
though he had to fight for almost every inch of ground, , 
he approached within a few miles of Kichmond. But the fj 
enemy had by this time received large reinforcements, ' 
while his own army had been greatly reduced by losses 
during the campaign, and by sickness on the banks of 
the Chickahominy. Seeing himself opposed by superior j 
numbers, he resolved by a flank movement towards the 
James river, to change his base of operations. For six 
days, the Confederates harassed his march by continual , 
attacks, and even entertained the hope of capturing the ' 
entire Federal army. But the successful stand which 



CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES. 583 

he made at Malvern Hill (July 1, 1862), a strong posi- 
tion under cover of the gunboats, checked all further 
demonstration against him on the part of the enemy, and 
terminated the Peninsular campaign. 

The failure of this campaign induced the Confederate 
government to abandon their defensive policy. They 
resolved to invade the Union territory, in order to strike 
some important blow, which would enable them to dic- 
tate terms of peace. In vain did General Pope oppose 
the invading army under General Lee, he was compelled 
to retreat before the enemy, and was severely defeated at 
the second battle of Bull JRun (30th of August, 1862). 
General McClellan, now recalled from Virginia, advanced 
with all the forces that were not required for the defence 
of Washington, to stop the onward march of the Confed- 
erates. He met them upon the banks of a stream in 
Maryland, made memorable by the bloody battle of An- 
tietam. Each army numbered, it is said, a hundred 
thousand men. They began the conflict at daylight on 
the 16th of September, 1862, and for two days fought with 
great resolution and various success, till the night of the 
17th put an end to the contest. General McClellan obtained 
indeed a substantial and decided success ; but his own troops 
had suffered so severely, that it was deemed prudent to give 
them rest and refreshment before renewing the attack. 
On the night of the 18th, General Lee hastily withdrew 
his forces across the Potomac, and retired into Virginia. 

In November, a change was made in the army of the 
Potomac. General McClellan was relieved of the com- 
mand, and General Burnside, who was appointed to suc- 
ceed him, immediately began a new advance upon Eich- 
mond. The march to the Confederate capital was to be 
made by the route through Fredericksburg, a city on the 
south bank of the Eappahannock, sixty-five miles from 
Richmond. General Lee occupied it with a part of his 
forces; the rest he had concentrated on the heights in 
the rear of the city. When the Federals attacked Fred- 
ericksburg, no greater opposition was made than was 
sufficient to tempt them to push forward with greater 
ardor. But as soon as they tried to storm the euemy's 
works on the heights, they were received with so terrific 
a fire of infantry and artillery, that, finding the position 



584 MODERN HISTORY. 

too strong to be captured by assault, they gave up the 
attack, and profited by night to evacuate Fredericksburg 
(December 13, 1862). 

Battle of Chancellorsville— Battle of Gettys- 
burg". — The next advance upon Richmond was under- 
taken, in the following year, by the same army, now 
under General Hooker. Having crossed the Rappahan- 
nock with a hundred and twenty thousand men, a force 
far superior to that which General Lee could oppose to 
him, General Hooker succeeded in compelling the Con- 
federates to quit their defences and accept the battle at 
Chancellorsville, Virginia, on ground of his own choice. 
But the result of this engagement, which took place on 
the 2d and 3d of May, 1863, proved most disastrous to 
the Federals, and they were driven back beyond the 
Rappahannock, with a loss of eighteen thousand men. 
The Confederates had, on their side, to deplore the loss 
of their favorite General, Stonewall Jackson, whose 
daring, skill, and energy had greatly contributed to their 
past success, and especially in this last engagement at 
Chancellorsville. After this battle, General Lee, with 
the view of breaking up the Federal plan of campaign for 
the summer, and of transferring the scene of hostilities 
beyond Virginia, forded the Potomac, marched through 
Maryland into Pennsylvania, and concentrated his forces 
at Gettysburg, a county-town of the latter State. There 
he was met by General Meade, who drew up his troops in 
a strong position On the 1st, 2d, and 3d of July, the 
two armies engaged in a terrible but decisive battle. On 
the third day. General Lee made desperate efforts to dis- 
lodge the Federals from their position; but finding it 
almost impregnable, and his ammunition being exhausted, 
he was compelled, after sustaining a loss of thirty thou- 
sand men, to retreat into Virginia with the remnant of 
his army. 

Surrender of Vicksburg. — Two other heavy blows 
were at the same time inflicted upon the Confederates in 
the South. Thus far the navigation of the Mississippi 
river had remained closed between Port Hudson (Louisi- 
ana) and Vicksburg (Mississippi). General Grant, with 
the design of opening the river entirely, undertook an 
expedition against Vicksburg. But the approach to this 



CIVIL WAK IN THE UNITED STATES. 585 

place proved most difficult, owing to its position and the 
efforts of the enemy, under General J. E. Johnston, to 
retain the key of the great river. It was not till after 
several battles and a campaign of startling boldness, that 
General Grant succeeded, by the 19th of May, in invest- 
ing Vicksburg. Its garrison, commanded by General 
Pemberton, and numbering over thirty thousand men, 
made a gallant defence; but their provisions becoming 
very scarce, and no hope remaining of receiving relief 
from General Johnston, they surrendered on the 4th of 
July, 1863. 

The surrender of Vicksburg was followed by that of 
Port Hudson. The capture of these two strongholds 
entirely opened the Mississippi to navigation and com- 
merce, greatly crippled the resources of the South, and 
broke up their facilities for communication between the 
States east and west of that river. Their territory was 
by this time well-nigh exhausted of men; and though they 
took every means to increase their forces; though nearly 
all of the male population had been called either to serve 
in the army or to assist in raising supplies; yet it is sup- 
posed that the whole number of men in the field at the 
beginning of the next campaign, did not exceed two hun- 
dred and fifty thousand. The Federal government, on 
the contrary, had then more than six hundred thousand 
soldiers. It could moreover, owing to the large popula- 
tion of the North and the Conscription Bill of the 3d of 
March, 1863, make new levies at will, and thus pour 
upon the now weakened Southern States any number of 
troops that circumstances miglit require. 

U. S. Grant made Lieutenant-General and Com- 
mander-in-Chief. — Such was the state of affairs in 
May, 1864, at the renewal of hostilities. The main 
campaigns for that year were to be made by the 
armies of the Potomac and the Cumberland. The latter 
army, under General Sherman, was to march against At- 
lanta (Georgia), a town noted for its manufactures and 
as being an important centre of railroad communication 
between the Western and the Atlantic and Gulf States; 
the former army, under General Meade, was to march 
again upon the capital of the Confederacy. But General 
Grant, now Lieutenant-General, who superintended in 
person the army of the Potomac, had a plan more com- 



586 MODERN HISTORY. 

prehensive than the mere capture of Richmond. His 
project was to secure the Confederate government, and, 
by combined movements, to destroy the forces of General 
Lee, and cut ofif all communications with Richmond. 
General Siegel was ordered to move up the Shenandoah 
Valley, and General Butler to move simultaneously with 
a heavy force up the James river for the purpose of cap- 
turing Petersburg, which was considered the key to the 
capital. The failure of these two expeditions in the 
west and south of Virginia, enabled the enemy to concen- 
trate against General Grant. But in spite of their efforts, 
and of his own heavy losses, the Federal commander suc- 
ceeded, by means of constant reinforcements of fresh 
troops, in pushing his way to the Chickahominy, which 
was the outer line of defence of Richmond, and after- 
wards in crossing the James river and uniting his forces 
with those of General Butler before Petersburg (June, 
1864). 

General Sherman's campaign in Georgia.-;-Meaii- 
while, events of no less importance were accomplished in 
Georgia. General J. E. Johnston, owing to the inferior- 
ity of his forces, was unable long to delay the advance of 
the Federals through the heart of the Confederacy. It 
was in vain that he successively occupied several strong 
positions on their route, hoping to decimate their num- 
bers by successive engagements; the vigor and skill of 
General Sherman baffled his projects, and the Confeder- 
ate government, disapproving of his defensive tactics, re- 
lieved him from the command. Nor did the impetuous 
bravery of his successor. General Hood, have any other 
effect than to precipitate the fall of Atlanta. General 
Sherman entered it on the 1st of September, 1864. His 
troops had scarcely rested from their fatigues, when they 
were again put in motion, and just five weeks after their 
departure from Atlanta, the country was amazed to learn 
that they had reached and occupied Savannah, on the At- 
lantic coast. 

Lee surrenders at Appomattox Court House — 
Assassination of President Lincoln. — These suc- 
cesses hastened the downfall of the Confederacy. The 
field of decisive operations was now reduced to the three 
States of South and North Carolina and Virginia. Dur- 
ing the winter General Sherman overran the Carolinas 



CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES. 587 

with his victorious army, and thereby cut off the resources 
of General Lee's troops at Richmond. In Virginia, Gen- 
eral Grant renewed active operations against Petersburg. 
On the first of April, 1865, was fought the bloody battle 
of the Five Forks, by which the possession of Richmond 
was finally secured. General Lee finding that he was no 
longer able to maintain his position, gave orders for the 
evacuation of Richmond and Petersburg. Pursued with 
great vigor, he made strenuous but fruitless efforts to ex- 
tricate his troops, and, on the 9th of April, surrendered 
to General Grant the army of Northern Virginia. This 
important event was regarded by the country as a virtual 
end of the war. But the joy which it occasioned was 
soon changed into deep mourning by the assassination, 
on the 14th, of Abraham Lincoln, who had been recently 
re-elected President. This crime, however, created no 
public disturbance; Vice-President Johnson assumed im- 
mediately the office of President, and the government 
continued the work of reconstructing the country. 

The successful termination of the war procured the 
emancipation of four millions of human beings, increased 
towards the country the respect of foreign nations, and 
displayed to the world her immense and inexhaustible 
resources. 

The national debt, which in 1860 had amounted to 
only about sixty-four million dollars, had risen in 1866, to 
2,773 millions. In June of the same year, the Fourteenth 
Amendment was proposed by Congress and declared rati- 
fied in July, 1868, by which the right of citizenship was 
secured to the freedmen. 

During Andrew Johnson's presidency, Alaska was pur- 
chased, which increased the area of the United States by 
577,340 square miles. For this, Russia received a little 
over seven million dollars. 

U. S. Grant, President, 1869-1877.— On March 4, 
1869, General Grant was inaugurated as the eighteenth 
president of the United States. During his administra- 
tion the treaty of W-ashington was concluded with Great 
Britain, which provided for an arbitration of the dispute 
regarding the boundary of Oregon by the Emperor of 
Germany (decided in favor of the United States, on Octo- 
ber 21, 1872), then for a settlement of the fishery dis- 
pute, and for the settlement of the Alabama claims. By 
the decision of the Geneva tribunal, the United States 



588 MODERN HISTORY. 

were awarded fifteen million dollars on account of the 
Alabama claims. Tliese had arisen by reason of depreda- 
tions on our commerce perpetrated during the late Civil 
"War by privateering vessels fitted out in English ports and 
sailing under the English flag ; and were so called because 
the Alabama was the name of the most formidable and de- 
structive of these ships. 

Tiie centeimial year of the Declaration of Independence 
was celebrated by the holding in Philadelphia of a great 
International Exhibition of the world's industrial pro- 
ducts and inventions. In this country it was the first made 
of these displays, which have since become common. 

In this same year took place the first closely contested 
Presidential election since before the civil war. Dissatis- 
faction with the second Grant administration had led, for 
the first time in many years, to the choice in 1874 of a 
Democratic majority in the Federal House of Representa- 
tives. On this account both parties exerted their utmost 
strength in 1876, and so close was the contest that a 
special Electoral Commission was created to decide it. 



IVAR IW SCHLESWIG-HOUSTEI]«.-lVAR IW 
1TAL.Y AMO GERMANY.— A.D. 1§63-1§66. 

Denmark loses Schleswig-Holstein by the 
peace of Vienna, Oct. 30, i860. — New complications 
arose in Europe upon the death of King Frederic VII., 
of Denmark (November, 1863). Christian IX. succeeded 
him on the throne; but his right of succession to the 
duchies of Holstein and Schleswig was contested by the 
duke of Augustenburg. The German diet supported the 
claims of the latter to Holstein, which was a part of the 
Germanic Confederation, and occupied it with Federal 
troops. Prussia and Austria, uniting in a common cause, 
went still further; they marched into Schleswig and after- 
wards into Jutland with a formidable army, to which the 
Danes with all their gallantry were forced to succumb. 
In October, 1864, King Christian was compelled to sign 
the treaty of Vienna, by which he ceded to Austria and 
Prussia the three duchies of Lauenburg, Holstein, and 
Schleswig, engaging moreover to accept whatever arrange- 
ments for their government those powers might make. 



WAR IN SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN, ETC. 589 

It soon became evident that their friendship for the duke 
of Augustenburg was a mere pretext, at least on the part 
of Prussia. After obtaining from Austria the cession of 
the duchy of Lauenburg, she made the utmost efforts to 
induce her ally to cede, in like manner, her rights to the 
two other duchies. The government of Austria declared 
that the question of the Duchies appertained to the Ger- 
man Diet, which w^as then assembled at Frankfort (May, 
1866). 

Cause of the Austrian-Prussian war of 1866. — 
Thereupon Prussia, followed by a few other States, with- 
drew from the Confederation; and ordered her troops to 
invade Holstein, where no resistance was met with. Yield- 
ing to the ambitious views of Count Bismarck, her prime- 
minister, she also undertook to snatch from Austria her 
ascendency in Germany. Moreover, the King of Prussia, 
in order to divide the forces of his powerful rival, entered 
into a secret alliance with the King of Italy, who had 
always cherished the idea of conquering Venetia. War 
was accordingly declared against Austria, on the same 
day, by the two allied powers (June 18). 

Austria victorious against Italy on land and 
sea. — The Italians having crossed the Mincio with a* 
numerous army, were attacked by Archduke Albert, near 
Custozza, a spot fatal to the Italian arms in 1848. After 
a long and severe contest the Italians were defeated with 
great loss, and compelled to recross the Mincio (June 
24). Their fortune was no better at sea; for their 
Admiral Persano, with a fleet of twenty-three vessels, was 
attacked by inferior forces under the Austrian admiral 
Tegethoff, and obliged, after the loss of several ships, to 
take refuge in the port of Ancona (July 20, 1866). 

Prussia occupies Germany. — In the North, Prussia 
had so well concerted her plans of attack that, on the 
18th of June, her troops entered at once Hanover, Hesse- 
Cassel, and Saxony, and spread themselves in every direc- 
tion. Either by force of arms or by stratagem, they took 
possession of the three States just mentioned, occupied 
Frankfort, from which they exacted enormous contribu- 
tions, and before the* end of the campaign overran Darm- 
stadt and Bavaria. 

The campaign against Austria — Battle of 
Sadowa. — At the same time, the Austrian empire was 



590 MODERN HISTORY. 

also invaded by about three hundred thousand men, in 
two armies, the one marching from Saxony commanded 
by Prince Frederick Charles, the other proceeding from 
Silesia under the Crown Prince of Prussia. Field-Mar- 
shal de Benedeck, commander-in-chief of all the Austrian 
forces engaged in the North, endeavored, but ineffect- 
ually, to prevent a junction of the enemy's forces. These 
met at Gitschim, where the King of Prussia now arrived 
to take the command in person. Benedeck, who had waited 
in vain for the soldiers of Bavaria, amounting to eighty 
thousand men, was compelled to accept a general engage- 
ment against enemies far superior in number, and to 
whom the needle-gun had given another decided advan- 
tage. The battle of Sadowa, after eight or ten hours of 
fearful struggle, terminated in the rout of the Austrians, 
who retreated in confusion behind the Elbe, with a loss of 
forty thousand men (July 3). 

The peace of Prague, August 23, 1866. and of 
Vienna, October 3, 1866. — The emperor of Austria, 
unwilling to protract so disastrous a war, ceded Venetia to 
Napoleon III., with a secret understanding that it should 
be made over to the King of Italy. At the same time, he 
fequested the emperor of France to mediate for peace. 
A preliminary treaty, signed at Nicholsburg on the 26th 
of July, 1866, led in the following month to the treaty of 
Prague, of which these were the conditions: the emperor 
of Austria was required to ratify the cession of Venetia ; 
to abandon all claim to form a part of the Confederation, 
which the King of Prussia made up of the States on the 
north of the Main river; to cede whatever rights the 
treaty of Vienna (1864) gave him on the duchies of 
Holstein and Schleswig. The States to the south of the 
Main were allowed to form an independent association, 
whose relations with the North were to be regulated after- 
wards; the kingdom of Saxony remained unimpaired, 
but the annexations already made by Prussia, of Hanover, 
Electoral Hesse, Nassau, and the city of Frankfort were 
to be recognized by Austria. By a special treaty made 
with Prussia, the kingdom of Bavaria, which had not 
taken an active part in the war, retaihed her whole terri- 
tory, on condition of paying a heavy sum of money. 

Thus, by the treaty of Prague, Austria, once the 
mighty power which ruled the destinies of Grermany 



IMPOKTANT EVENTS IN EUROPE. 591 

and Italy, had been expelled from the Germanic Confed- 
eration and humbled by the haughty ambition of Prussia, 
one of its members. These great changes show that God 
gives the power of this world to whom He pleases, and 
that the most prudent combinations of human policy are 
baffled by the designs of his unerring Providence. 

imPORTANT EVENTS I1V EUROPE BETWEEIV 

1866-1870. 

The first parliament of the North German Con- 
federation. — In February, 1867, King William I. of 
Prussia convoked a parliament in Berlin which adopted, 
after short deliberations, a constitution for the North 
German ''Bund," consisting of Prussia and the twenty- 
one other members of the Confederacy. The first step 
for the unification of Germany was taiten by organizing 
the army on one and the same basis, rendering every able- 
bodied man liable to military duty, and conferring upon 
the king of Prussia the chief command of all German 
forces. Count Bismarck was elevated to the position of 
chancellor. 

Emperor Francis Joseph crowned King of 
Hungary. — In Austria a reconciliation with Hungary 
was effected by giving it a constitution of a liberal char- 
acter. The Emperor was with great solemnity crowned 
at Buda-Pesth. Croatia, Transylvania, and the military 
frontier were reunited with Hungary. The Cisleithan 
provinces also received a constitution, which completed 
the transformation of the empire into two constitutional 
monarchies under a single monarch. 

The Luxemburg question— The London Confer- 
ence, May, 1867. — Napoleon III.'s desire to counter- 
balance the increased power of Prussia by the purchase of 
Luxemburg from the king of Holland, led to serious com- 
plications between France and Prussia which, however, 
through the labors of the London Conference and mutual 
concessions, were allayed for the time. Italy at this Con- 
ference was recognized as the sixth great power. 

The Spanish Revolution of 1868— King Ama- 
deus I., 1870-1873.— Queen Isabella, after the defeat of 
her troops in 1868 under Serrano, fled into France, and 
the country fell a prey to a revolution until the Cortes 



592 MODERN HISTORY. 

declared in favor of a constitutional monarchy. The 
crown was offered to a prince of HohenzoUern, who at 
first accepted, but soon withdrew liis acceptance. Then 
the second son of Victor Emmanuel, the duke of Aosta 
was called to the throne as king Aniadeus I. 

Opening of the Suez Canal, Nov. i6, 1869. — The 
great feat of engineering, conceived and carried through 
by Ferdinand de Lesseps, to open a direct communication 
between the Mediterranean and the Eed Sea being com- 
pleted, the formal opening took place amid imposing cer- 
emonies in the presence of an august assemblage of 
European crowned heads, who were accompanied there by 
squadrons of their respective navies. 

The Vatican council opened Dec. 8, 1869 — The 
dogma of Infallibility. — Pope Pius IX. having con^ 
voked the Vatican Council, opened it solemnly on Dec. 
8, and after the dogma of infallibility had been adopted 
by a vote of 547 to 2 proclaimed it to Christendom on 
July 18, 1870. The council adjourned on Oct. 20, 1870, 
after having rendered signal services to the Church and 
civilization. 

Internal troubles in France— The " Plebiscite '* 
of May, 1870. — The dissatisfaction with the arbitrary 
government of Napoleon III. led to the fall of the Prime 
Minister Eouher, who was succeeded by Ollivier. A new 
liberal constitution was introduced and ratified by a ''ple- 
biscite" with an apparently overwhelming majority. 
Party strife, dissatisfaction in the army and navy dis- 
closed, however, the necessity of a diversion by means of 
a popular war. 

THE FRAWCO-PRUSSIAN WAR, July 19, 1870— 
March 3, 1§71. 

Immediate cause of the war. — The request of the 
French ambassador Beuedetti, of King William of Prus- 
sia in person, that he should never agree to the acceptance 
of the Spanish crown by a prince of HohenzoUern, met 
on July 15, at Ems, with a dignified but very emphatic 
refusal on the part of the aged monarch. This was repre- 
sented by the French Cabinet as an insult to France, and 
under a tremendous excitement in Paris the French gov- 
ernment decided upon a declaration of war which was de- 
livered on July 19, at Berlin. 







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GENERAL VON MOLTKE. 





THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 593 

Disappointed French hopes. — Contrary to the ex- 
pectations of Napoleon not only the North German Bund, 
but also the South of Germany, namely Wiirtemburg, 
Baden and Bavaria joined Prussia and ordered the imme- 
diate mobilization of their armies. 

The campaign of the German forces against the 
Imperial armies, Aug. 2 to Sep. 2, 1870. — The 
French armies were divided into four corps commanded 
respectively by MacMahon, Bazaine, Ladmirault and De 
Failly; the German armies were divided into three, one 
under Steinmetz, one under Prince Frederick Charles, 
one under the Crown Prince. King William of Prussia 
acted as commander-in-chief with General von Moltke as 
chief of staff. 

The army under the Crown Prince, after the engage- 
ment at Weissenburg on Aug. 2, defeated MacMahon sig 
nally in the battle of Worth on Aug. 4, while the first. 
German army under Steinmetz stormed on the 6th of 
August the heights of Spocheren. The rapid advance of 
the German armies which left only enough troops round 
Strasburg and other Alsatian fortresses for- the siege of 
these places, prevented Bazaine from retreating upon 
Chalons-sur-Marne, and after the bloody battle of Cour- 
celles on Aug. 14, and the battle of Mars-la-Tour, on Aug. 
16, there were fought the decisive battles of Gravelotte 
and St. Privat on Aug. 18, in which under the personal 
command of King William, the German forces after 
enormous losses forced Bazaine's army into Metz. 

The Siege of Metz, Aug. 19 to Oct. 27.-— 
MacMahon, after his masterly retreat from Worth, had in 
the meantime reorganized his army and intended to 
retreat upon Paris. Under orders received from Palikao 
he undertook to relieve Bazaine in Metz and so to unite 
the two armies. Compelled by the battle of Beaumont, 
on Aug. 30 to retreat, and aware of the rapid approach 
of the German armies whose object was to surround him, 
he took up a strong position near the small fortress of 
Sedan. 

The battle of Sedan — Napoleon III. surrenders 
himself. — Here occurred the most memorable battle of 
modern times on Sept. 1st. Marshal MacMahon early 
in the day was seriously wounded, and the French forces 
succumbed, in spite of their bravery, to the superior disci- 



594 MODERN HISTORY. 

pline and tactics of the German armies, so that General 
Wimpfen, MacMahon's successor in command, entered 
upon negotiations with a view to surrender. Napoleon 
III. delivered his sword to King William I., and was 
carried as prisoner to Wilhelmshohe. On Sept. 2 
the capitulation of Sedan was signed, by which 39 
generals, 2,300 inferior officers, 84,000 men, besides 
25,000 captured during the battle, became prisoners of 
war. 

Fall of the Empire Sept. 4, and proclamation of 
the Republic. — The news of this defeat caused the fall 
of the Empire. A provisional government was formed, 
Paris declared in a state of siege. Bazaine's efforts to 
join MacMahon were, in the two days battles round Nois- 
siville on Aug, 31, and Sep. 1, also frustrated by the 
success of the German arms. 

The Campaign against the Republican armies — 
The siege of Paris Sep. 19, 1870 — Jan. 26, 1871.— 
The forward march of the German forces was now resumed, 
and on Sep. 19 the French capital was regularly in- 
vested. In the meantime Bazaine, owing to scarcity of 
provisions and after several unsuccessful attempts to 
effect a "sortie" surrendered on Oct. 27, whereby three 
Marshals, 70 Generals and 173,000 soldiers became pris- 
oners of war. Strasburg also capitulated. The French 
government raised armies in the South as well as the 
North, but the defeat of the army of the Loire at Beaune 
la Eolande on Nov. 28th; the failure of Trochu and 
Ducrot, the commanders of the troops at Paris, to make a 
sortie; the defeat of the French in the battles of Orleans 
on Dec. 2nd and 4th; the annihilation of General 
Chanzy's army in the battle of Le Mans on Jan. 12, 1871; 
General Bourbaki's defeat in the battle of Belfort, Jan'y. 
15 to 17; finally the failure of Trochu to evacuate Paris 
on Jan. 19, and the victory at St. Quentin over the 
last French army, together with the bombardment of 
Paris since Dec. 27, brought about the capitulation of 
Paris on Jan. 28. 

Restoration of the German Empire at Versailles 
Jan'y 18, 1871. — The success of the German forces 
under the leadership of the aged King of Prussia led, on 
Jan'y 18, to the restoration of the German Empire and 
the unification of North and South Germany. 



FRANCE SINCE 1871. 595 

On the day of the capitulation of Paris Jules Favre on 
behalf of the French government arranged an armistice of 
twenty-one days. This was followed by prolonged nego- 
tiations for peace which led to the treaty of Frankfort, 
concluded on May 10, 1871. Its principal provisions were 
that nearly all of Alsace and fully half of Lorraine were 
to be ceded to Germany, which soon organized them into 
a distinct imperial province; that France should pay within 
three years a war indemnity of five milliards of francs (one 
billion dollars), and that meanwhile German troops should 
remain on French territory. 

FRANCE SINCE 1S71. 

Communist Insurrection in Paris.— While these 
negotiations were in progress, Paris was the theatre of 
perhaps the most deplorable outbreak of disorder in its 
history. This was the insurrection of the Commune, 
which began open hostilities on March 18 with the murder 
of two generals in the Montmartre section. The whole 
city was soon in the power of the insurgents and its 
prisons were filled with prominent citizens held as host- 
ages, among them tlie Archbishop, Mgr. Darboy, and fully 
one hundred priests. This state of affairs lasted more 
than nine weeks, the city being meanwhile besieged by 
the French army under Marshal MacMahon. On May 23 
the troops effected an entrance, and on that and the 
following day fought their way slowly through the bar- 
ricaded streets. It was on these days that the Commun- 
ists destroyed the palace of the Tuileries, the Hotel de 
Ville (City Hall), and many other public buildings, and 
murdered many of the hostages, among them Mgr. Dar- 
boy, the Abbe Degnary, pastor of the Madeleine, and 
several Jesuits and Dominicans. Thousands of the insur- 
gents perished. Complete order was restored in a few 
days. 

Establishment of the Third Republic— The pro- 
visional government, which had ruled since the fall of 
Napoleon, issued a proclamation ordering the election of 
a National Assembly. The new parliament thus constitu- 
ted met at Versailles in August, and, though a large 
majority of its members were monarchists of various affilia,- 
tions. set up a republic and on August 31, elected as its 



596 MODERN HISTORY. 

first president Adolphe Thiers, the famous historian and 
minister of State under Louis Philippe. He held the 
office less than two years. A free-thinking Liberal, he was 
constantly at odds with the Conservative Assembly, and 
frequently threatened to resign. That body took him at 
his word on May 24, 1873, and chose Marshal MacMahon 
as his successor. Intrigues were set on foot to restore 
royalty, first in the person of the Count de Chambord, 
grandson of Charles X, and the last of the elder Bourbon 
line, and then in that of the Count de Paris, grand- 
son of Louis Philippe and head of the Orleans or 
younger branch of the Bourbons; but these efforts failed. 
A committee of nine, chosen by the Bourbonists and Orlean- 
ists in the Assembly, negotiated with the Count de Cham- 
bord concerning the constitution and the tri-colored flag, 
that is, the flag of the Revolution. A representative was 
sent -to Frohsdorf to communicate directly with the Count. 
His mission was successful. It was agreed that after the 
Assembly had recognized the royal hereditary right of the 
Count de Chambord, a charter should be agreed upon by 
the Assembly and the king. There were also to be stipu- 
lations concerning civil and religious liberty. The agree- 
ment further said, "the tri-colored flag is maintained; it 
may be modified only as the result of an agreement between 
the king and the Assembly." 

Nothing now appeared to remain except to proclaim 
the monarchy. The programme was prepared by a com- 
mittee ; the members both of the right and center accepted 
it and were ready to proclaim Chambord as Henry V. 
MacMahon had promised to offer no resistance. In the last 
days of October the restoration was momentarily expected; 
even carriages were brought to conduct the king to Notre 
Dame. That the restoration never took place was due to a 
letter written by the Count to one of the delegates who had 
called upon him at Frohsdorf. A garbled account of the 
agreement had been published, and the future king was 
anxious that there should be no doubt as to its nature. The 
tone of his letter aroused suspicions in the minds of the 
Orleanists. In the Assembly stormy scenes occurred, and 
it was finally agreed to leave open the way for restoration. 
The term of President MacMahon was then fixed at seven 



FRANCE SINCE 1871. 597 

years. Thereafter many changes took place, and the res- 
toration programme was soon forgotten. 

In 1875 the National Assembly adopted a constitution 
providing for a president and a legislature with two 
branches, a senate of three hundred members and a cham- 
ber of deputies of nearly twice that number. The presi- 
dent was to be chosen by the chambers in joint session. In 
the elections that immediately followed the royalists lost 
control of the lower house of parliament, and three years 
afterwards of the Senate also. The chambers thus becom- 
ing antagonistic to the President, Marshal MacMahon re- 
signed on January 30, 1879, and Jules Grevy was elected 
to succeed him. Then, under the leadership of Leon Gam- 
betta and Jules Ferry, began a campaign of persecution 
against the Church that has not yet ceased, notwithstand- 
ing the frequent change of ministry, averaging more than 
one a year since the foundation of the republic. Gambetta 
met a violent death on the last day of 1882 ; it is generally 
believed that he was murdered by a jealous mistress. Soon 
after Ferry, the author of the first proscription law against 
the religious teaching orders, and especially the Jesuits, 
fell into disgrace and forced retirement on account of the 
mismanagement of affairs in Tonquin, recently conquered 
and made a French province. The other sections of the 
Indo-Chinese peninsula south and east of Siam had already 
been acquired by France. 

An Era of Scandals and Agitations.— Grevy, so far 
the only President of France who had served a full term, 
was reelected in 1886. In less than two years, how- 
ever, he was forced to resign because of his having con- 
nived at a scandalous traffic, namely, the sale of badges of 
honor (decorations) and other favors, carried on by his 
son-in-law, M. Wilson. He was succeeded by M. Sadi- 
Carnot, the years of whose incumbency were unexampled 
even in France for bitterness of political rancor and fero- 
cious license on the part of the press. All the elements 
of discontent were for a time united in clamorous demon- 
stration under the leadership of General Boulanger, who 
was twice elected deputy from Paris by overwhelming 
majorities. Had he been but half a Napoleon, he might 
have overthrown the republic, but, being proscribed, he 



598 MODERN HISTORY. 

took fright and fled to Belgium (1889), where he com- 
mitted suicide (1891). The holding of a great World's 
Fair in Paris that year, as a centennial commemoration 
of the French Eevolution, also aided in saving the republic. 

Under the guidance of the famous M. de Lesseps, the 
engineer of the Suez canal and other great works, a tide- 
water passage through the Isthm.us of Panama had been 
projected in 1879, and in the next few years $251,000,000 
were subscribed to carry out the undertaking. In 1893 
it was discovered that most of this money had disappeared, 
though but a very small portion of the work had been 
accomplished. Talk of bribery of newspapers and legis- 
lators followed, and threats of exposure were freely made. 
Some indeed were exposed, tried and convicted, while 
others fled the country; but it was then and still is the 
general belief that the chief culprits were not molested. 
In their interest the affair was hushed up as speedily as 
possible. In 1897 an effort was made to reopen the case, 
but this was rendered futile by the public prosecutor. 

It was in 1892 also that, notwithstanding the exclusion 
of religion from the schools and charitable institutions, and 
the constant interference of the State in the affairs of the 
Church, the Pope issued his famous Encyclical exhorting 
French Catholics to accept the republic loyally and abstain 
from enrolling themselves among its enemies. "The men," 
said His Holiness in a subsequent letter, "who would subor- 
dinate everything to the previous triumph of their respective 
parties, even on the plea that that triumph is fittest for the 
defense of religion, would, by a perilous perversion of ideas, 
place politics, which divide, before religion, which unites." 
So large in consequence was the secession from the mon- 
archists to the moderate republicans that a restoration of 
royalty has since seemed highly improbable. At the same 
time, however, anarchism became rampant, especially in the 
manufacturing centers. 

Intense excitement was caused in France, and consider- 
able interest all over the world, by the visit in 1893 of the 
Eussian fleet to Toulon, in return for that of the French 
fleet to Cronstadt two years before. It was said to mark 
a dual alliance between France and Eussia, in opposition 
to the triple alliance of Germany, Austria and Italy. 




:r — -) '- H 



from 107 WashlnRton 



FRANCE SINCE 1871. ' 599 

From the Death of Carnot to that of Faure. — 
Towards the close of 1893 there began an outbreak of 
anarchist outrages. These culminated, on June 24, 1894, 
in the assassination of President Sadi-Carnot while visit- 
ing an exhibition at Lyons. He died early the following 
morning, less than six months before he would have com- 
pleted his term of office. The National Convention, as 
the joint session of the two legislative chambers is called, 
chose Casimir-Perier to succeed him. But the new presi- 
dent was so harassed by the bitter attacks of a low, scurril- 
ous press that he resigned on January 15 following, and 
two days later Felix Faure was chosen as his successor. Ere 
long he too was similarly treated from the same quarter, 
but was able to refute the slanders successfully. 

In the first year of his administration a French force 
invaded and conquered Madagascar. Having to suppress 
an uprising the year following, the native government was 
abolished and the last monarch of the Hovas, Queen Rano- 
valona, exiled first to the island of Reunion and after- 
wards to Algiers. Thus the great island became a French 
possession. At the same time French expansion was going 
on in Western and Central Africa, until Algeria and the 
Senegambia and Niger colonies were united across the 
Sahara, even the mysterious city of Timbuctoo falling 
under French sway. A French expedition from West 
Africa under Major Marchand even reached the White 
Nile and set up a post at Fashoda in 1898. News of this 
adventure having reached Europe, England protested on 
the ground of a long prior claim, and Fashoda was given 
up in exchange for concessions in the Niger region. 

In October, 1896, France produced another frenzied 
outburst of attachment to Russia. It was occasioned by 
the visit of the young Czar, Nicholas IL, and his wife, 
shortly after his coronation, in the course of a tour the 
imperial pair then made of Europe. This visit is said 
to have cemented the alliance the first steps towards which 
had been taken three years before. 

During the last two years of his incumbency President 
Faure was harassed by the agitation of a question that will 
be mentioned in the next section. Worn out with anxiety 
and overwork, he died suddenly in his official palace, the 



600 J MODERN HISTORY. 

Elys^e, on February 16, 1899. The next choice of the 
National Convention fell upon fimile Loubet, the seventh 
of the French presidents, all of whom, since Marshal Mac- 
Mahon, have been Moderate Eepublicans. 

The Dreyfus Case. — In 1894, during the presidency 
of Casimir-Perier, a captain in the French army, an 
Alsatian Jew, named Alfred Dreyfus, was accused, 
tried by court-martial and convicted of having sold 
military secrets to Germany, and conducted to penal 
servitude on Devil's Island, off the coast of French Guiana. 
At the time many believed he was innocent and the victim 
of a plot. In his behalf a movement was started that 
assumed formidable proportions in 1897, and for main- 
taining it several of its promoters, among them army 
officers who had changed their minds, were put on trial, 
convicted and disciplined. The political, military and 
civil authorities refused to reopen the case until after the 
change of administration consequent upon President 
Faure's death. But the first important act of President 
Loubet and his cabinet, of which M. Waldeck-Rousseau, 
also an Alsatian, soon became Prime Minister, was to 
refer the matter to the Court of Cassation (appeals), 
which ordered a new trial that was to be conducted in 
public. The accused was brought back to France, which 
he reached on July 1, 1899, and the new trial was begun 
at Eennes on August 7 following. Never has such a case 
excited interest so universal. Really it was now the 
clique in control of the army that was on trial. The 
ablest counsel were engaged on both sides, and the judges 
were seven fellow-officers of the accused, who possibly 
had to choose between justice on the one side and the 
displeasure and vengeance of their military superiors on 
the other. The verdict, "guilty, with extenuating cir- 
cumstances," was rendered on September 8, by a vote of 
five to two. Everything considered, this was equivalent to 
acquittal, and that effect was soon given to it by an execu- 
tive pardon and the conduct of the Minister of War, Gen- 
eral de Gallifet, who disciplined Dreyfus' most pronounced 
enemies and rewarded his friends in the army. 

The Republic and the Church. — Thus another great 
crisis in the history of the Republic, perhaps more dan- 



FRANCE SINCE 1871. 601 

gerous than the Boulanger excitement, had been safely 
passed. And the ministry under which it occurred, assum- 
ing office on June 13, 1889, as a makeshift and a com- 
promise, held office longer than any of its predecessors. 
During 1899 and 1900 it was generally said that it was 
only the Paris World's Fair of the latter year that kept it 
together. This event passed into history, but it remained, 
with only one modification, the retirement of General de 
Gallifet on account of ill health. But the consequences of 
the Dreyfus incident did not disappear with him. Mis- 
taken religious zeal was associated with the affair, which the 
Assumptionist Fathers turned to account to propagate mon- 
archism in a newspaper published by them. Though the 
publication was discontinued by order of the Pope, yet the 
resentment of the Eepublican leaders was so aroused as to 
lead to the enactment of more anti-Catholic legislation in 
1901. A law was passed suppressing all religious orders not 
receiving the sanction of the government. Thus not only 
the Assumptionists, but also the Jesuits, and several other 
orders, had to dissolve their communities in France. Even 
after that the Eadicals, indeed, endeavored to have meas- 
ures still more drastic taken against the Church. They 
aimed at the repeal of the Concordat, or agreement of the 
first Napoleon with the Pope by which the govern- 
ment paid salaries to the clergy as a partial restitution for 
the Church property confiscated by the Eevolution, and 
at the withdrawal of French protection from the Catholics 
of the Turkish and Chinese empires. But this the Minis- 
try vigorously opposed, in the face of a general election 
to be held in the spring of 1902. It even took occasion of 
a naval demonstration against Turkey, made near the 
close of 1901, to enforce the payment of certain claims, to 
reassert the traditional policy of France in Palestine, 
Syria and Asia Minor. 

Separation of Church and State. — The Law of As- 
sociations, the most important of the acts of 1901, sup- 
pressed the religious orders and confiscated their prop- 
erty. Whatever may be thought of the conduct of these 
orders, there was no provocation from Rome. Never- 
theless, on July 31, 1904, diplomatic relations with the 
Apostolic See were completely broken off. Afterward 



e02 MODERN HISTORY. 

events succeeded one another with startling rapidity, and 
on December 11, 1905, there was published a project of 
separation. 

By the Law of Separation the government of France de- 
clared liberty of conscience for people of every creed, and 
put an end to all support of worship by the State. It 
further provided for an inventory of all public establish- 
ments. Catholics protested against the taking of invento- 
ries, and sometimes offered violent resistance. This law 
provided also for the transfer to "associations cultuelles" 
of all properties appertaining to worship. If, however, 
such associations were not formed within one year, these 
properties were to be sequestrated. For all who during 
twenty or thirty years had performed ecclesiastical fimc- 
tions one section of the law provided a pension, and for 
others an allocation, or a part of an allocation, during four 
years. Fine or imprisonment punished those who by 
writings or speeches urged resistance to this remarkable 
law. In an Encyclical, published February 11, 1906, the 
Pope condemned the act as injurious to God, as a violation 
of natural and international law, as contrary to the consti- 
tution of the Church and to her rights, and finally, because 
it was gravely offensive to the Apostolic See. 

In France the Catholics were divided among themselves 
as to whether the Law of Separation should be given a trial. 
A form of association suggested by the French bishops, as 
being in their judgment both legal and canonical, was pro- 
posed to the Holy See, by whom about two months later it 
was rejected for its failure to guarantee "the hierarchical 
constitution of the Church and its authority over ecclesias- 
tical properties." Subsequently the bishops recommended 
all Catholics to obey this decision of the Pope, 

In this controversy between Church and State the owner- 
ship of ecclesiastical property is an important considera- 
tion, French Catholics claim that the churches are their 
property, whereas the government holds that the cathe- 
drals are the property of the State, and that the churches 
belong to the communes. On this topic a scholarly writer 
has remarked "that the churches have been built, main- 
tained and repaired by Catholics as Catholics and not 
merely as citizens. * * * ^ government can be strong 



FRANCE SINCE 1871. 603 

enough to deprive them by force of their possession, Ijut no 
government, no law, can despoil them with justice of their 
rights."^ 

Clearly to comprehend this subject it is necessary to 
examine the various acts of the French Government from 
1789 to 1803. In the year last mentioned the famous Con- 
cordat was promulgated. It is also necessary to examine 
some later legislation. From this inquiry it will appear 
that the stipend promised by the agreement of 1803 was in 
the nature of compensation for the Church property taken 
over by the Goverment before that date. That agree- 
ment, or Concordat, is now abolished. In a word, the prop- 
erty taken from the Church during the era of the Eevolu- 
tion has never been restored, and now the promise of com- 
pensation for that property has been practically repudiated. 

Among the supporters of these laws are men known to be 
hostile not only to the Catholic Church but to all religion. 
Of course there are many who were not influenced by such 
sentiments. The republicans in France defend the enact- 
ment of these measures by asserting that in the schools con- 
ducted by the congregations young people are taught to be 
hostile to the republic. In other words, they hold that the 
Church in France is monarchical in sympathy. 

The Casablanca Afifair.-A conference of the Powers, 
held January 16th to April 7th, 1906, at Algeciras, com- 
missioned France and Spain to preserve order on the Mo- 
roccan coast. This was no mere formality, for in July, 
1907 when, pursuant to this agreement, the French at- 
tempted to assume control of the customs of the ports, 
there was an outbreak at Casablanca. European laborers 
in the quarries were killed and mutilated by the angry 
tribesmen, who afterward plundered the town and retired. 
In August, 1907, when the French and the Spanish forces 
landed to protect the place, they were fired upon. A puni- 
tive expedition into the interior has been successful. 

On January 11, 1908, Mulai Hafid was proclaimed Sul- 
tan of Morocco instead of his brother, Muley Abdul Aziz, 
who was deposed. The latter, however, was not entirely 

^Rev. Dr. George M. Sauvage, C. S. C, in the Catholic University Bul- 
letin, January, 1907. 



604 MODERN HISTORY. 

overthrown till midsummer. For France the pursuit and 
punishment of the tribes was expensive. It is believed 
that Mulai Hafid was encouraged by Germany's note to the 
Powers asking for his recognition as Sultan. This action 
occasioned much criticism in the French press. The duty 
that devolved upon France was growing constantly more 
serious. In November, 1908, three Germans deserted from 
the Foreign Legion in Casablanca. They were seized by 
French officers, probably in the German legation. Ger- 
many demanded an apology; France refused to make one, 
but agreed to publish with Germany a simultaneous apology. 
War was avoided partly in consequence of the attitude of 
Great Britain, which supported France, and partly because 
a certain German sentiment agreed to have the dispute ad- 
judicated by The Hague tribunal. That arbitration court 
has recently decided that both nations committed offences 
against international law. During the year 1908 there was 
no further trouble, and the incident is regarded as closed. 
In September and October the French officers were with- 
drawn. The new Sultan had been previously recognized. 

Colonial Dependencies. — As early as 1787 France 
became interested in Indo-China. Now her possessions in 
that region include an area of 256,000 square miles and 
contain a population of more than 18,000,000. Before 1870 
she had set up claims to other important regions, but it has 
been since that date that she became a great colonizing 
State. In 1881 Tunis became a dependency of the Eepub- 
lic. The great island of Madagascar, too, is now the undis- 
puted possession of France. It was in North Africa, how- 
ever, and in the regions bordering on the Sahara that she 
made her greatest and most valuable acquisitions. From 
her convenient position in Algeria it will not be difficult 
to establish railways and other means of communication 
with all the lands on the rim of the great desert. In that 
region her possessions are immense. 

Foreign Affairs. — In the management of foreign af- 
fairs the Republic has been no less successful than in its 
colonial policy. For almost twenty years the most friendly 
relations have been maintained with Eussia, and more re- 
cently an excellent understanding has been established with 
the traditional enemy. Great Britain. The Alsace-Lor- 



ENGLAND UNTIL 1909. 605 

raine question appears no longer to dominate French 
diplomacy, and with every passing year less and less im- 
portance seems to be attached to the desire of revenge for 
the defeat and humiliation of 1870. In 1895 France and 
Germany united to support Eussia in her attempt to force 
Japan to surrender the fruits of her war with China. In- 
deed, in 1900 French troops served in China under a Ger- 
man field marshal. The excitement attending the Casa- 
blanca affair appears to have been entirely set at rest. 

Position of France. — During the years that have 
elapsed since the disastrous war with Germany perhaps 
the most noteworthy fact in the history of France is her 
internal development. In that period the social efficiency 
of her people has increased enormously. In the cultivation 
of the soil and in the industries connected with it she is sur- 
passed by no nation. In the invention and manufacture 
of submarine boats, automobiles and artillery France has 
led the world. In engineering science perhaps she is un- 
rivalled. There are signs that even the leadership in cer- 
tain branches of learning is passing from Germany to 
France. A recent writer has remarked that "France is still 
the artistic nation par excellence. In literature, painting, 
sculpture, and architecture she stands without a peer.^'^ 
Though she may never again, as in the times of Louis XIV 
and Napoleon I, dominate the politics of Europe, she seems 
destined for a long time to come to exercise in the domain 
of the arts and sciences an influence scarcely less powerful. 

ENGLAND UNTIL. 1909. 

With the exception of petty expeditions against bar- 
barian tribes in southern Asia and in Africa, and the 
extension of her colonies in these countries, the history of 
England for forty-three years has been that of her Parlia- 
ment and her foreign diplomacy. From the close of the 
Crimean war her military strength was not again, seriously 
tested until 1899. In 1857 she crushed with terrible vin- 



^France, in The History of Nations; p. 490, by Emile de Bonnechose 
(edited by Dr. Fred Morrow Fling). 



606 MODERN HISTORY. 

dictiveness and severity a mutiny of her native merce- 
naries in India. This was known as the Sepoy rebellion. 
Ten years later she sent an expedition into the ancient king- 
dom of Abyssinia to punish its king, Theodore, for his treat- 
ment of English subjects living in his dominions, and left 
that country in a state of anarchy. In 1873 she conquered 
the native kingdom of Ashantee, on the gulf of Guinea, and 
suppressed rebellions there in 1895 and 1900. In 1878 she 
became involved in two wars, one against the Zulus adjoin- 
ing her African colony of Natal, and the other in Afghanis- 
tan, on her northwestern Indian border, and was successful 
in both. In the former. Prince Napoleon, the only child of 
Napoleon III, who had died in England in 1873, lost his 
life on January 1, 1879. The latter grew out of a civil war 
fomented by Eussia, which supported the claim of Yakoub 
Khan to be the Amir or ruler of that country, but aban- 
doned his cause in the face of English protest and success. 
After a two years' struggle the English placed Abdur Eha- 
man Klian upon the throne, and their troops occupied 
Kabul and Kandahar. Before they were withdrawn Abdur 
Ehaman agreed to leave the control of his foreign relations 
to the British authorities, who, on their part, promised not 
to interfere in the internal government of Afghanistan. If 
the Amir followed unreservedly their advice in respect to 
foreign aJEfairs, they would aid him in the case of unpro- 
voked foreign aggression on his dominions. In 1893 this 
agreement was confirmed, and in a treaty signed at Kabul 
in March, 1905, Amir HabibuUa Khan accepted unre- 
servedly his father's engagements with the British govern- 
ment. On August 31, 1907, there was concluded between 
Eussia and Great Britain an agreement by which the latter 
power undertakes neither to annex nor occupy any portion 
of Afghanistan, nor, so long as the Amir fulfills his engage- 
ments, to interfere in its internal affairs. Eussia, on the 
other hand, declared Afghanistan to be outside the sphere 
of Eussian influence and engaged that her political rela- 
tions with Afghanistan would be conducted through the 
British Government. It was in this war that General Sir 
Frederick Eoberts won renown and elevation to the peerage 
by his famous march to the relief of the English garrison 
in Candahar. 



ENGLAND UNTIL 1909. GOT 

Soon after the close of this war England interfered in 
the affairs of Burmah, on the other side of India, and in 
1885 deposed its besotted and brutal king, Thebaw, and 
annexed his kingdom. When, afterwards France added to 
her Indo-Chinese possessions the Shan country of the old 
Kingdom of Siam, England and France met on the Mekong 
river. In 1895 England became involved in disputes with 
the hill tribes in northwestern India, and has since pushed 
her possessions to the plateau of the Pamirs, where she 
comes in direct contact with Eussia, For many years past 
India has suffered severely from famine and plague, which 
have carried off many millions of her population. 

To-day the history of India is merely a repetition of 
what it has been for more than a century. As late as Feb- 
ruary, 1908, there was fighting between the British and the 
border tribes, assisted by bodies of Afghans. As usual, the 
natives were severely punished, and the Amir informed of 
the unfriendly conduct of his subjects. By floods, in April 
of the same year, thousands perished, and upwards of 
100,000 persons were rendered homeless. During the 
famine of 1908 about 1,500,000 natives were relieved by 
the government. 

Among the vast Indian population there is a growing 
party that desires separation from England. A much 
larger element, however, prefers to learn self-government 
from British rulers. To this party British occupation 
means progress. In almost every part of the land there is 
ominous unrest, and what the future may have in store for 
that afflicted country it is impossible to foretell. 

England in Egypt and the Soudan. — The greatest 
feat of modern engineering was completed in 1869, when 
the Suez Canal was opened. The expense had been borne 
mainly by France and the Khedive of Egypt, Ismail Pasha. 
The latter, in 1875, sold his shares to England, but the pro- 
ceeds did not extricate him from the financial difficulties 
into which he had fallen through his extravagance and in- 
competence. In consequence, England and France as- 
sumed joint control of his business affairs in 1878. Many 
of the natives resented this foreign influence, and, con- 
sequently, a formidable rebellion, led by Arabi Bey, broke 
out in 1881. The rebels, in 1882, murdered many foreign- 



608 MODERN HISTORY. 

ers in Alexandria. England asked France to cooperate 
in armed interference; but the latter, then embroiled in 
Tunis and Tonquin, declined. Thus England alone under- 
took to quell the rebellion. She began operations in 1882 
with the bombardment and occupation of Alexandria. Soon 
afterwards the rebels were completely defeated in the bat- 
tle of Tel-el-Kebir. England thus became the sole admin- 
istrator of the affairs of Egypt. 

Soon afterwards General Charles G. ("Chinese") Gor- 
don was sent to aid in the effort to bring back the Soudan 
under Egyptian subjection. With a small force he made 
his headquarters at Khartoum. Here he was hard pressed 
by the Soudanese under the leadership of a very able and 
very savage fanatic who styled himself El Mahdi (the 
Prophet) . Before a relief expedition sent to his assistance 
could reach him Gordon was overwhelmed and slaia, and 
most of his companions met the same fate (January 11, 
1885). The rest were condemned to the most abject 
slavery. Some of these escaped from time to time and 
brought most harrowing details of the hardships the prison- 
ers had to endure. The Mahdi died in 1885, and was suc- 
ceeded by even a worse tyrant, the Khalifa Abdullah. 
Nothing was done to avenge the Khartoum massacre until 
1896, when General Sir Herbert Kitchener was sent up the 
Nile at the head of a large force. His progress was slow. 
It took him two years to reconquer the Soudan after many 
encounters with the natives. In the last battle of Omdur- 
man (the capital which the Mahdi had built on the oppo- 
site side of the Nile from Khartoum, which he had de- 
stroyed), he took a terrible revenge. The Soudanese were 
slaughtered without mercy, and of their myriads only a 
mere handful escaped, among them the Khalifa, who fled 
to a tribe in the interior. He was afterwards given up. 
For his services in this campaign General Kitchener was 
raised to the peerage. 

During the year 1899 the Khalifa was killed, and the 
remnant of his forces annihilated. His lieutenant, Osman 
Digna, again escaped. Thereafter Egypt was free to pursue 
her career in peace. The people, however, were still 
oppressed by debts, and to prevent their falling into the 
hands of usurers the government began loaning money to 



ENGLAND UNTIL 1909. 609 

cultivators. In the autumn these sums were repaid with a 
slight interest. The policy of irrigation was continued, and 
the finances showed signs of improvement. 

Irrigation. — In 1898 there was commenced at Assouan 
the construction of a great dam across the Nile. It was to 
be completed in five years and paid for by the Egyptian 
government in installments extending over a period of 
thirty years. By raising this dam twenty-three feet it is 
expected that 950,000 acres of sterile soil will be brought 
under cultivation. This great work has already submerged 
a number of interesting temples. With a view to their use 
as great reservoirs for the irrigation of Egypt and the 
Soudan, the lakes of equatorial Africa have been examined. 
This project, of course, will require the cooperation of 
Abyssinia. 

Internal Conditions and Outlook. — In the decade 
■from 1897-1907 the population increased from 9,821,045 
to 11,272,000. Both the cotton crop and the sugar cane 
crop have declined. This falling off has been ascribed to a 
succession of very dry seasons. With the, completion of the 
projected systems of irrigation, however, agriculture is 
bound to improve. The military power of Great Britain 
has imposed peace upon the people of both Egypt and the 
Soudan. Though there was in 1908 some restlessness 
among the tribes of Khordofan, and even some fighting 
with them, the danger of a great war has passed away. 
Once relieved from the payment of war taxes, the financial 
condition of the people is certain to change for the bet- 
ter. The large military appropriations can hereafter be 
devoted to productive improvements. 

Egyptian Archaeology. — In the year 1900 important 
discoveries in antiquities were made at Abydos. The drink- 
ing bowls and the furniture of the first dynasty have been 
found. Since that date other interesting memorials of 
ancient Egyptian civilization have been brought to light. 
In 1908, German archaeologists completed their excava- 
tions of a temple at Abusir. This splendid structure was 
devoted to the cult of the dead. Eemains of the first three 
dynasties have been found at Gizeh. In the oasis of Kharga 
it is believed that there will be discovered important 
material for a re-study of the Graeco-Roman period, per- 



610 MODERN HISTORY. 

haps for the early Christian era. Of an immense number 
of recent discoveries, perhaps the most interesting is that of 
Brugsch, who found a hieroglyphic record of the seven 
years of famine described in the Bible. In this inscription 
it is told how "the Nile did not overflow for seven years, 
and how, as a result, the vegetation withered, the crops 
failed, and famine, pestilence and misery devastated the 
country." The date of this inscription is 1700 B. C, 
which approximates the time given in Genesis. 

Political Parties in Egypt.— The natives of Egypt 
are divided into two political parties, viz., the Nationalists 
and the party of Constitutional Eeform. The former de- 
mands nothing less than the immediate evacuation of 
Egypt by the British. The rival element would maintain 
the authority of the Kiiedive; they also favor the estab- 
lishment of a parliament and the complete control by 
Egyptians of all Egyptian interests, general and free pri- 
mary education, the use of the Arabic language in govern- 
ment schools, the appointment of natives, when they are 
qualified, to government posts, so that gradually the coun- 
try's affairs will be removed from foreign hands. 

The War in South Africa. — This struggle, the most 
wantonly undertaken, has been the most costly in both 
men and money in which England has been engaged since 
her Napoleonic wars. At the same time it has been the 
most damaging to her military prestige. Let us glance at 
the cause of it. 

The Cape Colony, founded by the Dutch in 1652, was 
seized by England in 1796, restored to the Netherlands 
in 1803, again occupied by England in 1806, and formally 
ceded to her in 1815. The discontent of the Dutch 
colonials with their new masters was intensified by Eng- 
land's abolition of slavery in 1834. A migration north- 
ward, begun the previous year, then received an impetus, 
and was continued for several years. A section of these 
emigrants formed the Orange Eree State, between the 
Orange and the Vaal rivers, and another that of the Trans- 
vaal, between the latter stream and the Limpopo, whose 
independence was acknowledged by England in 1852 and 
1854. The Transvaal was badly governed, and in 1877, 
-bankrupt and unable to protect itself against the neighbor- 



ENGLAND UNTIL 1909. 611 

ing native tribes, the more influential section of its citizens 
asked for the protection of England. This was afforded 
in 1878; but the British authorities having exceeded the 
powers agreed to, the Dutch or Boers (Farmers) rose in 
armed rebellion in 1880. After their victory at Majuba 
Hill, February 27, 1881, England acknowledged the in- 
dependence of the Transvaal in all things except foreign 
relations with any country but the Orange Free State. The 
discovery of gold at Johannesburg in 1885 brought a great 
influx of foreigners, mostly English, who in time became 
dissatisfied with the restrictions to which they were sub- 
jected, and demanded naturalization. Meanwhile all the 
country west and north of the two republics had been an- 
nexed by England. In this new western region and in 
Johannesburg a conspiracy was formed in , 1895 to over- 
throw the government of the Transvaal, officially known 
since 1884 as the South African Eepublic. The outcome 
was the abortive Jameson raid, which met with disastrous 
failure on January 1, 1896. The naturalization agitation 
was continued, and, supported by the English Government, 
reached a crisis in the summer of 1899. The Transvaal re- 
fusing to make the concessions demanded, England, bent 
on the annexation of the country, began to mass troops 
on its eastern border. On October 9th, President Kruger 
notified England that if these were not removed in forty- 
eight hours he would declare war. This demand not being 
complied with, the threatened war was officially begun on 
the 11th, the Orange Free State having previously formed 
an alliance, offensive and defensive, with the South African 
Eepublic. 

The armies of both countries at once invaded Natal. 
The first battle was fought at Glencoe on October 20. 
Here, and within the next ten days at Elandslagte, Dundee 
and Nicholson's Neck, the English were defeated with the 
loss of many killed and wounded and a large number of 
prisoners. All their soldiers in Natal were then congre- 
gated at Ladysmith, where they were completely hemmed 
in by the Boers on November 7th. This investment and 
bombardment lasted until February 28, 1900. At the same 
time another Boer army crossed the border in the west, and 
laid siege to Mafeking, Kimberly and Vryburg, Meanwhile 



612 MODERN HISTORY. 

General Sir Eedvers Buller had been appointed commander- 
in-chief of the English armies in South Africa, which lie 
reached late in November. Before leaving England he had 
boasted that he would eat his Christmas dinner in Pretoria. 
He was doomed to bitter disappointment. Entrusting 
operations in the west to Generals Gatacre and Lord 
Methuen, he marched at the head of a large force to the 
relief of Ladysmith, and on December 15 met his first 
check at Colenso, on the Tugela river, which the Boers had 
seized and fortified. More serious reverses befell him in 
the same region during the ensuing two months, the most 
disastrous taking place at Spion Kop on January 19. In the 
west the campaign was faring no better. Marching to the 
relief of Kimberly, Lord Methuen was victorious at Bel- 
mont and Gras Pan on November 23 and 35, but on 
December 10 was utterly defeated at Magersfontein 
on the Modder river, as was General Gatacre at Coles- 
burg about the same time. In London the greatest 
alarm was felt, and Lord Eoberts was asked to take 
the chief command in the field. On December 18 
he accepted on condition that his plans would not be 
overruled by the War Office and that he would have Lord 
Kitchener as his chief of staff. The two generals reached 
Cape Town on December 37, and Lord Eoberts went at 
once to join Lord Methuen, while Lord Kitchener stayed 
behind to prepare and forward reinforcements and supplies 
to him. The fortune of war soon changed. Kimberly was 
relieved by General French on February 16, and Cronje, the 
Boer commander in the west, had to abandon his strong 
position on the Modder. Then, in order to save him if pos- 
sible, the troops besieging Ladysmith hastily retired west- 
ward, and that place was entered by Lord Dundonald on 
February 38 and by Buller's whole force three days later. It 
was only then that the scene of war had been changed to 
Boer territory, the first English soldiers to tread it being 
General French's force on its way to Kimberly, the great; 
diamond mining center. General Cronje retreated north- 
ward, but was halted at Pardeeburg, where, in a hastily 
fortified camp in the bank of a river, he waited in vain for 
assistance from the east. The promised relief had been 
intercepted ; and here, on February 37, he surrendered un- 




Q] BRITISH Q] ITALIAN Q] FRENCH | [ KONGO STATE 

rn GERMAN I I PORTUGUESE flSmF Q SPAMiSH | | TURKISH 



!l 



ENGLAND UNTIL 1909. 613 

conditionally to Lord Eoberts. From that time until its 
close in 1902, the struggle was only a guerrilla warfare. The 
two republics were soon overrun. On March 13 Lord 
Eoberts entered Bloemfontein, the Orange Free State capi- 
tal. That country was then annexed by England under 
the name of the Orange Eiver Colony. Soon afterward 
President Kruger fled through Portuguese territory to 
Europe. His capital, Pretoria, was occupied by the British 
on July 16, and ere long the name of his republic was 
changed to that of the Transvaal Colony. But so enormous 
was the cost of this war, nearly a billion dollars and almost 
as many men as England had engaged .in the battle of 
Waterloo, as to make one wonder what she has gained by it, 
and whether the annexation of the two Boer states wiU'com- 
pensate for her loss of military prestige. 

Change of Sovereigns.— Queen Victoria did not long 
survive the formal announcement of these additions to her 
vast empire. In the spring of 1900 she visited Dublin, 
where she spent three weeks, to show her gratitude 
for the services rendered by Irish soldiers in South 
Africa. She died on January 22, 1901, in her eighty- 
second year, and her eldest son succeeded as King Edward 
VII. Since his accession the conquests in South Africa 
and the older British possessions in that region have been 
considering the establishment of a federal union. On May 
4, 1908, there assembled at Pretoria official representa- 
tives from Cape Colony, ISTatal, The Transvaal, Orange 
Eiver Colony and Ehodesia. By the members of this con- 
ference some opposition to such a confederation was ex- 
pected from the Boers. Their leaders, however, have ac- 
cepted the results of the war, and are now working to pro- 
mote a closer union. This new commonwealth will contain 
a white population of 1,150,000 and more than 6,000,000 
people of non-European descent. The convention called 
by the assembly of Mav has agreed upon almost everything 
except the location of the capital. For this honor Cape 
Town and Pretoria are contending. 

The Empire Since the War. — In the Boer War the 
people of Canada rendered efficient service to the mother 
country. This was appreciated, and when, in 1905, the 
Anglo-Japanese treaty was about to be formed, Canada 



614 MODERN HISTORY. 

was consulted, and she approved the agreement. On Sep- 
tember 7 there was rioting in Vancouver, B. C. During 
these demonstrations some fifty Japanese and Chinese shops 
were wrecked, and a few Asiatics were injured. At first 
it seemed as if this would bring about a rupture of the 
treaty, but the dhficulty was amicably settled. In June, 
1908, an award of $50,000 was granted to those Asiatics 
who had been injured in the riots. Great Britain and 
Canada also reached an agreement concerning East Indian 
immigration to the Dominion. 

As stated above, England suffered in the early stages of 
the Boer war a considerable loss of military prestige. That 
obstinate struggle, however, finally brought the British 
army to a high state of efficiency. Nevertheless, English 
statesmen and other leaders are not a little apprehensive of 
the remarkable growth of Germany. On the sea, an ele- 
ment of which England has long been mistress, the Ger- 
mans are becoming strong. In commerce they are nearly 
everywhere formidable competitors, and in some places have 
well nigh supplanted British merchants. In England the 
progress of Germany is viewed with some alarm, and, per- 
haps, this feeling is not unconnected with the establishment 
of more friendly relations with France, the only continental 
power that would be a useful ally, if a conflict can not be 
avoided. The British dependencies, especially Canada, 
Australia and New Zealand, are developing with so much 
rapidity that they must be reckoned with in any estimate 
of England's military strength. From time to time the 
question of a federal government for the Empire is dis- 
cussed, and ultimately it may be effected. Already there 
is an Australasian federation, and a scheme of defence for 
Australia has received careful consideration from the local 
government. Its provisions for coast and harbor defence 
have been approved by British admiralty officials. In that 
country there are now about 800,000 adults, and from their 
number it is expected that in eight years, in addition to 
the flotilla, they will have an army of 200,000 men. 

Old-Age Pensions.— In May, 1908, Mr. Lloyd-George, 
Chancellor of the Exchequer, introduced into Parliament 
an old-age pension bill, which passed without much oppo- 
sition. During that year the subject was also discussed in 



ENGLAND UNTIL 1909. 615 

France, the United States, Austria, Italy, and in some 
of the British Australasian countries. The measure en- 
acted by Parliament became operative January 1, 1909. It 
provides a pension for all persons at least seventy years of 
age, who are subjects of the United Kingdom and have 
resided there during the twenty years preceding, and who 
do not belong to the defective, delinquent or criminal 
classes, or who are not public dependents. By the last 
provision the inmates of poor-houses are excluded from the 
benefits of the law. The pension is graded, the largest 
being five shillings per week for all qualified persons whose 
income is not more than £21 per year. The example of 
Great Britain, it is scarcely necessary to add, is certain to 
make the question of old-age pensions an important politi- 
cal issue in other enlightened states. 

Woman Suffrage. — The present year, as well as that 
preceding, has been a notable one in the annals of woman 
suffrage. In many of the progressive states of Europe, in 
the United States, in Japan and even in Turkey there has 
been manifested a deep interest in this subject. England, 
however, has been the storm center. There the work is 
conducted mainly by the National Union of Suffrage 
Societies and the Woman's Political and Social Union, rep- 
resenting, respectively, the conservative and the radical 
elements. The Women's Freedom League also is the ex- 
ponent of a radical element. The members of the latter 
groups are commonly called "Suffragettes," a name first 
applied in derision and later adopted by the agitators 
themselves. The aggressive policy commenced in 1907 has 
attracted to their ranks great numbers of even Conserva- 
tives. They have organized immense street parades and mon- 
ster demonstrations. In their processions they display large 
signs bearing their battle cry, "Votes for Women." On 
June 13, 1908, more than 10,000 women paraded the 
streets of London, and on the 21st of the same month 
there was held at Hyde Park the largest political demon- 
stration in the annals of England. The suffragettes have 
not only harassed government representatives, but have 
attempted to horsewhip them, and some of the more ex- 
treme have attempted with bottles of acid to destroy the 
contents of ballot-boxes. On October 13 Parliament was 



616 MODERN HISTORY. 

"rushed" by a crowd of 50,000. As a result of disturbances 
which then took place Mrs. Emmeline Pankhurst and 
other leaders were arrested, and, as they refused to give 
bonds to keep the peace, they were sentenced to three 
months^ imprisonment. They have been active in the bye 
elections and claim to have accomplished the defeat of at 
least fifteen of the government candidates. The disorders 
resulting from the tactics of the suffragettes led Mrs. 
Humphry Ward to urge the organization of an Anti-Suf- 
frage movement. Her opposition is based upon the ground 
that women, especially the more intellectual women, do not 
desire the suffrage. Under Mr. Campbell Bannerman the 
House of Commons, by a majority of 271 to 92, voted (on 
second reading) for a woman suffrage bill. The govern- 
ment, however, did not allow the measure to come to a 
third reading, and under Premier Asquith the outlook for 
woman suffrage is less favorable. The violence of the 
agitators is injuring their cause. 

In March and April the methods and some of the prin- 
ciples of the English suffragists were communicated to the 
United States. Thus far the chief result has been the 
creation of a greater interest in the subject than has hith- 
erto existed. At this moment, November, 1909, Mrs. Pank- 
hurst is visiting the United States. As yet she has an- 
nounced no programme, but it is unlikely that English tac- 
tics will be adopted in America. Though they have been 
urged to do so, neither the Democratic nor the Eepublican 
party has adopted a suffrage plank. Since 1894 women in 
Iowa have been entitled to vote on questions of taxation, 
and, by their Constitution of 1908, Michigan women who 
pay taxes are allowed to vote on questions involving the 
expenditure of public money. In the United States the 
suffrage has been gradually and quietly extended to women. 
In many commonwealths they have long been accustomed to 
participate in school elections. It is also extending to other 
subjects, and when the American people are convinced that 
women generally desire the suffrage, it is not likely that it 
will long be withheld. In several of our States women 
enjoy complete suffrage. 

The Eucharistic Congress. — Of the changes that are 
slowly taking place in English society perhaps none is 



-L 



80 100 120 140 160 IBO 




Greenwich 40 00 Emi 80 100 120 140 160 180 



ENGLAND UNTIL 1909. 617 

more interesting than its present attitude toward Catholi- 
cism. An earlier section of this book has shown how the 
Catholic Church was all but completely destroyed in Great 
Britain and how by reason of oppressive laws it was long 
prevented from being reestablished. Though an element of 
public opinion is still hostile, many Englishmen have be- 
come indifferent or sympathetic. This condition appeared 
unmistakably during the Eucharistic Congress held in Lon- 
don during September, 1908. To it came Catholics from all 
quarters of the globe. They were there from Athabasca 
and The Transvaal, from Belgium and Australia, from Tur- 
key and the United States. Perhaps these had been in Lon- 
don before, but many years, indeed many centuries had 
passed since a Papal Legate had trod upon English soil. 
This memorable event brought together seven Princes of the 
Church as well as a multitude of bishops, priests and dis- 
tinguished laymen. Speaking of the Cardinal Legate, Vin- 
cenza Vannutelli, an enthusiastic English writer described 
his Eminence as "the tallest and noblest prelate that ever 
brought thousands to their knees." The newspapers leave 
no doubt that the representative of Pope Pius X received 
the homage of English Catholics and won the esteem of a 
large part of the public. Notwithstanding the great change 
that has come over England there is still a considerable ele- 
ment that is opposed to giving any sort of countenance to 
Catholic ceremonial. This appears in the communication 
of Premier Asquith to Archbishop Bourne, which in effect 
stopped the proposed Procession of the Blessed Sacrament 
around the walls of Westminster Cathedral. The telegram 
of the Prime Minister says that "His Majesty's Government 
are of opinion that it would be better, in the interests of 
order and good feeling, that the proposed ceremonial, the 
legality of which is open to question, should not take place." 
In deference to the wishes of the Government the Arch- 
bishop of Westminster eliminated from the procession all 
elements of ecclesiastical ceremonial, but took advantage 
of the occasion to state energetically the rights of all His 
Majesty's subjects. After according to this element of dis- 
sent its utmost importance, it is gratifying to record the 
improved status of the Church in England. 

Rejection of the Budget. — Her recent wars, her com- 
petition with Germany in the building of great warships 



618 MODERN HISTORY. 

and her old-age pension system has led to the appropriation 
of large sums of money. This makes it necessary to in- 
crease taxes, and recently the large budget approved by the 
House of Commons was rejected by the House of Lords. 
This difference of opinion between the two branches of the 
legislature may lead to a change in the British constitution. 
King Edward died in May, 1910, and was succeeded by his 
son, who was proclaimed king as George V. 

IRELAIVD. 

The Land Purchase Act. — Since the great Liberal 
victory of 1868 the political changes effected in the United 
Kingdom amount to almost a revolution. In the following 
year the Gladstone Ministry disestablished the Anglican 
Church in Ireland, and in 1870 passed the first Irish Land 
Act. By the former measure a great majority of the Irish 
people were relieved of the taxes which for centuries they 
had been paying to support a church whose doctrines they 
did not believe. In 1880 and 1891 the Land Act was sup- 
plemented by further concessions to Irish farmers, and in 
1903 it was announced in a speech from the throne that a 
measure about to be prepared would practically abolish land- 
lordism in Ireland. In 1903 that measure was passed. The 
Irish Land Purchase Act has already advanced beyond the 
experimental stage, and this enlightened law makes it possi- 
ble, in the not distant future, for the farmers of Ireland to 
own every rood of land that they cultivate. Under the 
old system, one of the most iniquitous ever devised, the 
tenant farmer had almost no motive to industry. If he 
drained or otherwise reclaimed for cultivation an area of 
swamp, he merely succeeded in increasing the value of his 
holding, and thereby increased his rent. Under the act 
of 1903 the Government assists the tenant in purchasing 
from his landlord the fee of his farm. Though many land- 
lords refuse to part with their ancient privileges, a majority 
of them are willing to sell out to their tenants. In due 
time, no doubt, all of them will do so. Even now there are 
parts of Ireland in which every farmer owns the land that 
he cultivates. 

No one can foresee all the benefits to Ireland of this en- 
lightened policy. In the administration of the Land Pur- 
chase Act, it is true, the people may be deprived for a time 



IRELAND. 619 

of some of its intended benefits. The work of buying out 
the landlords, however, is making rapid progress. To illus- 
trate its magnitude it is sufficient to state that in a bill 
introduced into Parliament, November 23, 1908, Mr. Bir- 
rell, Chief Secretary to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, 
declared that, "to carry out the proposals as to land pur- 
chase, £52,000,000 were required for pending agreements, 
and £100,000,000 more would be needed in future." The 
difficulties in the execution of this tardy measure of jus- 
tice will from time to time be removed by supplemental leg- 
islation. More than twenty-five years ago Michael Davitt 
and Mr. Parnell had formulated this solution of the Irish 
problem, viz., the buying out of the landlords. 

Parnell and Home Rule. — It was during the first 
Gladstone administration, too, that the Home Eule party 
was organized under the leadership of Isaac Butt. Upon his 
death the movement languished. It was soon afterward, 
1877, that Joseph Biggar and Charles Stewart Parnell be- 
gan the policy of Parliamentary obstruction. If, said they, 
the affairs of Ireland are not considered by Parliament, we 
shall, by employing all the weapons of parliamentary war- 
fare, prevent a consideration of those great questions that in- 
terest England. Dilatory tactics, such as making long speeches 
to waste time, calling for divisions of the House of Com- 
mons, etc., were adopted. Under the brilliant leadership of 
Parnell, the Irish members became for the first time a power 
in Parliament. It is clear that the immense British majori- 
ty in the Commons would not suffer its business forever to 
be embarrassed by a small group of Irish members, able or 
otherwise; hence the adoption soon after of important 
amendments in the procedure governing debates in the 
House of Commons. 

About the year 1879, owing to a partial failure of the 
potato crop, there was much distress in Ireland. The 
Land League, with its motto, "the land for the people," 
was then organized by Michael Davitt, an ex-Fenian, and 
Parnell and others visited America in the interest of relief 
and for the purpose of collecting funds for the Parlia- 
mentary party. In 1881 Parnell was chosen leader of the 
Home Rule or Nationalist members. In the following year 
the movement received a severe blow by the murder in 



620 MODERN HISTORY. 

Phoenix Park, Dublin, of Lord Frederick Cavendish, Chief 
Secretary for Ireland, and Mr. Burke, Under-Secretary. 
These crimes were traced to the members of a secret society 
called the "Invincibles," The Land League was then sup- 
pressed, but in the following year reappeared as the Irish 
National League. Public meetings, however, continued to 
be prohibited and the jails to be filled. Six or seven hun- 
dred persons were imprisoned and Parnell himself was 
lodged in Kilmainham jail. In 1881 there was published 
the "No Pent Manifesto" of the Land League. Like the 
Phoenix Park murders, this also injured the cause of 
Ireland. 

In a series of articles entitled ParnelKsm and Crime, the 
London Times boldly accused the Irish leader of complicity 
in the crimes of the "Invincibles." This was designed to 
discredit him in the eyes of the British public and ulti- 
mately to effect his political ruin. After some difficulty 
Mr. Parnell obtained a Parliamentary Commission to in- 
vestigate these charges. In the course of the inquiry it 
was proved that the accusations were based upon certain 
letters forged by one Pigott, who committed suicide soon 
after he was compelled on the witness stand to confess his 
authorship. Parnell, though tried by his political enemies, 
was completely vindicated, but he was soon afterwards de- 
posed from his leadership by reason of a divorce scandal in 
which he was involved. With the moral fall of this able 
and brilliant leader, Irish hopes once more were prostrate. 
Though he died in 1891, his deposition caused in the ranks 
of the Nationalists a split which for more than a decade 
continued to weaken and distract the party. Under Justin 
MacCarthy, the well-known author, and subsequently un- 
der Mr. John Dillon, the Anti-Parnellites found themselves 
at variance with many Nationalists; they expelled from 
their party Mr. John Eedmond, who with some followers 
remained faithful to the memory of the fallen leader. Mr. 
Healy became the chief of still a third party. These fac- 
tions began gradually, under the influence of the United 
Irish League, to come together, and since the year 1900 they 
have been acting as a unit. Notwithstanding the limitations 
implied in this internal dissension, the Nationalist mem- 
bers in the matter of rhetorical skill and quickness of intel- 




WILLIAM EWART GLADSTONE. 



IRELAND. 621 

ligence and decision are far beyond any similar group of 
English members of Parliament ; above all they have shown 
themselves nobly superior to sordid personal aims. 

Parliament was dissolved in 1885. In that House of 
Commons the Irish Home Eule party, numbering eighty-six 
members, held the balance of power. It was at this time 
that Gladstone introduced his first Home Eule bill, a 
measure designed to secure for Ireland a Parliament of its 
own for the regulation of local affairs. By the secession 
of seventy of his former followers, however, the measure 
was defeated. Thereupon a new, general election was held. 
In that contest Gladstone's supporters were defeated, and 
the Unionists and Gladstone seceders won an overwhelming 
majority. In the general election of 1892, however, Glad- 
stone again won a substantial victory. He then introduced 
another Home Eule bill, which was passed by the House 
of Commons, but was defeated in the House of Lords. 
In 1894 he resigned the office of Premier and was suc- 
ceeded by the Earl of Eosebery, who was defeated in the 
following year. Three years later, 1898, the Conservative 
party passed a revolutionary Irish Local Government bill, 
which went into effect in April, 1899. This law gives to 
Ireland more than half of Home Eule, and with the agra- 
rian laws referred to has shorn Irish landlords of nearly 
all their power. In every county outside of the province of 
Ulster the Nationalists have gained control of local affairs. 

Material Decadence of Ireland. — The following 
table shows the population of Ireland and of Scotland in 
1840. and 1900 respectively: 



Tear. 


Scotland. 


Ireland. 


1840 

1900 


2,620,184 
4,472,103 


8,175,124 
4,458,775 



In 1840 the population of Ireland was considerably more 
than three times as great as that of Scotland. In the year 
1900 it was just a little less than that of the sister kingdom. 
This alarming decrease in population may be briefly ex- 
plained. From 1846 to 1849 famine reigned throughout 
the land, and multitudes who escaped the ravages of the 



622 MODERN HISTORY. 

famine succumbed to the fever that followed it. The sur- 
vivors turned their eyes toward America, and all who could 
do so, fled the country. The number of those who died of 
hunger has been estimated at 729,033, and it is calculated 
that in the interval from 1846-1851 more than 1,340,000 
emigrants left the island. This was the beginning of a tide 
that to this hour has never ceased to flow. In vol- 
ume, it is true, it has often decreased, but unfortu- 
nately only to rise again. In 1905 the number of emigrants 
was 31,173; in 1906 it was 35,917; and in 1907 it rose to 
39,563. From this summary it is clear that the present 
population of Ireland is even less than it was in 1900, the 
year given in the preceding table. Before considering 
another topic it should be observed that during the most 
critical stage of the Great Famine, Ireland was exporting 
corn, barley, oats and cattle. There was in the country an 
abundance of foodstuffs to feed its population, but the 
produce of the land was consumed by the landlords' rent. 
In other words, the famine was artificial; it resulted from 
the most iniquitous laws. 

Much of British legislation at that time and afterward 
was intended to Anglicize the Celtic population. To effect 
this change, however, is beyond the power of the law-maker. 
It is impossible to make an Englishman out of an Irish- 
man. He is more sentimental, more generous. "The Irish 
are going with a vengeance," said the London Times, when 
the stricken people were fleeing from the country. He is 
recreant to Irish tradition who would utter a sentiment so 
brutal. It would indeed be no easy task to turn a sensitive, 
imaginative and high-minded Celt into an Englishman of 
that type. 

Though the majority of the Irish people have had every 
cause to despair, many of them have maintained the strug- 
gle against fate; but neither industry nor genius is often 
rewarded in that unhappy country. Hitherto there has 
always been some clog upon the wheels of progress. A sin- 
gle illustration will suffice to show how almost impossible it 
is to prosper in Ireland. A recent able writer has the fol- 
lowing suggestive paragraph: 

"On the English market, in spite of its close proximity, 
the Irish exporter is heavily handicapped by the rates of 



IRELAND. 623 

transit. Eggs from Normandy pay, in carriage to London, 
16s. 8d. per ton; eggs from Denmark 24s. and eggs from 
Galway 94s. per ton. * * * 'n 

The same condition, of course, is true of every sort of 
Irish produce. Even in his own market the Irish producer 
is actually at a disadvantage, owing to such an arrangement 
of rates as play into the hands of the foreign importer. 
The great anthracite coal deposits of Leinster have no rail- 
way to connect them with the world outside. The zinc 
mines of Nenagh have been closed by the excessive charges 
of the railways. In a word, the railroad companies have 
contributed much to bring about the industrial ruin of 
Ireland. This is a case in which government should con- 
trol the system of transportation, otherwise prosperity is 
impossible. An account of the material decadence of Ire- 
land belongs to the science of political economy quite as 
much as to that of political history, and in stating these 
few fundamental facts we have for the moment consciously 
left the field of history. 

Ireland can produce, and produce successfully, almost 
everything that she consumes. Nevertheless, she lives 
almost entirely upon foreign produce, and in this way pays 
an annual tribute that has been estimated at $100,000,000. 
The British amy, the navy and the other governmental de- 
partments are supported entirely by England. Another 
item that is assisting to bring about the bankruptcy of 
Ireland is the matter of overtaxation. Twenty years ago 
when the economist completed his survey of the island he 
saw before him all the elements of ruin and disaster, and 
he seriously expected to behold the death of the Irish 
nation. However, the race not only still lingers on but 
actually shows signs of prosperity. The remaining para- 
graphs will endeavor to explain how the doomed nation 
has in part revived though it has not yet begun to feel the 
pulsations of vigorous life. 

By emigration and famine Ireland has lost in the past 
sixty years 5,300,000 of her children. In good part this 
exodus of half an entire people is due to general destitu- 
tion and excessive taxation. Even now, when the former 

^Contemporary Ireland, by M. Paul-Dubois, 331-332. 



624 MODERN HISTORY. 

has been somewhat lessened, the emigration continues be- 
cause rural life has been broken up, and the people turn 
toward America, which they have come to regard as their 
second home. The custom of leaving the country has be- 
come a habit, and children are brought up with the idea 
that one day they too may become emigrants. The last act 
of this strange tragedy is the peopling of Ireland by 
Britons, North as well as South Britons. In concluding 
his remarks upon the material decadence of Ireland the 
able and candid writer already quoted says : "According to 
all appearance, Ireland, in so far as she is the Irish nation, 
distinct from England, must die. The end seems to be 
near. It is only a matter of years, or even days. It would 
be possible to calculate mathematically the date when the 
last Irish emigrant will take his departure from Ireland; 
when the Celt will have vanished from Ireland, and the 
Emerald Isle will at last have become English.^^^ Happily 
there is another point of view from which to regard this 
gloomy picture. 

The Regeneration of Ireland. — British oppression 
has caused a moral and mental decadence of the Irish 
nation. Now that England's policy has become more en- 
lightened, will the people regain their former character? 
To do so, they must be re-made. The people must be 
awakened to a new life by education, but not by that system 
which until recently has had in their country no competi- 
tion. The regeneration of Ireland has actually begun, and 
is the work of a few philosophical and far-seeing minds. 
Even now it is interesting almost every class of society. 

Improvement in Education. — Eor the undoubted 
change going on in Ireland three main movements are 
responsible. The first has for its object the improve- 
ment of Irish education and its development along 
new lines. The new programme became operative in 
1900. In the matter of primary education an im- 
portant place is given to manual anS practical instruction. 
As to secondary education there has been instituted a vigor- 
ous campaign against the practice of cramming for exami- 



Wontemporary Ireland, M. Paul-Dubois, 366. 



IRELAND. 625 

nations. To improve higher education the Bishops have 
created a Scholarship Fund, of which the object is to pro- 
vide a higher education for the most promising of those 
who have completed their secondary courses. Great interest 
has also been manifested in the development of public 
libraries. At present these are found in rural districts as 
well as in the towns. All this indicates a healthy change 
in public opinion and the existence of a desire for better in- 
struction. 

In August, 1908, Parliament passed the Irish Univer- 
sities Act. This measure established in Dublin a new Uni- 
versity, the one for which Irish Catholics have long been 
struggling. It also provides for the establishment of a 
similar institution in Belfast. Under the law both are, of 
course, non-sectarian. Nevertheless, the latter will be a 
Protestant, while the former will be a Catholic University. 
The idea of higher education for all the people of Ireland 
is an attractive one, and from its realization much good is 
seriously to be expected. 

The Gaelic Movement. — The second of these regen- . 
crating influences is the "Gaelic Movement." This aims 
to re-make the Irishman by connecting him with his 
race and its past, especially by awakening in him an 
interest in the Gaelic language. Those who have been 
absent from Ireland for fifteen or /twenty years are 
impressed on their return with the profound transfor- 
mation that has taken place in that brief interval. It 
is not that there are shops which sell only Irish books, 
Irish pamphlets and Irish newspapers, or that where twenty 
years ago less than a score of Dublin people spoke Gaelic: 
there are now 10,000. Over the spirit of multitudes of 
the Irish people there has come an undoubted change. 
In effecting this change one of the chief agencies has been 
the Gaelic renaissance. This term has a wider significance. 
than an interest, linguistic or philological, in the study of 
the old Celtic tongue. The remarkable progress of the 
Gaelic movement, however, has not been made without 
great opposition from the anti-Celtists, whose headquarters: 
appears to be Trinity College, Dublin. Some of its best 
known professors thought to kill the movement by ridicule. 
The pro-Celts then appealed to continental philologists of a: 



626 MODERN HISTORY. 

still higher grade of scholarship, and from them received 
cordial support. 

Perhaps one of the most interesting as well as one of the 
most important results of the Gaelic renaissance has been 
the literary awakening of Ireland. Already the movement 
numbers among its supporters authors of more than local 
reputation. Chief among these are Dr. Patrick Weston 
Joyce, Dr. Sigerson, of the old Danish element, 
Standish O'Grady, Lady Gregory and Dr. Douglas Hyde, 
the patriotic founder of the movement, and an author 
eminent in English as well as Irish literature. A school 
for higher Celtic study has been opened in Dublin under 
Professor Strahan and Kuno Meyer. As the list of those 
whose writings have been greatly influenced by the wealth 
of imagination in Celtic literature is a long one, but a few 
names can be mentioned. The work of T. W. Eolleston, A. 
P. Graves and William Butler Yeats is well known to even 
those with a tincture of English literature. Though the 
literary drama of England is either non-existent or medio- 
cre, there was founded in Dublin twelve years ago an Irish 
Literary Theater. Another important result of the Gaelic 
renaissance is the union of elements that have long been 
kept apart. Orangemen who never would have joined in a 
political organization are prominent in this movement. 

Economic Reform. — There have been mentioned two 
of the forces that have been effecting a remarkable change 
in Irish society, viz., an improved system of education and 
the Gaelic renaissance. It remains to notice the third and 
by no means the least efficient of the forces that have been 
at work. This is the matter of economic reform. In the 
long night of oppression not only were trade and industry 
badly crippled, but the commercial instinct itself was de- 
stroyed. This must be re-created. In 1888 the Hon. Sir 
Horace Plunkett devoted himself to the social and indus- 
trial regeneration of his country. Associated with him 
have been Father Finlay, Mr. E. Anderson and Lord Mon- 
teagle. The agency through which these far-seeing patriots 
have worked is known as the Irish Agricultural Organiza- 
tion Society. Isolated, the peasants were powerless, but 
when banded together and properly instructed they soon 
showed remarkable capacity to help themselves. Self-help, 



IRELAND. 627 

indeed, is most important principle in this economic re- 
form. The other element in this new movement is co-opera- 
tion. The gentlemen mentioned above decided to estab- 
lish a central society vi'hose object is to teach and to or- 
ganize the people. The promoters expected most from the 
educational value of cooperation. In appealing to the coun- 
try people they said, "Cooperation will help you to reduce 
your general expenses, to dispense with middlemen, to be 
your own bankers, and your own insurers. Isolated, you 
are powerless against competition; banded together, you 
will be, if not all-powerful, at least better armed for the 
struggle." Indeed, if well understood, the principle of 
cooperation is the most potent factor in economic education. 

Before Horace Plunkett was able to organize a single 
association he was compelled to address more than half a 
hundred meetings. This will suggest the difficulty of per- 
suading country people to adopt new ideas. Popular ignor- 
ance of modern conditions, political strife and religious 
prejudice made the task no easy one. The extent of the 
CoopRrative Movement may best be suggested by some recent 
statistics. In 1907 there were in Ireland 953 cooperative 
associations, with a membership of 95,000. This represents 
about 450,000 people. In other words, one-tenth of the 
Irish people are interested in the new movement. There 
are 356 cooperative dairies, 270 rural banks, with a total 
of 16,000 members, and 172 agricultural societies. 

The poor people of Western Ireland have hitherto been 
ignored by the large banks, and among them the lack of 
capital or the want of credit has been keenly felt. If for 
purposes of production they could at all succeed in bor- 
rowing money, it was only by paying for its use rates of 
interest that were ruinous. For loans under the old sys- 
tem 20 or even 30 per cent, was paid. From the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture and the Congested Districts Board 
they now borrow at 5 or 6 per cent. On these loans the 
people are said to realize profits of from 20 to 150 per 
cent. There are no bad debts among even the laborers who 
are registered as "beggars." These handsome profits are 
made chiefly by the rearing of cattle. The usurer has 
almost lost his occupation. The educational training of 
the cooperative system is of even greater value than the 



628 MODERN HISTORY. 

profits themselves. The borrower from a bank is more 
sober, more industrious and more economical. Drunken- 
ness is disappearing and generally the moral tone of the 
people has been raised. 

Of themselves the people can do much, but they can't 
do everything. "The State," says M. Paul-Dubois, "de- 
stroyed Ireland's economic spirit in the past; the State 
should therefore endeavor as far as possible to revive it."^ 
In 1895 Sir Horace Plunkett started a Committee of In- 
quiry to examine the question. Its report formed the basis 
of a bill passed in 1899. This measure established a De- 
partment of Agriculture and Technical Instruction in 
Ireland. The object of this department is to aid, improve 
and develop agriculture and industries. Its method is to 
assist the individual to help himself. It aims to give good 
general information to farmers, to those engaged in indus- 
try and in commerce; also to give to all those engaged in 
the economic life of the country a technical education. The 
Department already possesses the confidence of the people, 
and has had upon them a remarkably beneficial influence. 
The Christian Brothers, who were pioneers in the new 
movement, have influenced the people of the towns to 
accept the offer of technical instruction. Now a word as 
to its achievements. Factories of many kinds have been 
established. In 1882 there were in Ireland 12 woolen 
mills; in 1908 there were 100. In short, there are un- 
doubted signs of industrial revival, and a proof of this is 
seen in the fact that whereas articles made in Ireland were 
formerly regarded with contempt, they are now considered 
worthy of being counterfeited by British manufacturers. 
The product of the cooperative system of dairy farms is be- 
coming an important export ; there has also been a marked 
extension of flax culture. Shipbuilding, already a great 
industry, seems destined to still further development. For 
individual output a Belfast firm stands, or very recently 
stood, first in the world. These conditions explain the great 
increase of deposits in the joint-stock banks. According to 
undisputed statistics, Ireland is remarkably free, from J 
crime. ij 

^Contemporary Ireland, 452. - 



I 



RUSSIA, TURKEY AND GREECE. 629 

RUSSIA, TURKEY AXD GREECE SINCE 
THE CRIMEAN WAR. 

Notwithstanding the promise of moderation made by 
Abdul Medjid to his allies in the war against Eussia, and 
the issuing by him of a liberal statute in 1856, it was not 
long before his Christian subjects had again to suffer out- 
rages. There was a fearful massacre of Christians in the 
Libanus region and in Damascus in 1860, which was ended 
only by the occupation of Syria by a French force ; over it 
a Christian governor was appointed the following year. In 
this year also, that of Abdul Medjid's death, there was an 
insurrection in Herzegovina, supported by the Montene- 
grins, and under the name of the Principality of Eoumania, 
Prince Cusa proclaimed the union of Moldavia and Wal- 
lachia, which had until then been separate tributary states 
of the Turkish empire, though with Christian governors. 
About the same time the Czar proclaimed the emancipation 
of the serfs in his realm. In 1862 the Montenegrins were 
vanquished by Omer Pasha, and had to submit to a disad- 
vantageous peace. There was a bloody conflict between the 
^Christians and the Turks in Belgrade, the capital of Servia, 
also a country tributary to the Sultan. This same year wit- 
nessed a revolution in Greece, when King Otho (a Bavarian 
prince) was deposed. Six months later (in March, 1863), 
the Greeks conferred the crown on a son of Prince Christian 
of Sonderburg-Gliicksburg (soon afterwards King of Den- 
mark), who assumed the name of George I. Then Great 
Britain renounced her protectorate over the Ionian Islands, 
which she transferred to Greece. In January a rebellion 
against Eussia had broken out in Poland, and early in the 
following year was suppressed with merciless severity. 
Prince Cusa of Eoumania was deposed in 1866, and Prince 
Charles of Hohenzollern (of the Catholic branch) was 
elected as his successor. Goaded by cruel tyranny, the 
Christians of Crete rose in rebellion and inflicted heavy 
losses on the Turks, but were not successful in getting rid 
of their masters. In the following year the Turkish garri- 
sons were withdrawn from Servia, whose prince, Michael 
Obrenovitch, was assassinated in 1868. He was succeeded 
by his son Milan. Eussia took advantage of the Franco- 



630 MODERN HISTOtlY. 

German war, in October, 1870, to announce to the world 
her refusal to be bound any longer by the terms of the treaty 
of Paris respecting the Black Sea; and in January, 1871, 
a conference was held in London for the settlement of the 
question, the outcome of which was the abrogation of the 
provisions of the treaty respecting neutralization. Mean- 
while, Eussia had been extending her conquests in Asia, to 
which she added Khiva in 1873 and Khokan in 1878. But 
ere this she had been making history in Europe. 

The Russo-Turkish War, 1877-8.— Fomented by 
Russian agents, insurrections broke out in Herzegovina and 
Bosnia in July and August of 1875. Before the end of 
the year the Turks were almost entirely driven out of these 
provinces, and there was a revival of Moslem fanaticism in 
Constantinople. On January 31, 1876, the great powers 
addressed what is known as the Andrassy note to the Porte, 
demanding reforms. The immediate answer was the in- 
vasion of Herzegovina by Mukhtar Pasha. The Bosnians 
rose again in April, and the Bulgarians in May. On the 
6th of this month the French and German consuls at 
Salonica were murdered, and before its end the Turks had 
begun the atrocious massacres in Bulgaria so eloquently 
and vehemently denounced by Gladstone, Meanwhile there 
was a revolution in Constantinople, where the grand vizier, 
Mohammed Pasha, had fallen. Then Gortchakoff, An- 
drassy and Bismarck drew up another note of protest to the 
Sultan. This was known as the Berlin Memorandum, and 
was without effect. The Sultan, Abdul-Aziz, worn out with 
excesses, was deposed, and his imbecile brother, Murad V, 
elevated to the throne, on the night of May 29-30. The 
former was murdered on June 4. On July 2, Servia and 
Montenegro declared war against Turkey, and were at first 
victorious. The new Sultan was deposed and imprisoned 
on August 31, and his younger brother, Abdul Hamid II, 
who has proved one of the worst tyrants of his race, elevated 
in his stead. The Turkish fortune of war revived, and be- 
fore the end of October, Servia was almost completely sub- 
dued, Montenegro hard pressed, and Bulgaria laid waste 
with fire and sword. Then came a Eussian ultimatum and 
the conclusion of a general armistice on October 31. In 
December, Midhat Pasha was appointed grand vizier, and a 



RUSSIA, TURKEY AND GREECE. 631 

constitution for the Turkish empire was proclaimed. A 
conference of the great powers was opened at Constanti- 
nople on December 23. But its propositions respecting re- 
forms were rejected by the grand council of the Turkish 
empire, and it closed its sessions on January 30, 1877. 
Midhat Pasha fell from power two weeks later, and peace 
was concluded between Turkey and Servia on March 1. 
On March 19 a Turkish parliament was opened, and to it 
on the 31st was sent an address, known as the London Pro- 
tocol of the Great Powers. This was rejected by the Porte. 
Then, on April 16, Eussia and Roumania entered into an 
agreement, and eight days later the former declared war 
against the Porte; her armies invaded Armenia and en- 
tered Eoumania on the same day. Early in May, Roumania 
joined in the war, and a little later declared her indepen- 
dence. On May 17 the Russians stormed Ardahan, in 
Armenia, but General Louis Melikoff was repulsed at Zevin 
on June 25, and Mukhtar Pasha forced the Russians on 
July 9 to raise the seige of Kars. He was completely de- 
feated, however, at Aladja Dagh on October 15, and re- 
treated to Erzeroum, behind whose fortifications he was 
forced to withdraw on November 4. Two weeks later Kars 
was taken by storm. Meanwhile the Russians had suffered 
severe reverses in Europe. A portion of their forces crossed 
the Danube at Galatz on June 22, and their main army at 
Sinvitza on June 27. On July 13 and 14 General Gourko 
crossed the Balkans, and then from the south occupied and 
fortified the Shipka pass. Nicopolis fell on July 16. Four 
days later Osman Pasha won his first victory at Plevna, 
and at the same place, on July 30, a portion of the army 
under the Grand Duke Nicholas suffered a great defeat, as 
did General Gourko the next two days at Eski Zaghra at 
the hands of Suleiman Pasha, who, in vain, however, at- 
tacked the Russian positions in the Shipka pass on August 
21. In August and September, Mehemet Ali, a Prussian 
renegade, carried on successful operations against the Rus- 
sian crown prince. On September 3, Lovatz was stormed 
by the Russians, and on the 8th Niksitch surrendered to 
the Montenegrins. During this month the Russians made 
renewed attacks' on Plevna, which they and the Rouma- 
nians desperately assaulted on the 11th. General Gourko 



632 MODERN HISTORY. 

stormed Gorni Dubnik on October 24, and oh the 28th took 
Telish. On November 23 Mehemet Ali was forced from his 
positions at Pravetz, but Suleiman Pasha's forces captured 
Elena on December 4th. On December 10th Osman Pasha 
attempted to break through the Eussian lines at Plevna, but 
was forced to surrender. Two days later Suleiman Pasha 
was defeated at Metchka, and on the 14th Servia declared 
war against the Porte. At this time also General Gourko 
advanced across the Balkans, and on January 4th entered 
Sofia. On the 7th General Kartzoff forced the Troyan 
pass, and on the 9th Generals Mirski, Skobeleff and 
Nadetzky captured the Turkish forces in the Shipka pass, 
and on the 10th ISTish surrendered to the Servians and Anti- 
vari to the Montenegrins. From the 15th to the ITth 
Suleiman's army was destroyed near Philippopolis, and the 
Russians entered Adrianople on the 20th. Thence they 
advanced to within sight of Constantinople, which they had 
pledged England not to attack. An armistice was con- 
cluded on the 31st. On February 17th the British fleet 
entered the Sea of Marmora to see that the Eussians kept 
their word, and the JBritish government embarked a force of 
Sepoys at Bombay so as to be ready to make war against 
Eussia in case of emergency. On March 3d, Eussia and 
Turkey concluded the treaty of San Stefano, by which was 
acknowledged the complete independence of Eoumania, 
Servia and Montenegro, under Eussian protection. Bosnia, 
Herzegovina and Novi Bazar, and Bulgaria, with Eastern 
Eoumelia and Macedonia, were erected into principalities 
vassal to Turkey, but with Christian princes, and a large 
part of Armenia was ceded to Eussia. England, highly dis- 
satisfied with these terms, entered into a secret treaty with 
Turkey, engaging to maintain the integrity of the Turkish 
dominions in Asia, and receiving the island of Cyprus in 
return. Then she called a congress of the powers to revise 
the treaty of San Stefano. This congress met at Berlin on 
June 13th, and drew up and ratified a new treaty. By this 
instrument Eoumania, Servia and Montenegro became in- 
dependent principalities, Eussia retained her conquest in 
Armenia and received a portion of Bessarabia, giving the 
Dobrudsha to Eoumania in return ; large ' additions were 
made to Servia and Montenegro, Bulgaria was made a 



RUSSIA, TURKEY AND GREECE. 633 

Christian principality tributary to the Porte, Eastern Rou- 
melia a province to be ruled by a Christian governor, Mace- 
donia was ceded back to Turkey, and Bosnia, Herzegovina 
and Novi Bazar were placed under the protection of Aus- 
tria. It also guaranteed civil rights to non-Mohammedans 
in the Turkish empire. 

Subsequent Events in the Balkan Peninsula, etc- 

Greece had been demanding the addition of Thessaly, 
Epirus and Crete to her domain, and her demands the Ber- 
lin conference left open for future settlement. Before the 
end of July, Austrian forces entered Bosnia and Herzegovi- 
na. Though the Mohammedans offered a desperate resist- 
ance, the subjugation of the provinces was completed within 
three months. There was a more prolonged opposition to the 
expansion of Montenegro, to procure which and to consider 
the demands of Greece a supplementary conference of the 
powers was held at Berlin in 1880. They had to make a 
naval demonstration off the coast of Albania before Turkey 
exerted itself to expel the Albanians from Dulcigno. In 
May of the following year the Turkish government was 
forced to cede nearly all of Thessaly and a small part of 
Epirus to Greece. Alexander of Battenberg had been 
chosen as prince of Bulgaria in the spring of 1879, Eou- 
mania became a Kingdom in March, 1881, and Servia soon 
afterwards. While Eussia, disgusted with the turn affairs 
had taken in the Balkan peninsula and troubled with Nihil- 
ist conspiracies at home, was pushing her conquests in 
central Asia, her Czar, Alexander II, just after he had pre- 
pared and was about to promulgate a liberal constitution, 
was assassinated, on March 13, 1881. During the follow- 
ing month, under his son and successor, Alexander III, a 
violent persecution of the Jews was begun. In the following 
year Austria had to suppress insurrections in Dalmatia 
and Herzegovina. In 1885, while Russia and England 
were rearranging the northern boundary of Afghanistan, 
there was a revolution in Eastern Roumelia, which annexed 
itself to Bulgaria. Soon afterwards the latter country made 
war on Servia, but was completely defeated. Next year its 
prince, Alexander, was recognized as governor of Eastern 
Roumelia. During the summer a conspiracy, instigated 
by Russia, was formed against him, and he was kidnaped ; 



634 MODERN HISTORY. 

but in a few days a counter revolution brought him back. 
In consequence of the attitude of the Czar he abdicated on 
September 7th. Nearly a year later Prince Ferdinand of 
Coburg, notwithstanding the protest of Eussia, was elected 
to succeed him. Meanwhile Greece had threatened to in- 
vade Turkey, but was prevented by the intervention of the 
great powers. In March, 1889, owing to internal troubles 
in his realm. King Milan of Servia abdicated in favor of his 
son, Alexander. In Eussia, which suffered severely from 
famine in 1891, there was no event of importance until 
1894, when Czar Alexander III died and was succeeded 
by his son, Nicholas II. In 1895 Turkey again put civili- 
zation to the blush, when her soldiers, along with Kurdish 
freebooters, began in Armenia a series of frightful massa- 
cres of Christians which lasted into the following year. Be- 
fore these outrages ceased, her misrule had again goaded the 
Christians of Crete into rebellion. Greece, having resolved 
to annex the island, sent in February, 1897, an armed force 
to take possession of it. The powers then decreed its 
erection into an autonomous province, and called upon 
Greece to withdraw her troops. On her refusal they block- 
aded the island. Greece then, early in April, made war on 
Turkey, but was disastrously defeated in several battles in 
Thessaly, which province she would then have lost but for 
intervention of the powers. In October, 1898, the powers 
compelled Turkey to evacuate Crete and appointed Prince 
George of Greece as its governor. It was annexed to Greece 
in 1902. Turkey, being bankrupt, has long been on the 
verge of dissolution. Countries having claims against her 
are obliged to use force to have them recognized. Such a 
course was adopted by the United States in 1900 and by 
France at the close of 1901. Eussia, whose Czar, in August, 
1898, called a famous peace congress that met at The Hague 
the following year, seems to have lost interest in the affairs 
of the Bosphorus ; but she has more than made up for this 
by her vast acquisitions in central and eastern Asia. As 
early as 1884 she had completely subjugated the Tekke- 
Turkomans. 

Russian Affairs — War with Japan.— T he year 
1891 is notable for the expulsion of the Jews, as well as 
for a widespread and most disastrous famine. In this 



RUSSIA, TURKEY AND GREECE. 635 

scourge, and in an epidemic of cholera which followed it, 
thousands were swept away. By her harsh treatment of the 
Jews, Eussia has been greatly injured in the estimation of 
the more enlightened States of the civilized world. By 
their ownership of newspapers in many important com- 
mercial centers of the globe the Jews exercise no small in- 
fluence in the formation of public opinion. It is not se- 
riously to be expected that the sins of Eussia will be mini- 
mized by that part of the press controlled by Jews. 
The Mhilists, who had been extremely active in 1878, 
attempted in the following year to assassinate the Emperor. 
In 1880 the attempt was repeated, and in 1881 it was suc- 
cessful. Nihilistic, socialistic and other revolutionary or- 
ganizations flourish secretly in many cities, notwithstand- 
ing the existence of very severe laws. Finding herself 
thwarted in the direction of Constantinople, Eussia, as has 
just been stated, adopted an active policy of expansion in 
the East. It was in pursuit of this policy that she came 
into conflict with Japan. 

The disastrous war with that country was begun in 1904. 
For several years preceding that date Eussia had been in 
occupation of the Chinese province of Manchuria, and at 
that time was exercising very great influence in the internal 
affairs of Korea. In that kingdom Japan had important 
interests, commercial and other, and objected to seeing it 
Eussianized. Japanese protests concerning the policy of 
Eussia were little regarded ; diplomatic negotiations, which 
were long drawn out, were suddenly broken off by Japan, 
and operations both by land and sea were commenced at 
once. Each power endeavored to fix upon the other all the re- 
sponsibility for the war. A more particular account of this 
great struggle will be given in the section on Japan. (See 
page 669). The internal conditions in both countries, and 
the influence of President Eoosevelt, brought about peace 
between the belligerents. By the terms of the treaty, Eussia 
lost her foothold both in Manchuria and Korea, and was 
compelled to cede to Japan a portion of the island of Sakha- 
lin. Though the treaty was acceptable to neither power, 
circumstances compelled them both to accept its provisions. 

In Eussia there was trouble with both the Finns and 
Poles. There was also among the Eussian subjects of the 



636 MODERN HISTORY, 

Czar much unrest. This condition compelled the govern- 
ment to keep a very large army at home, and it was there- 
fore able to send against Japan only a part of its forces. 
Eiots, strikes, and the assassination of public officials, led to 
the establishment of a consultative body called the Duma. 
In the British or in the American sense this assembly is not 
a legislative body, but merely one possessing powers of 
recommendation. However, its establishment temporarily 
appeased the people. An imperial manifesto of October 
31, 1905, granted to the people a sort of constitutional 
government. It provided for the appointment of a pre- 
mier, extended the suffrage and removed some restraints 
upon the freedom of the press. Nevertheless, rioting, 
mutiny and Semitic outrages soon followed, and the entire 
country seemed to be drifting toward anarchy. By an im- 
perial manifesto of July 23, 1906, the Duma was dis- 
solved. After adjourning to Viborg, in Finland, it in turn 
issued a manifesto. The dissolution of the Duma was suc- 
ceeded by something like a reign of terror. The number 
of assassinations was appalling, and even the premier him- 
self was attacked in his villa. Though he escaped, more 
than thirty of those around him were killed. 

The firmness of Premier Stolypin has restored a measure 
of order, but even yet the administration of affairs is far 
from normal. During September 8th and 9th, 1906, there 
occurred at Seidlice, in Poland, frightful massacres of 
Jews and terrorists. Though he has not yet accomplished 
much, the minister has promised relief to the former. 
While no one can foretell its future, conditions within the 
empire are slowly improving. 

Deposition of Sultan. — Up to the year 1908, the 
corrupt, decrepid and disordered condition of Turkey con- 
tinued without change. On July 24th of that year the 
Sultan unexpectedly announced that the constitution of 
1876 was restored. In 1907 there had been instances of 
mutiny in the army; there was a boundary dispute with 
Persia and a number of massacres in Macedonia. Assassin- 
ation and pillage were the normal conditions. Mean- 
while, the Young Turk party was engaged in winning the 
affections of the army. 

In his youth a host of sycophants had envenomed the 



RUSSIA, TURKEY AND GREECE. 637 

mind of Abdul Hamid II; he fell early into self -admira- 
tion, despised the counsel of others, and with his own hands 
hurled his empire into hopeless ruin and destruction. As far 
as it was possible to effect it, he prevented all intercourse 
between his subjects and the people of Western Europe. 
The son of a high dignitary, who was serving -as military 
attache in Home, lost his office when it became known that 
he had taken part in a ball and danced with a lady. If a 
grand vizier possessed courage enough to recommend a 
policy not favored by his master, he was exiled and was 
seldom heard from again. If an official of lower rank dis- 
pleased the Sultan, his murder was quietly effected. In a 
word, opposition, no matter how enlightened or how patri- 
otic, was extremely dangerous, for in his later years Abdul 
Hamid became a remorseless tyrant. The very word Hur- 
riet (Liberty) was forbidden to be printed in the Turkish 
dictionary. If he could prevent it, no liberal tendency 
could effect a lodgment anywhere in his empire. By the 
leading Turkish society he was hated, by his ministers he 
was execrated, and by the Young Turkish party he was 
described by the most insulting epithets. In a word, all 
save a small clique wished his disappearance from the 
world. In May and June, 1908, there were evident signs 
of an approaching storm. The soldiers in his army formed 
his main reliance, and continued to be his principal hope 
until he was no longer able or willing to feed and clothe 
them. There was soon a military revolt in Macedonia. 
Eegiments from Asia Minor were brought to Salonica only 
to swell the ranks of the mutineers. As a last resort he 
proposed to become a constitutional monarch. His ene- 
mies, too, executed a change of front, and as guests at his 
dinner table stooped to kiss his hand and to touch the hem 
of his garments. Indeed, some of them even shed tears 
in his presence. They knew, however, that he was in- 
sincere in his professions and was a master in the art of 
dissimulation. Doubtless he still hoped that the leaders of 
the Young Turks were accessible to bribes, and when he 
found himself unable to win them over, he caused them 
to be denounced as Unbelievers. Under Shevket Pasha 
the Salonica regiments hurried to Constantinople. The 
Sultan was too old and too feeble to command in person 



638 MODERN HISTORY. 

his small garrison and attempt the defense of his capital. 
In the presence of certain defeat he abdicated in favor of 
his brother, Keshad Efendi, and submitted to the condi- 
tions imposed by the victors. At midnight. May, 1909, he 
was forced to leave his family, his treasures and the luxury 
of his princely mansion and to take up his residence in the 
summer-house of one of his Jewish subjects in Salonica. 
In the deposition of Abdul Hamid II there appears to be 
some hope for the future of Turkey. 

Though the Powers saved Greece after her disastrous 
defeat in the war with Turkey, she was compelled to pay a 
large indemnity, and is now financially ruined. The pres- 
ent dynasty seems to be tottering on the verge of de- 
struction. 

OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES SINCE 1870. 

Germany. — While Austria seems to be on the point of 
disintegration, owing to the rivalries and antipathies of 
the many different peoples composing that empire, the 
new empire of Germany has been consolidated and strength- 
ened.^ This was the work of the great and, as some think, 
unscrupulous statesman. Prince Bismarck. For years after 



'Though Austria-Hungary is known to the outside world as one State, 
it is not, unfortunately for its internal peace and prosperity, a single 
nation. In the year 1900 the empire was made up of the following 
ethnical elements : 

German 11,306,795 

Magyar 8,751,877 

LATIN. 

Rumanians 3,030,442 

Italians 727,102 

3,757,544 

SLAVIC. 

Poles 4,252,483 

Euthenians 3,811,017 

Slovenes 1,192,780 

Servians and Croatians 3,442,129 

Czechs and Slovaks 7,975,038 

. 20,673,447 

Gypsies and other nationalities 915,604 

Total population 45,405,267 

The lapse of time has not made of these elements a homogeneous 
people. They preserve their languages and their literatures, and their 
hopes rest outside the empire. The Germanic part of the population 
looks toward the German Empire ; the Italians to Italy and the Slavs 
to a revived Poland. Though Austria-Hungary has made considerable 
intellectual and industrial progress in the past decade, much of the 
energy of the people has been expended in racial struggles. 




BMPEROE WILLIAM II. 



OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES SINCE 1870. 639 

its formation it was disgraced by persecution of the Catho- 
lic Church. In 1872 the houses of the Jesuits and some other 
orders were suppressed in Prussia, and a year later came the 
anti-Catholic legislation known as the Falk laws. Several 
bishops and hundreds of priests were imprisoned or fled 
from the country because they opposed the subserviency of 
the Church to the State. Notwithstanding the failure of 
these penal laws, they were enforced even long after the 
accession of Pope Leo XIII. His policy, however, and 
that of a strong and thoroughly organized Catholic party 
in the German parliament, known as the Center, at last 
forced Bismarck to go to Canossa. The persecution came 
to an end in 1887. The subsequent history of Germany 
has been mainly that of legislation designed to foster in- 
dustrial prosperity. For years a vigorous campaign was 
carried on against socialism, which is very strong in the 
cities. The chancellor "of blood and iron," Bismarck, ne- 
gotiated secret treaties with both Eussia and Austria in 
1879, and four years later brought about the famous Triple 
Alliance between Germany, Austria and Italy, which has 
been renewed every four years since. It was only in 1884 
that Germany began to establish colonies abroad. Since 
then she has acquired three large regions in Africa, one in 
the equatorial west, one in the southwest, and the other in 
the east. She has also seized a small portion of China, 
south of the Yellow Sea. The first emperor, William I, 
died in March, 1888. His son and successor, Frederick I, 
reigned only three months, when the latter's son, William 
II, ascended the throne. Wishing to be his own master, he 
forced Bismarck to resign in 1890, and until his deathj 
eight years later, the latter smarted under the blow. 

The Reconstruction of Germany. — In 18 71 there 
existed within the Empire the greatest variet}'' in 
legal practice. Each little state and even each city 
had its own system of laws. This condition was 
almost intolerable. Accordingly a commission was ap- 
pointed to prepare new codes. In 1877 a criminal 
code for the Empire was completed and adopted; in 
1897 there was prepared a commercial code, and in 1000 
a civil code, very comprehensive in character. These suc- 
ceasive measures soon introduced uniformity into the law. 



640 MODERN HISTORY. 

Each state, however, still retains its local courts, though 
there has been established a court of appeal for the Empire. 

German unity was effected by the statesmanship of Bis- 
marck and the military power of Prussia. There still re- 
mained in the state, however, several elements that at first 
embarrassed somewhat the imperial government. After 
the conquest of Alsace-Lorraine there existed among the 
people of these provinces considerable bitterness toward 
the victorious Germans, and the Germans appear to have 
been in no mood for conciliation. There was a systematic 
endeavor to extirpate the French language from both the 
schools and official proceedings. It was forbidden even 
"on signs and posters. Fines and imprisonment were used 
to repress manifestations of French sympathy in any form. 
Journals with French tendencies, and journals coming 
from France were suppressed." All this, however, failed 
to make the population German. A new and flourishing 
German university at Strassburg, with German professors, 
has become a center of patriotic German feeling. This edu- 
cational influence, coupled with the prosperity which the 
conquered provinces share with other parts of the Empire, 
seems gradually to be weakening the desire for re-annexa- 
tion to France. For ten years past the feeling of the con- 
quered is, perhaps, less bitter, and in time may cease alto- 
gether to exist. This tendency is strengthened somewhat 
by the foreign policy of France, which seems no longer to 
be dominated by the Alsace-Lorraine question. Except the 
Casablanca Affair, which was amicably settled, nothing has 
occurred in the last decade to interrupt the growing friend- 
ship of France and Germany. 

In the Polish parts of the Empire the efforts of the gov- 
ernment have been much less successful. By Bismarck the 
Poles were regarded as not only anti-German but as anti- 
imperial, and toward them he adopted a policy of re- 
pression. During 1885 and 1886 any new Poles settling 
in that part of Germany were expelled. The government 
also undertook a system of colonization. Two sums of 
$25,000,000 each have been appropriated for the purchase 
of Polish estates. On these farms Germans have been set- 
tled, but the natural increase of population among the 
Poles is greater than among the Germans, and they are 



' 



OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES SINCE 1870. G41 

said to be even more thrifty. In local trade they would, 
therefore, become keen competitors. This rivalry, with 
differences of race, religion and language, tends to keep 
alive much bitterness of feeling. In the Polish schools, 
which have been taken over by the state, the German lan- 
guage is taught. The speech of the home and the street, 
however, is Polish, and the national spirit is kept alive by 
Polish societies. It would seem that but little progress has 
been made in Teutonizing this part of the Empire. In 
1907 the Germanization of Poland was carried on with 
more activity than ever, and measures were proposed which 
shocked the civilized world. Polish newspapers were con- 
fiscated and their editors imprisoned; fines were imposed 
for holding Polish meetings, and peasants were not allowed 
to build houses upon their own land. There is mentioned 
the case of at least one Polish family that, because of these, 
regulations, was compelled to live in a gypsy cart. On 
November 26, 1907, there was introduced a measure still 
more drastic for crushing out Polish nationality. 

The Danish population of Schleswig-Holstein, though 
treated in a manner much more conciliatory than the Polish 
inhabitants of Germany, or even the people of Alsace-Lor- 
raine, still has a grievance. In the schools, instruction 
in the Danish language is forbidden, and proposals have 
been discussed which look to a settlement of Germans in 
that district. 

German Social Democracy.— After the war with 
France the industrial development of Germany became 
enormous. From 1871 to 1874 as many factories were 
built as in the preceding seventy years. The consequent 
prosperity tended to separate still more the rich and the 
poor. The communistic teachings of Karl Marx, Fried- 
rich Engels and others were not without influence in pro- 
moting the growth of the Socialist party. 

The financial crisis of 1873, by throwing out of employ- 
ment great numbers of people and by sweeping away the 
savings of workingmen, added greatly to the spirit of dis- 
content. It was not until 1890, however, that the gov- 
ernment proceeded against the Socialists. Of their publi- 
cations 1,400 were suppressed; 1,500 persons were impris- 
oned and 900 banished from the country. Since then a 



642 MODERN HISTORY. 

policy much more conciliatory has been adopted. Of the 
political parties in the Empire, the Socialist is the strong- 
est. In 1903 the total vote polled by it was 3,250,000. 

Colonies. — The policy of colonization Germany adopted 
too late to become a formidable rival of England. Indeed, 
when the Empire was established, 1871, the more desirable 
regions of the globe had already been partitioned among 
the older powers. ISTeverthelesss, she has since acquired 
possessions in the Pacific and more important colonies in 
Africa. As yet, these dependencies are almost no source 
of strength to her, though in time they may become so. 
In the field of commerce it is far different. Nearly every- 
where the Germans are keen competitors for trade, and in 
some places they have almost supplanted British merchants. 

Social Efficiency. — Furthermore, German science is 
.impairing somewhat the prosperity of British colonies. A 
few years ago the value of India's indigo trade was 
$25,000,000. With the upgrowth of the iron industry in 
Germany the output of coke has increased immensely and 
has given the nation the raw material for manufacturing 
coal-tar dyes. To-day German chemists make three fourths 
of all the indigo used in the world, and England is among 
the large purchasers. It is this change in production that 
has led to the great decline in the value of India's indigo 
trade, now estimated at only $5,000,000. This is a single 
illustration. In other lines of production German science 
is also beginning to prevail, and is encroaching upon the 
trade of even England herself. 

On the sea, too, an element of which England has long 
been mistress, the Germans are becoming strong. She is 
not, it is true, apprehensive of Germany's naval strength, 
nor does she fear Germany as a colonial rival. It is the 
extraordinary development of German commerce that has 
alarmed England, but she has had commercial rivals before, 
and has survived their competition. Her pirates plundered 
Spanish merchantmen before Spanish commerce was de- 
stroyed in public war. Her next rival was Holland, and the 
trade of that enterprising state was likewise effaced. In 
point of time the next competitor was France, It was de- 
creed that her commerce, too, must perish. By destroying 
the trade of these rivals and legislating Irish industries out 



J 



OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES SINCE 1870. 643 

of existence Great Britain has thrived. Is it to be expected 
from her history that without a struggle she will witness a 
considerable share of her commerce pass into German hands ? 
These considerations explain the present unrest in Eng- 
land and the undoubted fear of war with Germany, Per- 
haps this feeling of an inevitable conflict is not unconnected 
with the establishment of more friendly relations with 
France. On the other hand, Germany does not appear to 
desire war, for she is winning more victories by pursuing 
a policy of peace, but if war does come, the German people 
will not shrink from the consequences. Their naval 
strength England can calculate beforehand; their army, 
too, is not an unknown element, but what, perhaps, can not 
be estimated, are the resources and the patriotism of more 
than 60,000,000 Germans. 

Education. — The extraordinary industrial and mili- 
tary development of Germany has been equalled by its 
progress in science. Its splendid system of education has 
attracted students from almost every quarter of the globe. 
From the United States there are always great numbers at- 
tending the principal universities of the Empire. These 
bring home with them the most modern methods of scien- 
tific research, and in the last quarter of a century have con- 
tributed greatly to improve with us both secondary and 
higher institutions of learning. In this respect our debt 
to Germany is immense, and this influence can scarcely fail 
to make more friendly our relations with that great nation. 

Italy Since 1878. — The relations between this King- 
dom and the Church were not sensibly improved by the 
change, at the beginning of this year, of rulers over both. 
The financial condition of the former kept on growing 
from bad to worse, until the Italian people became by far 
the most heavily taxed in the world. But for this condi- 
tion Italy might have gone to war with France in 1881, 
on account of the latter's occupation of Tunis, to which 
the former laid claim. The next year Italy established a 
trading post at Massowah, on the Red Sea, near Abyssinia, 
and began a colony there in 1884. In January, 1887, her 
troops suffered a bloody defeat near Massowah at the 
hands of King John of Abyssinia. After his death in 
battle with the Soudanese, two years later, Italy took ad- 



644 MODERN HISTORY. 

vantage of the ensuing confusion to claim a protectorate 
over the Abyssinian province of Tigre. This action led 
to war in 1895 with the new King, Menelek II, who, after 
several minor engagements, utterly defeated the Italians 
at Adowah on March 1, 1896. The Italian premier, ¥. 
Crispi, was at once driven from office amid wild scenes of 
excitement, and spent the remaining five years of his 
life in disgrace. By a treaty concluded eight months 
later, Italy renounced her claim to a protectorate over 
Abyssinia. On July 19, 1900, King Humbert I was as- 
sassinated by an anarchist, and was succeeded by his son, 
Victor Emmanuel III. In 1901 an agreement was reached 
between France and Italy that the latter is to seize the 
coast portion of Tripoli at the earliest opportunity, the 
interior to go to the former. 

The Church in Italy. — During the Pontificate of Pope 
Leo XIII the feeling between the Government and the 
Church continued constantly to improve, and under his 
successor. Pope Pius X, their relations have become even 
more friendly. It is the opinion of many that, since France 
has assumed an attitude of hostility, the Papacy, for the 
protection of its interests, will turn more and more to the 
Government of Italy. Catholics are now taking an active 
part in Italian politics, and it is expected that their influ- 
ence will count for much in the restoration of order and 
prosperity. Though the Government has become much 
more friendly toward the Church, there exists among the 
people considerable anti-clerical feeling. A very recent 
manifestation of this hostility was seen in the insulting of 
priests in Eome immediately after the shooting, October 
13, 1909, by the Spanish authorities, of Sen or Ferrer for 
his connection with the riots in Barcelona. This topic will 
be more fully discussed in the succeeding section. 

Domestic and Foreign Affairs. — Fnder a succession 
of competent ministers the finances of Italy have been 
greatly improved; the public debt has been considerably 
reduced, and notwithstanding agrarian troubles and 
strikes, domestic tranquillity has been established. With 
the world outside, especially with Great Britain and France, 
Italy maintains amicable relations. At the present moment 



OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES SINCE 1870. 645 

the Czar of Russia is paying a friendly visit to King Victor 
Emmanuel III. 

Though improving slowly, Italy is still somewhat back- 
ward in the matter of education. This condition is due 
not so much to the absence of interest as to the lack of an 
efficient system. From this remark, however, must be ex- 
cepted that part of popular education under the control 
of the Church. In its management this is much superior. 
The universities, of which there are twenty-one, send forth 
annually great numbers of graduates, but as many of these 
can find no employment, they tend to unite with the dis- 
contented part of the population. 

For many years after its accomplishment, Italian unity 
did not bring about, as was expected, any sensible increase 
of prosperity. Since 1901, however, there has been a 
marked increase in exports as well as imports. Agricul- 
ture, too, shows signs of reviving. jSTotwithstanding the 
great losses by emigration to South America, the United 
States and other countries, the population, now almost 
33,500,000, has been steadily increasing. 

Earthquake of 1908. — In April, 1906, an eruption 
of Mount Vesuvius destroyed four towns and several vil- 
lages in its vicinity. On that occasion more than two thou- 
sand lives were lost. The presence of the King and Queen 
did much to lessen the sufferings and to set at rest the 
alarm of the people. That disaster, however, and, per- 
haps, any recorded in history, was completely overshadowed 
on December 28, 1908, when a violent earthquake destroyed 
the city of Messina, in Sicily, and Eeggio, on the mainland. 
Besides the utter wreck of these flourishing centers of com- 
merce, much injury was done to small towns and villages 
for a considerable distance on each side of the Messinian 
Strait. The destruction of property, though not accurately 
known, must have been enormous. The loss of human life 
was appalling. It has been estimated that about 200,000 
persons were buried in the ruins or died from exposure 
following the calamity. This is a dark shadow upon the 
pleasant picture suggested by the preceding paragraph. 

Spain Since 1870. — We left the Spanish throne in 
possession of Amadeo, Duke of Aosta, second son of Victor 
Emmanuel II, of Italy. He found it anything but a place 



646 MODERN HISTORY. 

of repose. Not only was the country divided into - jar- 
ring factions, but in 1872 a Carlist insurrection broke out 
in the northern provinces and soon made rapid progress. 
In February, 1873, he abdicated in disgust, and a repub- 
lican government was established. A month later slavery 
was abolished in Porto Eico. Cuba had been in rebellion 
since 1868. In addition to the Carlist war, radical re- 
publicans and socialists rose in rebellion in the south and 
east in the summer of 1873. Then the quasi-government 
committed horrible excesses, and the Carlists gained 
rapidly. In September, Emilio Castelar was chosen presi- 
dent, but with no better result. On October 31 the 
Spaniards seized the American steamship "Virginius ;" but 
Spain, yielding to the demands of the United States, gave 
her up on December 16th. A year later a military con- 
spiracy headed by General Martinez de Campos called to 
the throne Alionso XII, son of the exiled Isabella II. 
Pending his arrival a regency ministry was established 
under the Conservative leader,. Canovas del Castillo. • The 
new King reached Spain on January 9, 1875. Then the 
Carlist movement gradually grew weaker, and the civil 
war was ended in February, 1876. After that, from time 
to time, there were fitful disturbances in various parts of 
the country, especially in Andalusia and Catalonia. The 
ten years' war in Cuba was ended by Martinez Campos in 
1878. In 1880 the gradual abolition of slavery in Cuba 
was begun. Spain was again disturbed by military revolts 
in 1883, The King died on November 25, 1885, and his 
widow, Christina of Austria, became regent for his posthu- 
mous son, Alfonso XIII. In addition to a war with the 
Eiff pirates of Morocco in 1893, Spain had to encounter 
an uprising in the Philippines in 1894, and a fresh rebel- 
lion in Cuba the following year. How she has lost both 
of these possessions and Porto Eico is told elsewhere. 
In 1900 and 1901 there were anti-Catholic outbreaks in 
Madrid and other cities. 

Internal Conditions.— "When Spain lost her colonial 
empire in the war with the United States, it was predicted 
that, so great a source of distraction having been removed, 
there would be noticed a marked improvement in the con- 
dition of her internal. affairs. Since that event took place. 



OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES SINCE 1870. 647 

however, more than ten years have passed, and efficient 
administration of government appears as distant as ever. 

In 1901 there was much anti-clerical agitation as well as 
considerable opposition to the settlement in Spain of mem" 
bers of the religious orders expelled from France, During 
the ceremonies of Easter week the processions were attacked, 
and on the occasion of a procession at Saragossa blood was 
shed. Toward the close of the year a disturbance occurred 
at the christening of the Infanta. In a word, the feeling 
against the clerical party is one of extreme bitterness. In 
the course of some angry debates upon Spanish interests, it 
was said by some friends of the clergy that the splendid 
colonial empire of Spain, which was founded by Catholics, 
had been lost by Free Masons. - 

Diplomatic relations with the United States were re- 
sumed in 1899, when the Queen Eegent ratified the treaty 
between the two powers. Soon afterward the subject of 
education began to receive much attention. In August, 
1904, there was signed a royal decree enforcing Sunday 
rest; cafes, taverns and theaters were thenceforth required 
to have special licenses. Sunday newspapers and bull- 
fights were prohibited. 

The year 1902 was marked by an increase of industrial 
and agricultural strikes. At Barcelona the strikers burned 
factories. To the number of 80,000 they placed themselves 
at the disposal of their leaders. As might have been ex- 
pected, conflicts between the police and the people became 
frequent, and for a week there was a street war. As early 
as 1900, Catalonia became the headquarters of a new 
insurrection ; thence it extended to the northern provinces. 
The following year was marked by feverish unrest. The 
Carlists were importing arms, and in several important 
provinces a state of siege prevailed. During the summer 
there were riots in Barcelona. 

x4.s the end of the regency of Donna Maria Christina ap- 
proached the political situation became more and more 
confused. In 1903. there was distress among the agricul- 
tural laborers of the South. In the April elections ballot 
boxes were broken open, and there were pugilistic encount- 
ers even in the halls of legislation. The peasants of the 
huertas were dying of hunger while cultivating the richest 



648 MODERN HISTORY. 

lands in Spain. For relief, the government began building 
railways. During the year 1905 the elements of revolu- 
tion and disaster appeared to increase in strength. The 
attempts to assassinate public officials became more fre- 
quent; there were troubles in Andalusia and bloodshed at 
Cadiz. Starvation continued in the South, and the govern- 
ment resumed its policy of opening public works to give 
temporary relief. Though there was rioting at the April 
elections of 1907, and some ballot-box smashing, the gen- 
eral situation showed signs of improvement, and up to the 
summer of 1909 the country seemed to be enjoying a state 
of repose. 
War with Riffian Tribes. — Partly because of her 
geographical situation and perhaps somewhat because of 
the character of her people, Spain has been the standard- 
bearer of practically all the civilization in North Africa. 
This role has brought honor, indeed, but little strength to 
the kingdom. For that unhappy country Morocco is a 
sort of "Serbonian bog, where whole armies have perished." 
From a brief era of tranquility Spain was awakened in the 
summer of 1909 by one of her recurrent wars on the Eiff, 
as that rugged and unexplored region is called which pre- 
serves Northern Morocco from the storms of the Mediter- 
ranean. A satisfactory conclusion of the struggle with 
these mountaineers is scarcely to be expected, for no gov- 
ernment has ever completely subdued them. Melilla, in 
this region, has been a possession of Spain since the time 
of Ferdinand and Isabella, Since 1859, however, when 
Marshal O'Donnel extorted a treaty from the tribesmen, 
these savages have been eager to drive the Spaniards into - 
the sea. After the Cassablanca Affair, Spain extended 
somewhat her possessions near Melilla, and by so doing 
alarmed the Riffian tribes, who demanded that the Span- 
iards retire. In June the mountaineers massacred work- 
men engaged in constructing a short line of railway that 
Spain was building into the interior for the purpose of de- 
veloping the country. General Marina moved at once from 
Melilla with all the troops available. On July 27, 1909, 
he sustained severe losses. Many engagements have since 
taken place without any decisive battle. In all this fighting 
the Spanish soldiers have displayed extraordinary heroism. 



OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES SINCE 1870. 649 

The artillery especially has done admirable work. In 
Spain even the chief Eepublican journal has declared in 
favor of a resolute prosecution of the war. Though the 
struggle is not yet at an end, the success of Spanish arms 
has been so unquestioned that France and Germany are a 
little uneasy from the almost impenetrable nature of the 
Eiff it has been estimated that 60,000 troops will be neces- 
sary to reduce its inhabitants. 

Barcelona Outbreak. — Notwithstanding the gravity 
of the situation in Morocco, a very formidable insurrection 
broke out at home. In Barcelona, which, with its suburbs, 
contains more than a million people, there have long been 
existing separatist and anarchist elements. When the 
troops from the city garrison sailed for Morocco they left 
behind them only about 3,000 soldiers. The mob rose at 
once, barricades were thrown up in the streets, telegraph 
and telephone lines were broken and railways destroyed. In 
some of the adjacent districts a Kepublic was proclaimed. 
The mob raged most fiercely, however, against monks and 
nuns. Monasteries and convents were sacked and burned. 
Though there were few or no murders, there were fiendish 
acts of desecration. Graves were opened; the bodies of 
nuns with ropes around them were dragged through the 
streets, and to the dancing of maddened men and frantic 
women were hanged upon trees. In these hideous revels 
women were even more prominent than men. During the 
outbreak sixty-eight churches and convents were destroyed 
in Barcelona, and one hundred and thirty-eight persons 
lost their lives. The explanation of this outburst of bar- 
barism is partly economic and partly anti-clerical in char- 
acter. Eeligious orders, it is said, swarm in Catalonia, and 
the nuns, by their competition, it is alleged, have ruined 
the home-work by which mothers and daughters have long 
been accustomed to support themselves. It should be re- 
membered, however, that the native nuns are themselves 
the daughters of mothers. Amidst indescribable fury 
and panic the street war raged for five days. On this 
occasion, as in its dealing with the Eiffian tribes, the 
government acted with promptness and energy. Artil- 
lery swept the main thoroughfares, and the Captain-Gen- 
eral soon established order. The accounts of both the in- 



650 MODERN HISTORY. 3 

surrection and its suppression appear to have been exag- 
gerated by all the devices known to journalism. In this 
grotesque manner the tidings reached the world outside. 
The movement seems really to have been the result of a 
sort of revolutionary socialism. In some aspects it was one 
between authority and anarchy. The latest police intelli- 
gence tends to show that the outbreak was prepared by an 
anarchist conspiracy. 

Shooting of Ferrer, — Grave as was the situation in 
Morocco and in Catalonia, the government had on hand in 
dealing with Senor Ferrer a problem scarcely less diffi- 
cult, and, in the light of subsequent events, of greater in- 
terest to the world at large. 

With the legacy left him by an admirer, Senor Ferrer 
established in Barcelona the Escuela Moderna (Modern 
School). It was on one hand a center of seculai education 
and on the other of intensely revolutionary influences, 
Speaking of his work, the Fortnightly Review, October, 
1909, says: "If the seditious press in India is indirectly 
responsible for the murders committed by Dinghra and 
for the bomb-throwing in Bengal, Senor Ferrer was to at 
least the same degree responsible for the violence of anti- 
dynastic and anti-clerical outbreaks in Barcelona." The 
district, as it had often been before, was at the time of the 
July outbreak in a state of siege. After the arrival of the 
troops Ferrer dropped out of sight, and when arrested by the 
town guard was disguised. The testimony given at - his 
trial before a military court, composed of a colonel and six 
captains, showed his efforts to stir up men in the suburbs 
to join the rioters and his inciting to bum the convents. 
On October 13, 1909, in the fortress, of Montjuich, above 
Barcelona, he was shot by a file of soldiers in execution of 
the sentence of the court. 

, For the fact that Barcelona had been proclaimed in a 
state of siege the Government of Spain was not to blame, 
but rather the one hundred bomb outrages that in the pre- 
ceding twenty-five years had killed forty-seven and wounded 
two hundred and forty-one persons in Catalonia. As a. re- 
sult of the shooting of Ferrer, advanced political feeling 
throughout the world has been convulsed with indignation; 
This book simply records the facts, because it is yet too 



OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES SINCE 1870. 651 

soon after the event for history to state conclusions. In 
due time important documents, not now accessible outside 
of Spain, will be available for a thorough study of all the 
phases of this important case. 

Whether the action of the Spanish government was justi- 
fied is a matter that it will require time to determine. It 
is easier to pronounce upon the manner in which the tidings 
of the event was received in the outside world. The 
"advanced" opinion of Europe insists that Seuor Ferrer 
died a victim of a judicial murder, a martyr for his system 
of political philosophy, for his educational work and his 
anti-clerical zeal. The officers who condemned him, it is 
asserted, were the tools of tyrants and Jesuits. Liberal 
opinion in Spain does not, however, doubt the substantial 
justice of the sentence, but thinks that the form of the trial 
was a blunder. In civilized countries outside of Spain the 
matter was not regarded with any such moderation. In 
Paris the tidings provoked serious rioting. Shutters were 
torn off, omnibuses overturned and set on fire and an at- 
tempt was made to sack a bank. Strikes were threatened 
in cities as far apart as Budapest and Buenos Aires. In 
Pisa the mob tried, says an able writer, "to burn the doors 
of the glorious Cathedral — more ancient and austere than 
St. Peter's or Milan." In Rome the mob showed its resent- 
ment by insulting priests; in Northern Italy they merely 
ceased work. In London they threatened kings and shout- 
ed, "down with the Pope." Leading non-Catholic journals 
in many parts of Europe lay the guilt of Ferrer's "mur- 
der" at the door of the Catholic Church. Concerning this 
unfortunate event there exists much doubt. As to the re- 
sponsibility of the Church, there was never any foundation 
for the suspicion. The better class of periodicals reject the 
calumny as absurd. When the tidings of Ferrer's death 
reached France, "the scoundrelism of Paris promptly came 
out in the name of humanity." This is the conclusion of 
the Fortnightly Review. "Ferrer's schools," says The lu' 
dependent, JanusiTj 1, 1910, "were schools of anarchism, 
nothing more, nothing less." Elsewhere the same journal 
says: "It is only fair to poor, abused Spain to observe that 
there are other countries in the world less 'clerical' and less 
'backward' than she, where the establishment of a network 



652 MODERN HISTORY. 

of schools specially designed to teach children hatred of 
religion, antagonism to government and contempt "for the 
flag would create something of a hubbub, to say the least." 

Maritime Activity of Portuguese. — In the year 1139 
A. D., under Alfonso, the Moors in the western por- 
tion of the Iberian peninsula were defeated, the Castilian 
yoke thrown off and the coimtry erected into an indepen- 
dent kingdom called Portugal. The people gave further 
proofs of their enterprise and daring by their contribu- 
tions to geographical knowledge. Under King John I they 
made marked progress in navigation, and about the time of 
Columbus were in maritime affairs the leading people of 
Western Europe. The expeditions fitted out by Prince 
Henry the Navigator traced the west coast of Africa as far 
as the Congo. In 1487 Diaz rounded the Cape of Good 
Hope, and after a long absence returned to Portugal. It 
was a navigator of that country, Vasco da Gama, who 
brought the first European expedition to India, which was 
reached in May, 1498. 

Loss of Brazil. — In 1580 Philip II of Spain annexed 
Portugal to his dominions. By a revolution in 1640, how- 
ever, the Spaniards were again expelled, and the Duke of 
Braganza raised to the throne as John VI. When the 
country was invaded by the French, in 1807, the royal 
family went to Brazil, where they remained till the year 
1820, when King John, leaving his eldest son, Dom Pedro, 
regent of the great South American dependency, returned 
with his family to Lisbon. Soon after, 1833, Brazil re- 
nounced its allegiance to the mother country and Dom 
Pedro became Emperor. On the death of John VI the 
throne of Portugal became vacant. Dom Pedro resigned 
his claim to the crown in favor of his daughter. Donna 
Maria da Gloria, and appointed as regent his sister Isabella. 
In 1828, however, Don Miguel, a younger brother of Pedro, 
usurped the throne. After an interval of five years he 
was expelled and the crown restored to the rightful heir. 
During the twenty years succeeding there was party con- 
tention and great political disorder. The death of the 
Queen, in 1853, brought her son, Pedro V, to the throne 
under the regency of his father. 

Abolition of Slavery. — Upon the sudden death, in 



POLAND. C~^> 

1861, of Pedro, his brother Louis became king. He was 
a useful and progressive monarch, and during his reign 
instituted many reforms. Among others was the libera- 
tion, in 1876, of the slaves on the islands of St. Thomas 
and Cape Verde. In 1889 Louis I died, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son Charles, who, with the crown prince, 
was assassinated February 1, 1908. The second son of 
Charles succeeded to the throne as Manuel 11. 

Loss of Dependencies. — It is doubtful whether any 
nation ever possessed a dependency equal in extent and re- 
sources to the colony of Brazil. Nor was this the only 
great possession of Portugal. In India and the more re- 
mote East she had a splendid colonial empire. Much of 
this has been lost by a succession of feeble rulers. She 
still retains, however, very important colonies in Africa 
and elsewhere. In recent years their management has 
given more or less trouble. In 1890 she was forced to yield 
to the demands of England in a dispute respecting sover- 
eignty in the Southeastern part of Africa. Official dishon- 
esty prevails, and in consequence there is great discontent 
in Portugal. Though the Catholic religion is established 
by law, all forms of worship are tolerated. A public school 
system exists and there is a well-loiown university at 
Coimbra. At the present time it is difficult to perceive any 
marked indications that Portugal has any purpose to rank 
once more among the progressive states. 

POLAND. 

Ceases to Exist as a State. — Toward the close of the 
eighteenth century the kingdom of Poland disappeared 
from the map of Europe. In three partitions it was ab- 
sorbed by Eussia, Prussia and Austria. Nevertheless, the 
name of that unfortunate country will ever awaken feelings 
of sympathy in the minds of all who honor courage and 
patriotism. Though Poland has ceased to exist as a state, 
it is still a nation devoted to its relisfion, to its language 
and to its past. The revival of its independence has been, 
and now is, one of the disturbing questions of Eastern 
Europe. It is said to have been one of the tasks which 
Napoleon I regretted that he did not accomplish. The grati- 



654 MODERN HISTORY. 

tude of the Poles might have postponed, indeed, but it 
could scarcely have prevented his overthrow. Lack of 
space makes it impossible to include in this book anything 
more than the merest outline of the history of that chival- 
rous nation, but historical accuracy requires at least this 
outline. 

Boleslav the Brave.— The history of Poland is chiefly 
concerned with the flat country to the east of the Oder 
and watered by the Vistula and its tributaries. Save on 
the southwest, where it is terminated by the Carpathian 
mountains, the country had no natural boundaries such, 
for instance, as Spain, Italy or even France. Over the 
numerous tribes in this fertile region the Poles seem, 
from the earliest times, to have acquired a hegemony, or 
leadership. Though some historians pretend to see an 
organized Polish state as early as the sixth century, it will 
be sufficient for this brief sketch to begin with the reign of 
Boleslav the Brave, who, after winning numerous victories 
from both the Eussians and Germans, caused himself to be 
crowned king in 1024. This was done with the sanction 
of the Pope, and that circumstance has had upon the sub- 
sequent history of Poland very great influence. The Poles 
developed along the lines followed by western Christen- 
dom, while their neighbors, the Eussians, were influenced 
by the Byzantine civilization. The rival creeds separated 
into two parts the great Slavic race of Eastern Europe. 

Services to Europe. — On his death the kingdom 
founded by Boleslav fell into a condition of chaos. The his- 
torian of this period is able to record little except internal 
strife. Through the activity of the Teutonic Knights, 
German settlements were made in various parts of Poland. 
Though anarchy was the normal condition, the Poles ren- 
dered Europe a signal service by the check which they gave 
to the Mongol hordes that had just destroyed the independ- 
ence of Eussia. In the tattle of Liegnitz, 1241, the Poles 
saved the valleys of the Elbe and the Ehine. Under Tartar 
invasion Eussia was greatly weakened, and at her expense 
Casimir, 1333-1370, extended considerably the boundaries 
of Poland. Casimir, however, was more than a naere sol- 
dier. He founded the University of Cracow. The nobility 
and clergy, possibly the best educated in Europe, were proud 



POLAND. 655 

of their knowledge of Latin, and took full advantage of the 
splendid collection of manuscripts in the library of the 
university. 

The Jagiellos. — Casimir's death without issue occa- 
sioned a difficulty about the succession. Prince Louis of 
Hungary succeeded, and on his death there was an inter- 
regnum of four years. Then the vacant throne was filled by 
his daughter Hedwiga, who, much against her inclination, 
was married to Jagiello, a Lithuanian prince. By reason 
of their military character the Lithuanians had acquired 
large possessions at the expense of the Eussians. In this 
conquered territory some of the people were Christians 
and some were heathens. Perhaps it was not pleasant to 
adopt the religion of the Poles, but what produced much 
discontent was the rigorous system of Polish landlordism, 
which forced them to endure the yoke of Jewish overseers 
and publicans. This oppression of Eussian Christians met 
its retribution when Eussia became a great power. "The 
whirligig of time/' says Shakespeare, "brings round its 
changes," and, he might have added, its revenges. Behind 
the Warsaw of the nineteenth century lies the Kiev of the 
fifteenth. 

Under Vladislav, the Christian name of Jagiello, the 
Poles and Lithuanians defeated the Teutonic Knights. By 
the treaty of Thorn, 1410, West Prussia was annexed to 
Poland and East Prussia became a fief of the Polish king. 
Thereafter, until the rise of Brandenburg, Poland was se^ 
cure against German attack. 

It was in the time of the Jagiellos that the revolt of 
Luther began to disturb Poland. Many of the nobles 
accepted the new doctrines, but the influence of the Jesuits, 
introduced in 1562, and the efforts of the secular clergy 
kept the movement from making much progress, and 
finally brought about its almost complete failure. Albert 
of Brandenburg, however, had already, in 1525, accepted 
the new doctrine. It was only a question of time when 
the Elector of Brandenburg would convert the East Prus- 
sian fief into an absolute possession. 

Sigismund II was the last of the Jagiellos. When that 
dynasty came to an end, Poland was territoriallv a large 
state, stretching from the Baltic almost to the Black Sea. 



656 MODERN HISTORY. 

Both its wealth and population were considerable. The 
economist might have expected it to play an important 
part in the politics of Europe. The social efficiency of its 
people, however, was not high, and there was in the coun- 
try no influential merchant aristocracy with great trading 
interests at stake. In the struggle for supremacy on the 
Baltic she cut a sorry figure, and when it was ended, in 
1721, by the treaty of Nystad, much of her territory was 
in hostile hands. Thereafter, surrounded as she was by 
Prussia, Eussia and Austria, her condition went from bad 
to worse, until the moment of her complete destruction. 

Decline of Poland. — Under foreign princes, French, 
Transylvanian and Swedish, Poland continued to decline. 
Her territorial losses were considerable. Finally it was 
concluded to try a native ruler, and the half-witted Michael 
Wisniowiecki became king. He was followed by John 
Sobieski, a national hero remembered chiefly for his chival- 
rous and brilliant rescue of Vienna from the hands of the 
Turks. This important event, 1683, was thirteen years 
before the end of his reign. It was shortly afterward that 
Peter the Great came upon the political stage of Europe. 

First Partition. — At the beginning of the eighteenth 
century, Sweden interf erred in Polish affairs. In 1733, 
France, Spain and Sardinia attempted to replace Stanislaus 
on the throne. Eussia, however, disliked this interference 
in the affairs of Eastern Europe, and was supported by 
Austria. This led to the War of the Polish Succession, 
which was ended in 1738 by the Peace of Vienna. Augustus 
III, the candidate of Eussia, was placed on the throne, and 
reigned till his death in 1763, when the question of the 
succession again distracted and divided the nation. The 
point was now reached where the choice of a Polish king 
was determined by some one of the great powers. The 
nobility resolved themselves into groups, each interested 
in one or another of the powers. In 1763 the election of 
Stanislaus Poniatowski was dictated by Eussia and Prus- 
sia, and he became the pliant tool of the former. It was 
under the influence of these powers that the new king es- 
tablished religious equality in Poland. The disturbances 
which followed are often ascribed to the intolerance of the 
Poles. If there was no tolerance or bigotry in Poland, 



POLAND. 657 

she was quite unlike the neighboring states, in fact, quite 
different from any contemporary nation. Certainly the 
motive of patriotism was a strong one, and there were 
many besides. The civil commotions that ensued were in- 
tensified by the interested intrigues of the powers that se- 
lected the king. It was afterward easy to accomplish the 
ruin of the State. The Confederacy of Bar, composed of 
patriotic nobles, endeavored to secure control of the king's 
person, and they formed an alliance with Turkey. With 
the assistance of Eussian troops the king suppressed the 
revolt among his subjects, but the war between Turkey 
and Eussia continued. The former met with many reverses. 
At this stage Prussia and Austria viewed with alarm the 
progress of Eussian arms. Then arose the question how to 
secure territorial compensation that would be satisfactory 
to all of them. It was finally agreed among them that in- 
demnification should take the form of a seizure of Polish 
territory. Formerly it was believed that this delicate sug- 
gestion emanated from Frederick. Now, however, opinion 
seems to point to Catharine as the sovereign responsible 
for the "robbery.'' Whoever may have been the author of 
the suggestion, the transaction was consummated in 1772 
by the annexation of a portion of Polish territory by 
each of them. This was the first partition. 

Second Partition. — In 1793 Prussia and Eussia took 
other important territories from the doomed nation. This 
was after a long war, which was begun by patriotic Poles, 
who trusted in Prussia's promise of assistance. At this 
time Poland lost also some of the attributes of sovereignty. 

Third Partition. — By the revolutionists under the gal- 
lant Kosciuszko was then commenced an heroic struggle for 
liberty. In the campaign of 1794, however, all resistance 
was crushed by the armies of Prussia and Eussia. In the 
third and last partition, that of 1795, Austria joined with 
the victors and shared in the plunder. Poland lost her 
independence. Later attempts at revolution, and there 
have been several, came to naught. 

After the overthrow of Napoleon, liberal Europe favored 
the freedom of Belgium, Greece and Italy, but did noth- 
ing for Poland. Her oppressors are too powerful. At 
one time it seemed that England and France were about to 



658 MODERN HISTORY. 

interfere m the affairs of Poland. Like preceding ones, 
this hope, too, was blasted. Since the establishment of 
friendly relations between France and Eussia, nothing is to 
be expected from the good offices, of the former. At pres- 
ent the revival of Polish independence seems to be no 
more than a vain dream. Having ceased to exist as a 
State, Poland is struggling desperately to preserve her sepa- 
rate nationality. 

THREE PROGRESSIVE STATES. 
HOELAIVO A.\i> JBELGlUm. 

Early History of the Netherlands. — The territories 
that are now divided into the kingdoms of Holland and 
Belgium were formerly called the Netherlands, or the 
Low Countries. At an early period of their history they 
were divided into various small states governed by counts 
and earls. . After the reign of Charlemagne th^y were 
united to Germany, but in the tenth century they regained 
their independence. In 1443 they became subject to Bur- 
gxmdy. Because of their extensive manufactures and com- 
merce they began about that time to attract the attention 
of Europe. By the Emperor Maximilian they were later 
transferred to the house of Austria. 

In 1555 they were resigned by Charles Y to his son, 
Philip II, of Spain. By bad government they were driven 
to revolt, and, under the name of the Seven United Prov- 
inces of Holland, established their independence. In the 
endeavor to subdue them Spain wasted much of her re- 
sources, and because of her weakened condition was after- 
ward unable to hold her own with England either as a com- 
mercial or a colonizing State. Until the peace of Utrecht 
(1713), however, Spain retained possession of some of the 
smaller provinces. By that treaty they were ceded to Aus- 
tria. In -1795 they were overrun and conquered by the 
French Eepublic. The King, William V, and his family 
escaped to England in a fishing boat. After remaining for 
a time united to France they were erected, on the fall of 
Napoleon I, into a kingdoii. governed by the Prince of 
Orange, who was styled King of the Netherlands. 
... Inl830thedis- 



THREE PROGRESSIVE STATES. 659 

satisfaction of the southern provinces broke into an open 
revolution, and they were erected into the Kingdom of 
Belgium. In the following year Leopold 1, a German 
prince, was called to the throne, and on his death, in 1865, 
was succeeded by Leopold II, who ruled till 1909. 

Contemporary Belgium. — In 1884 the Catholic party 
won the elections. Again the schools became religious in 
character. Under the rule of the radicals religious in- 
struction had been previously excluded. The educational 
system of Belgium is very efficient and its people are very 
intelligent. Among the great institutions of learning in 
Europe are the Universities of Louvian, Brussels, Liege 
and Ghent. 

In the development of Central Africa, Belgium has taken 
a special interest. She bore a leading part in the estab- 
lishment of the Congo Free State. Its administration, 
however, has given rise to no little criticism in the civilized 
world, but it is possible that the charges have been some- 
what exaggerated by the religious bias of the accusers. 
This entire subject is still involved in much obscurity. In 
August, 1908, the king ceded the Congo State to the Bel- 
gian government. Henceforth its administration may be 
expected to improve and criticism to cease. 

In 1834 Belgium opened the first railway in Europe. The 
enterprise shown by that achievement has in no way dimin- 
ished. With a foreign trade exceeding that of the whole 
Eussian empire, she ranks commercially as sixth among 
the nations o-f the world. Antwerp is one of the greatest 
ports of Europe. The great deposits of coal and of iron, 
the richest on the continent, form an important source of 
Belgium's wealth, and every advantage of nature's gen- 
erosity is utilized by the high social efficiency of her people. 
Her commercial policy has been very successful, and her 
colonial policy scarcely less so. 

As was the case many centuries ago with Brabant and 
Elanders, Belgium has again become the busiest as well 
as the most densely settled country of Europe. For her 
present prosperity much credit is due to the wise policy of 
her late king, Leopold 11. Its teeming population, its 
vast industries, its efficient system of education and its 
great commercial enterprise have made it one of the 



660 MODERN HISTORY. 

wealthiest and most prosperous of states. ITor has its 
progress been wholly or even principally along material 
lines, for it should be remembered that by reason of their 
enlightened system of education the Belgians are keenly 
interested in literature and in science. Being among the 
most progressive of nations, they make from time to time 
useful contributions to knowledge. In 1893 they voted uni- 
versal suffrage; they possess a liberal constitution of gov- 
ernment. 

The population of Belgium, estimated, December 31, 
1906, at 7,238,622 is almost entirely Catholic. Protestants 
number only 10,000 There are also 4,000 Jews. The State 
does not interfere in any way with the internal affairs of 
either Catholic or Protestant churches. Part of the in- 
come of ministers of all denominations is paid by the State. 

Holland Since 1840. — For some time after the with- 
drawal of Belgium, the people of Holland showed toward 
their government many symptoms of discontent. In 1840 
the old king abdicated in favor of his son, William II, who, 
eight years later, granted a new constitution to his people. 
This king died in 1849, when William III ascended the 
t'hrone. He died in 1890, and was succeeded by his 
daughter, Wilhelmina, under the regency of Queen Dowa- 
ger Emma. In 1896 there was enacted a law which greatly 
extended the suffrage. The first election under it was held 
in 1897. 

The Hollanders are a thrifty, intelligent and prosperous 
people. Important internal improvements,' such as the 
construction of great ship canals, have been completed, and 
even the draining of the Zuyder Zee has been seriously 
proposed. In extent of commerce Holland stands just 
ahead of Belgium, ranking fifth among the nations. 

The colonial empire of Holland, one of the greatest in 
the world, is sixty times as large as the mother country, 
and contains a population six times as great. For many 
years these possessions have been wisely ruled. Indeed, 
in the administration of colonial affairs no State has been 
more successful, and by other coimtries the policy of Hol- 
land could be imitated with advantage. A large part of 
the Malay Archipelago is under her rule, and the trade with 
these dependencies is most valuable. In 1873 Holland 



THREE PROGRESSIVE STATES. 661 

became involved in military operations on the island of 
Sumatra. At the outset the Dutch met with serious re- 
verses, but during the following year they were more suc- 
cessful. As late as 1907, however, serious disturbances 
still continued. Once more comparative peace has been 
established. 

In 1899 the International Peace Conference held its 
meeting at The Hague. This event took place in response 
to an invitation of the Emperor of Russia. Had this policy 
of peace been followed by the Czar, his Empire would have 
been saved from disaster and humiliation. The chief 
objects of this Congress were the reduction of military 
armaments and the preparation of a scheme for interna- 
tional arbitration. Principally because of the opposition 
of Germany the first failed completely. The second was 
more acceptable to the members of the conference, for it was 
determined to establish at The Hague a permanent court 
of arbitration. By referring for adjudication a dispute 
with Mexico, the United States promptly recognized the 
new tribunal. As other powerful States follow the example 
of America the principle of arbitration will come gradually 
to be more firmly established. On July 30, 1907, the 
foundation stone of the Palace of Peace was laid at The 
Hague. Eor its construction, Mr. Andrew Carnegie 
donated the munificent sum of $1,500,000. 

During the South African war the people of Holland 
sjnmpathized warmly with their kinsmen and descendants. 
In that remarkable contest were exhibited all those char- 
acteristics that distinguished the Dutch even in the days 
of their glory. With a population so small, and resources 
so slender, the result of the Boer War could never have 
been in doubt. Notwithstanding their sympathies, the 
people of Holland could not, of course, participate in the 
contest. 

According to the terms of the Constitution of Holland, 
entire liberty of conscience, as in Belgium, and complete 
social equality are granted to the members of all religious 
beliefs. In 1899 the Catholics numbered considerably more 
than half the entire population. In patriotism and enter- 
prise they are equal, and in intelligence, perhaps, superior 
to the other elements in the State. 



<»2 MODERN HISTORY. 

SWITZERLAND. 

When, in 1273, Eodolph of Hapsburg was raised to 
the throne of Germany, he was possessed of considera!* 
ble territories in Switzerland. Though they were free 
to manage their local affairs, the Cantons became restless 
when they were obliged to acknowledge the supremacy of 
the Empire. Albert, the son and successor of Eodolph, 
was indignant at the spirit of freedom that they manir 
fested and he determined to subdue them by force. Many 
of his officers shared his sentiments, and, no doubt, were 
guilty of much petty tyranny. To this period belongs the 
interesting legend ofGesler and William Tell, the Swiss 
national hero.* 

In 1315 was fought the decisive battle of Morgarten, in 
which 1,300 Swiss defeated the Emperor Leopold with 
21,000 cavalry. The independence then achieved, Switzer- 
land still maintains. Its constitution, revised in 1874, is 
modeled on that of the United States, and like it, too, the 
Cantons are organized as a federal republic. The execu- 
tive power, however, is not vested in one person, but in 
a council of seven, chosen every three years. The Presi- 
dent and Vice-President are elected annually. 

The mountainous character of Switzerland renders its 
defense comparatively easy. There is no standing army, 
but every citizen is required lo perform certain military 
service, and so efficient is the organization of the militia 
that at a moment's notice Switzerland could muster for 
field service an army of 500,000 drilled soldiers. As 
these might be used to put down strikes, the Socialists are 
naturally opposed to every extension of the military estab- 
lishment. 

The Swiss are a brave, intelligent and prosperous people 
and have developed their industries very successfully. Much 
attention is given to manufactures, and all the national 
resources are utilized. 

As early as 1851 telegraph lines wer^ taken over by the 
State; a little later it undertook the management of tele- 

ipor an account of this legend see Kerney's Compendium of Eiatprjf, 
p. 428, revised edition. r. 



THREE PROGRESSIVE _ STATES. 663 

phones. On October 15, 1897, there wai passed a law pro- 
viding for the government ownership of railways. In the 
following ji&T this measure was approved by a referendum. 
The system of State control has not been in operation 
long enough to speak positively of its advantages. The 
Swiss people, however, claim that as a result the railroad 
service has been improved and transportation cheapened. 
In eighteen cantons the government ha:: taken the place of 
private fire insurances companies; it also monopolizes the 
sale of salt. Some cantons have even assumed the work of 
burying the dead. In a word, either the federal or the 
eantonal governments have taken over many industries that 
in other countries are left to private enterprise. In Switzer- 
land, the Socialists are numerous and powerful, and in 
consequence-paternalism is extending. Though the meas- 
ures have not yet been passed, there have been attempts by 
constitutional amendment to reduce the hours of work, 
and to employ state physicians and pharmacists who should 
give their services free to laborers. ^ 

Eepresentative government, which is highly esteemed in 
English-speaking " countries, is not so favorably regarded 
by the people of Switzerland. There, as in many other 
nations, law-making bodies formulate or propose statutes, 
but on many subjects these measures, in order to go into 
effect, must first be approved by a direct vote of the citi- 
zens. This institution,: known as the Referendum^ became 
a part of the constitution in 1874. The Initiative is also a 
political institution of that epoch. By it a certain pro- 
portion of the citizens may propose laws concerning special 
inatters. If the people can suggest laws on particular 
subjects, and approve laws on still others, it is clear that in 
Switzerland the legislature is not so important as with us. 
The Swiss believe that representative government is doomed; 
at any rate they prefer to our system one which permits a 
direct participation of the citizens in legislative matters. 
Though neither the Initiative nor the Referendum has yet 
been perfected, their tendencies seem to indicate that to- 
gether they are no great improvement upon the system of 
ordinary legislative assemblies. " ■ 

Many years ago Switzerland assumed voluntarily an atti- 
tude of neutrality in the disputes of her powerful neigh- 



664 MODERN HISTORY. 

bors. This position she has since, by treaty, bound herself 
to respect. For a long time, too, the Swiss have made their 
country an asylum for alien refugees who have come among 
them. This hospitality has been greatly abused by Rus- 
sian, German and other anarchists. Conspiracies traced to 
this peaceful land have brought about with both powers 
rather strained relations. 

Switzerland has shown a keen interest in educational 
questions, and in the last half century she has produced 
many very learned men. Between 1889 and 1891 there 
was established the famous Catholic University at Fribourg. 
Since the year 1907 there has been a separation of Church 
and State; nevertheless, religious instruction has been 
retained in the schools. The Catholics, who number 
1,379,664, form something less than one-half the entire 
population of the Eepublic. 

SCABfDINATIA. 
DENMARK. 

Danish Conquests.— The attempts of the Danish kings 
to conquer the maritime countries in Western Europe have 
already been noticed. For a brief period they established 
a line of kings on the throne of England. After an 
experience in Ireland of the fluctuating fortunes of war, 
they were finally defeated at Clontarf, in the year 1014. A 
little more than a century before, 912, they had established 
themselves along the banks of the Seine, in France. 

After their overthrow in Ireland, they settled in seaport 
towns, and those who did not leave the country- 
were soon absorbed by the natives. In Franca 
they became the most polished and the most warlike peo- 
ple of Europe, and afterward as Normans began a remarka- 
ble career of conquest. 

Early Scandinavian Union. — Though their conquests 
in southern Europe were henceforth at an end, they soon 
began, under the enterprising "Waldemar I, who became 
king in 1157, to extend their possessions nearer home. In 
1387 the celebrated Queen Margaret ascended the Danish 
throne. That extraordinary woman united Sweden, Nor- 
way and Denmark into one kingdom, and governed them 



SCANDINAVIA. 665 

with prudence and ability. Christian, Count of Alden- 
berg, from whom are descended the members of the present 
royal family, succeeded to the throne in 1448. 

Destruction of Danish Navy. — The kingship, origi- 
nally elective, became hereditary in 1660. Under Frederick 
IV, Denmark waged a successful war against Charles XII, 
of Sweden. For several reigns the country continued 
peaceful and prosperous. As in the case of other king- 
doms, weak and dissolute princes sometimes sat on the 
Danish throne. After a long interval of peace, Denmark 
allied herself, in 1801, with several of the continental 
powers, and soon became involved in war with England. 
In the battle of Copenhagen the Danish navy was de- 
stroyed. During the succeeding years another fleet was 
built, but this, too, was destroyed by the British, who 
feared, or pretended to fear, that Denmark intended to 
support Napoleon I. This second reverse paralyzed the 
nation. 

Territorial Losses. — In the reconstruction of Europe 
that followed Waterloo, Denmark was compelled by the Con- 
gress of Vienna to cede Norway to Sweden. In 1863 Prince 
Christian, of Schleswig-Holstein, ascended the throne as 
Christian IX. The Schleswig-Holstein question, one of 
the most intricate in European politics, plunged the little 
kingdom into a war with Austria and Prussia. Though 
the Danes fought as bravely as in the old days, when their 
armies were plundering Southern Europe, they were soon 
overwhelmed by their powerful foes. As a result of this 
war not only Schleswig-Holstein, but the duchy of Lauen- 
burg was ceded to the German powers. 

Denmark Since 1864. — Though reduced by these mis- 
fortunes to very narrow limits, Denmark has recovered 
from its losses, and enjoys a high state of social and po- 
litical freedom. It has an efficient system of public in- 
struction. Lutheranism is the established religion, and 
the king must profess that faith. The legislative assem- 
bly, like those of our own governments. State and Federal, 
is a bicanieral body; that is, it consists of two houses, an 
upper and a lower. 

The recent history of Denmark is distinguished by a 
steadi" development of the Liberal and the Eadical par- 



M6 Md)DERN HISTORY. 

ties, and by a desire for a more thorough parliameiitil^ 
rule. Though they enjoy considerable political freedom 
and a high degree of industrial prosperity, many Danes 
have emigrated to the IJnited States. Iceland, the only 
important colony of Denmark, has long had a legislature 
of its own, and in 1893 was given financial independence. 

On January 29, 1906, King Christian died at the ad- 
vanced age of eighty-eight years. This benevolent monarch 
was the father of Queen Alexandra of England, the King 
of Greece, the Empress Dowager of Eussia and the grand- 
father of Hakon VII, the King of ^Norway. He was suc- 
ceeded on the throne by Frederick VIII, the present sover- 
eign. :. . 

Swedish Independence. — The early history of Swe^ 
den is involved in the greatest obscurity. The preceding sec- 
tion mentioned the union of Sweden, Korway and Denmark 
effected by Queen Margaret. During the reign of Chris- 
tian II, of Denmark, the Swedes were freed froMi-the 
.Danish yoke, and in 1527 Gustavus Vasa was raised- to 'the 
throne of his ancestors. It was Gustavus who withdrew 
Sweden from the Catholic religion and in its stead estab- 
lished Lutheranism. 

A Conqering Power.— In 1611 Gustavus Adolphus, a 
grandson of Gustavus Vasa, succeeded to the throne. He 
was perhaps the greatest of Swedish monarchs. He was 
not only eminent as a statesman, but is ranked among the 
greatest generals of his time. In a war with Denmark, 
Eussian and Poland he was victorious. He defeated the 
Imperialists at Leipsic in 1632, and again at the battle 
of Lutzen, in which he was killed. Until the year 1654 
Sweden was wisely ruled by his daughter, Christina. At 
'that time she resigned the crown in favor of her cousin, 
Charles Gustavus, left the country and devoted the re- 
mainder of her days to the pursuit of science and litera- 
ture, first at Paris and finally at Eome, where she died. 
-<i)hristina had previously embraced the faith of her fore- 
fathers — the Catholic religion. 

In the year 1697, at the age of fifteen, Charles XII as- 
cended the throne. A preceding section, pages 501-502, 
has given an account of the stirring events of that great 
monarch's reign. For a century after his death, 1718, the 



SCANDINAVIA. 667 

history of Sweden is rather "uneventful. In this interval, 
however, Norway was taken from Denmark and annexed 
to Sweden. 

A French Dynasty. — In 1818 Bernadotte, a favorite 
general of Napoleon, succeeded to the throne as Charles 
XIV. As the king must be a Lutheran, it was necessary 
for Bernadotte, who had been a Catholic, to change his 
religion. 

Under his able administration the united kingdom of 
Norway and Sweden made great advances in material 
prosperity as well as in political affairs. His French 
origin and his previous Catholicism made it difficult for 
him to win the affections of his subjects. Indeed, he never 
succeeded in making them entirely forget that he was a 
stranger. His son and his grandsons, however, have been 
so thoroughly identified with the interests of the country 
that the Bernadotte dynasty is now as firmly established 
ias any in Europe. Grustav Y, the present ruler, succeeded 
Bernadotte's grandson. King Oscar II, who died on Decem- 
ber _8, 1907. 

The Swedish legislative body is composed of two branches, 
both chosen by popular election. Voters must have attain- 
ed to their twenty-first year and must possess either a cer- 
tain income or a small amount of property. Not only must 
the -king be a Lutheran, but all office-holders must be of that 
faith. Compulsory education is established. 

Norway Secedes from Sweden. — The political 
union of Norway and Sweden, which was effected in 1814^ 
has never been entirely satisfactory. The Norwegians have 
long had a desire for home rule. This feeling culminated 
on June 7, 1905, when their Storthing, or legislative body, 
formally declared the union with Sweden dissolved. It 
was generally believed that Sweden would forcibly resist 
this secession. Its king, however, urged peace. The main- 
tenance of the union by force, it was said, "would make it a 
source of weakness instead of strength." By the Swedish 
Eiksdag this view was accepted. In all Norway only 184 
persons voted, at a referendum, to continue the union with 
Sweden, while 368,200 electors voted in favor of separa- 
tion. In June, 1906, a Danish prince Hakon VII, was 



668 MODERN HISTORY. 

crowned king of Norway. On November 18, 1895, he had 
been chosen by the Strothing. 

Outlook for Scandinavian Countries. — Because of 
their geographical position, their ethnical relations and 
their common religion, political science, as well as political 
history, seems to indicate that the Scandinavian peoples 
will ultimately form a permanent union. By removing all 
causes of friction between them the separation of Sweden 
and Norway, paradoxical as it seems, merely serves 
to bring them closer together. The Pan-Scandina- 
vian sentiment has been growing since the defeat 
of Denmark, in 1864. These three countries already 
have a single system of coinage, and many com- 
mon financial and commercial regulations. There 
has even been proposed a uniform civil code for them. A 
firm alliance will probably be the first step toward a per- 
petual union. This seemingly inevitable step, however, 
may be retarded or even altogether postponed by the in- 
terests of Germany and Eussia. 

OUTLYING COUNTRIES IN RECENT TUHES. 

Japan and China. — The events of general interest in 
these ancient empires are very few before the Yellow War 
between them (1894-5). Through the intermediation of 
the American Commodore Perry, Japan inaugurated a 
policy of commercial intercourse with the outside world in 
1854. The Emperor (Mikado) was a mere figurehead until 
1867, when the shogunate was abolished. In the following 
year the last shogun (commander-in-chief) made an un- 
successful effort to regain his power. From that time 
Japan has made rapid strides in adopting the ways of 
European civilization. Parliamentary government was 
established there in 1889. China, after the suppression, 
with foreign aid, of the great Taiping rebellion (1850-64), 
had a war with France in 1884-5 over Tonking, and 
was worsted. Disturbances in Korea, over which both 
China and Japan claimed suzerainty, brought these two 
powers into conflict in the summer of 1894. Hostilities 
began in July at Seoul, the Korean capital, and in a short 
time the Chinese were driven out of the country. Soon 



OUTLYING COUNTRIES IN RECENT TIMES. 669 

after this the Japanese gained a great victory at Ping 
Yang (September 16), and won an even more important 
naval engagement the following day at the mouth of the 
Yalu Eiver, where the Chinese fleet met with a great disaster. 
Then the Japanese invaded Manchuria and attacked and 
captured Port Arthur ( November 20-22) in January, and 
February following they took the forts at Wei-Hai-Wei 
and destroyed or captured the Chinese vessels. After 
they had taken Niuchuang in March, China sued for peace, 
which was concluded by the treaty of Shimonoseki in 
April. China then recognized the independence of Korea 
and ceded the island of Formosa and the Liao-Tung 
peninsula to Japan; but the threats of the European 
Powers, especially Eussia, compelled Japan to relinquish 
the latter. Soon afterwards she had to encounter serious 
resistance in the island. 

War with Russia. — In her interference with the pol- 
icy of Japan, Eussia was supported by both France and 
Germany. Exhausted as she was by her war with China, 
Japan did not feel equal to a conflict with three great Euro- 
pean powers, and to preserve peace in the East she sur- 
rendered some of the fruits of victory. It was after this 
European opposition that she commenced seriously to de- 
velop her material resources. Her advance was more rapid 
than during any previous period of her history. Indeed, 
it is doubtful whether in so short a time any nation has 
ever made equal progress. 

The principal advantage of the intervention of the 
Powers was gained by Eussia, which was permitted to con- 
struct a railroad connecting the Siberian Eailway with 
important points in Manchuria and later with Port Arthur, 
which was leased from China for a period of twenty-five 
years. On the Pacific coast, Eussia already possessed the 
port of Vladivostock, which in severe weather is often 
closed by ice. Hence the leasing of Port Arthur and other 
harbors farther south. Their occupation was regarded as 
a menace to the safety of Japan, and would result, it was 
feared, in Eussianizing the great Chinese province of 
Manchuria. 

England had not joined the Powers in their opposition 
to Japan ; and it was both the interest and the inclination of 



670 MODERN HISTORY. 

the United States to prevent the dismemberment of the 
Chinese Empire. Our government, therefore, held that 
all nations should have equal opportunity for engaging in 
commercial enterprises in Manchuria. This principle has 
been called the "open door." 

While the United States, Japan and the great European 
powers were engaged in suppressing the Boxer uprising in 
China, Eussian troops poured into Manchuria to punish an 
invasion of the Boxers. Lack of harmony among the 
Powers allowed her to remain there after order had been 
restored, and she was soon suspected of a purpose to es- 
tablish a protectorate over that part of the Chinese Empire. 
Japan at once became alarmed and communicated promptly 
with the United States and Great Britain. Other Powers 
were then taken into confidence and a protest was made to 
Eussia. That nation, however, declared that her action in 
Manchuria was merely a step toward evacuation. 

In April, 1901, Japan forwarded to Eussia a message 
somewhat firm in character and reiterated a former re- 
quest that the Czar's activity in Manchuria be left to the 
settlement of the Allied Powers. Eussia replied that for 
the present she intended to maintain her military occu- 
pation of that province, and later she asked China for cer- 
tain mining concessions there. Japan, Great Britain and 
the United States protested against granting them. 

On January 30, 1902, occurred an event of very great 
importance; that was the conclusion of an Anglo- Japanese 
alliance. These nations disavowed any aggressive policy 
toward China and Korea, and agreed that if in defense of 
their interests in those countries either power should be- 
come involved in war, the other would remain neutral and 
endeavor to prevent any state from joining in hostilities 
against its ally. If, however, another nation did unite in 
such hostilities, they would wage a common war. This 
agreement was to remain in force for a period of five 
years. It is clear that this alliance left Japan free to deal 
with Eussia alone. 

While pretending to evacuate Manchuria, Eussia was 
constantly pressing China for new concessions in that 
province, and endeavoring, as far as possible, to exclude 
therefrom all foreign commerce. There was still another 



OUTLYING COUNTRIES IN RECENT TIMES. 671 

region in which the interests of Eussia and Japan were in 
conflict. For several years after 1895 the influence of both 
nations fluctuated considerably in Korea. For a time 
Russian influence prevailed; at other periods Japan was 
the dominant power in the kingdom. By several agree- 
ments they recognized the sovereignty and independence of 
Korea and undertook not to interfere in its internal affairs. 
Both states pressed Korea for commercial and other privi- 
leges. In April, 1903, Eussia began to improve a timber 
concession that she claimed to have secured. To defend 
this forest land forty-seven Eussian soldiers arrived on the 
Yalu Eiver during the following month. Other detach- 
ments followed; they seized a tract of land, and, notwith- 
standing the protest of Korea, began to fortify themselves. 

This situation made it necessary for Japan to deal direct- 
ly with the Government of the Czar concerning the in- 
tegrity of the Chinese Empire and the independence of 
Korea. The diplomatic correspondence was long drdwn 
out. Without discussing its character it will be sufficient 
to state that Japan had important interests in Manchuria. 
In the event of its annexation by Eussia, those interests 
could scarcely escape injury, and, moreover, the inde- 
pendence of Korea would then be threatened. On February 
5, 1904, the protracted negotiations were broken off by 
Japan. This rather unexpected step preceded a long and 
bloody war. Hostilities, indeed, began before war was 
formally declared by either power. On February 9, 
1904, a Japanese squadron damaged two Eussian vessels 
off the harbor of Chemulpo. 

When diplomatic relations were broken off, the Eussian 
fleet on the Pacific coast was divided into several squad- 
rons stationed at widely distant points. It was the policy 
of Japan to prevent their union and to destroy them sepa- 
rately; then she could leisurely load her transports with 
supplies and troops, and, in perfect security, land them at 
convenient places in the disputed territory. This pro- 
gramme was substantially carried out. In its execution, 
however, there were several terrible sea fights. 

On February 9th Admiral Togo, with the main Japa- 
nese fleet, inflicted great damage upon at least half a dozen 
Eussian war vessels near Port Arthur. On the following 



672 MODERN HISTORY. 

day both Emperors declared war. In these proclamations 
each government sought to fix upon the other all the re- 
sponsibility for the appeal to arms. 

During the early months of the war a succession of night • 
attacks by the Japanese inflicted great injury upon the 
Eussian squadron at Port Arthur. On April 13th Admiral 
Makarov's vessel, in returning from an engagement, struck 
a- floating mine, which exploded. The ship sank imme- 
diately, carrying down the Admiral and six hundred men. 
In these contests the Japanese did not escape unscathed. 
In the course of the war they lost five or six vessels and 
many seamen. Ultimately almost every vessel of Eussia's 
Pacific squadron was captured, sunk or disarmed. This 
gave to Japan complete command of the sea, and a great 
advantage in the conduct of operations on land. 

On land the Japanese were equally successful. In the 
ast days of April and the beginning of May, General Kuroki 
defeated the Eussians in a battle on the Yalu Eiver. By 
August he had forced them northward in the direction of 
Liao-Yang. General Oku had been no less successful. He 
united his army with that of Kuroki, and subsequently both 
were reenforced by General IsTodzu.* The entire Japanese 
army, under Marshal Oyama, numbered about 240,000 men. 
The Eussian commander. General Kuropatkin, occupied 
Liao-Yang with an army of 200,000. In a week's savage 
fighting the Eussians lost 25,000 men, and the Japanese 
half that number. Kuropatkin afterward retreated to 
Mukden, where he recruited his army and resolved to try 
the result of a more desperate attack on the enemy. He 
turned back to meet them, and on the Sha Eiver, from 
October 5th to 17th, after very severe fighting, lost more 
than 69,000 men. In this series of battles the Japanese 
losses were estimated at something more than 13,000, 

From June, 1904, till the middle of the following year, 
another of the Mikado's armies, under General Nogi, had 
besieged Port Arthur. After the most desperate fighting, 
the Eussian commander. General Stoessel, surrendered that 
important stronghold. This great victory released Nogi's 
army of 60,000 men, which soon started northward to join 
Oyama in the campaign against Kuropatkin. 

At Mukden, in one of the greatest battles of history, four 



OUTLYING COUNTRIES IN RECENT TIMES. 673 

nundred thousand Japanese, accustomed to victory, attacked 
three hundred and fifty thousand Eussians, who had known 
little except defeat. From February 20th until March 16th 
the awful conflict raged. Finally the Eussians were com- 
pelled to retire, and portions of their fine army were routed. 
Their losses in this series of battles aggregated 150,000; 
the victors lost at least one-third as many. 

The Czar removed Kuropatkin from the command, and 
appointed General Linevitch to reorganize the shattered 
army. . This officer had conducted his retreat in good order. 
In all this fighting the Eussians, who gained some minor 
advantages, displayed no less bravery than the Japanese. 
Where courage seemed equal, superior numbers, superior 
discipline and superior equipment prevailed. Owing to 
her command of the sea and her nearness to the fields of 
battle, it was possible for Japan to send troops to such 
places and in such numbers as were required. On the other 
liand, Eussia was six thousand miles away, and both men 
and supplies had to be sent over a single line of railway. 
This distance from the scene of war wan an important fac* 
tor in the final result. 

After the naval reverses mentioned above, the hopes of the 
Czar were based upon his Baltic fleet. Under Admiral Eojest- 
vensky, a powerful squadron arrived in eastern waters in 
May, 1905. On the 2 7th of that month they joined battle with 
the enemy in the sea of Japan. The destruction of the Eus- 
sian armament was almost complete. Of 18,000 sailors 
about 12,000 sank with their ships. In the fighting of May 
27th and 28th the Eussians lost six battleships and sixteen 
other vessels, among them five cruisers. The Eussian ships 
that escaped from the fight were dismantled in, neutral 
ports. Tills battle practically destroyed the sea-power of 
Eussia. 
Treaty of Portsmouth and Results of War.— 
At this stage of the war Theodore Eoosevelt, President of 
the United States, used his good offices to bring the awful 
confiict to a close. His offer of mediation led to the treaty 
signed at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on September 5th. 
This proved very unsatisfactory to the people of Japan, 
:who had expected greater results from their complete suc- 
cess, and to the people of Eussia, who believed that its 



674 MODERN HISTORY. 

terms were humiliating. While the losses of the Japanese 
navy were comparatively slight, its army, though every- 
where successful, suffered terribly. There were indications 
that the resources of Japan were being rapidly exhausted. 
Taxation in that Empire was becoming excessive. Internal 
disorder com^oelled Russia to keep at home a very large and 
fine army. These considerations, no less than the influence 
of the United States, enable one to understand the sudden 
cessation of the conflict. 

The results of the war may be briefly stated. Russia 
acknowledged the paramount political, military and eco- 
nomic interests of Japan in the kingdom of Korea, and she 
agreed not to interfere with them. Her own subjects there 
were to be placed on a footing of equality with the citizens 
or subjects of other nations. Both Powers engaged to 
evacuate Manchuria, to preserve there the "open door" and 
to guarantee the integrity of the Chinese Empire. Japan 
acquired the Russian lease of Port Arthur and other places 
on that peninsula, and received from Russia the southern 
part of Sakhalin Island. Her subjects were thereafter per- 
mitted to take fish on the Siberian coasts. 

The taxes resulting from the war with Russia are still 
felt by the people of Japan. Nevertheless, their loyalty to 
the government prevents any open manifestations of dis- 
content. In 1907 the country suffered greatly from fire and 
flood. In an effort to make the army and navy still more 
efficient, large sums are spent annually. Japanese au- 
thority appears to be firmly established in Korea, though 
the natives are restless under their new masters, and on a 
few occasions have risen up against them. 

Assassination of Prince Ito. — On October 27, 
1909, Prince Hirombi Ito, perhaps the greatest of Japa- 
nese statesmen, was assassinated by a Korean while on a 
visit to Harbin to meet the Russian Minister of Finance at 
what was expected to be an important conference. Three 
other members of Prince Ito's party were wounded at the 
same time. After the war with Russia the Prince was 
appointed resident general in Korea, and while filling that 
office incurred the hatred of the more radical among the 
Koreans. His murderer declared that it was because of 
some vigorous acts of Ito that he shot him. Many Koreans 



OUTLYING COUNTRIES IN RECENT TIMES. 675 

regarded the Prince as their best friend. The crime, with- 
out doubt, was due to a private as well as a public grievance. 

The Boxer War. — In China, when the young Em- 
peror showed a disposition of friendliness to foreigners and 
their ways, he was deposed by the Empress Dowager (1898) . 
From that time the anti-foreign feeling grew stronger, un- 
til it broke out in armed violence in May, 1900. This move- 
ment was especially strong in the northwestern provinces, 
where many Europeans, Christian clergymen and their na- 
tive converts were murdered. The Christians in Peking 
were hemmed in and besieged for over two months. A 
relief expedition of Japanese, English, Eussian, German, 
French and American soldiers had great difficulty in rescu- 
ing them, and were able to advance only after having almost 
destroyed Tientsin. When they approached the capital the 
Court fled westward. On August 13 the beleaguered Chris- 
tians were released. Large indemnity claims were made by 
Japan and the other Powers, and an agreement regarding 
them was not reached for a year. This done, the Imperial 
■Court returned. Peace was thought to have been restored 
throughout the Empire, when, in February, 1901, another 
rebellion broke out in the southern provinces. 

Punishment of China. — On December 19, 1900, a 
joint note from the Powers informed China of the condi- 
tions on which they would agree to conclude peace. Of the 
officials chiefly responsible for the outbreak against foreign- 
ers six were sentenced to death, but how m.^ny of these sen- 
tences were executed it is impossible to state, because all 
the witnesses were Chinese. China was required to pay to 
private persons, to societies and to foreign states the sum 
of $325,000,000. A prince was to go to Germany and 
apologize to its Emperor for the murder of Ambassador Von 
Ketteler, who was killed before the arrival of the allied 
armies. Many minor conditions were also imposed. The 
conflicting views of the Powers, however, enabled China to 
avoid all the punishment that would otherwise have been 
inflicted. After providing for the safety of the legations, 
the allied armies, September 17, 1901, evacuated Peking. 

Regeneration of China.— Immediately after this the 
social and political reconstruction of China was begun. It 
"was while the Powers were discussing the policy to be pur- 



676 MODERN HISTORY. 

sued toward China that Russian armies overran the prov- 
ince of Manchuria. In the section which treats of Japan 
the consequences of that policy have been discussed. The 
Boxer insurrection and its consequences gave to Chinese 
students an impulse to study the constitutional systems of 
the civilized states. The movement was further strength- 
ened by the Japanese victory over Russia, for this proved 
that all branches of the white race are not superior to the 
Mongolian. Students returning from various parts of the 
world have brought with them philosophic and political 
treatises, which have been translated into Chinese and have 
been widely read. This has awakened a strong national 
feeling, a feeling that was intensified by the Tatsu Maru 
affair. This was the seizure, February 5, l!)OS, in Por- 
tuguese waters, by Chinese customs officials, of a Japanese 
vessel that had attempted to discharge a cargo of arms 
shipped from a Japanese port. Japan promptly demanded 
both an apology and an indemnity. This national humilia- 
tion caused intense excitement in China. In the year 1908 
there were minor difficulties with both France and Russia. 
From the new spirit aroused by these incidents much is ex- 
pected. 

On the 27th of August, 1908, the Emperor issued a de- 
cree which promised Chiaa a new constitution in nine 
years. The more ardent reformers ask why the benefits of 
the proposed system should be postponed for so long a 
period. Despite the strength of the conservative element 
among the Chinese, there is a growing progressive party, 
which in various ways is endeavoring to spread liberal 
ideas. The awakening of this vast nation seems to be near 
at hand. 

The governmental systems of the Western nations are 
frequently discussed from the lecture platforms and in de- 
bating societies, which have been very generally formed 
within the Empire. Perhaps the study of civil govern- 
ment has never been conducted on a scale so vast. The en* 
tire nation seems to be in the throes of a great social and 
intellectual revolution. The great change to occur in 
China is known to every one. The successive steps have 
been carefully considered. Just now the Chinese are not 
qualified to govern themselves, but they are being carefully 



OUTLYING COUNTRIES IN RECENT TIMES. 677 

prepared for it. As already stated, the process of educa- 
tion was planned to extend over nine years. In the first 
year the people are prepared by the viceroys for the pro- 
vincial assemblies. This includes the opening of schools 
for the study of self-government in the cities and towns. 

In the course of the second year members are to be 
elected to the assemblies in the various provinces, and by 
the third year these are expected to be organized and in 
working order. 

The fourth year will see a new code of laws and new 
courts, and in the fifth a new system of taxation will be 
enforced. During the sixth year the people will continue 
their preparation for a national parliament. In the seventh 
there will be a reorganization of the public finance of China. 

The matter of appropriations and the establishment of a 
Judicial system will require another year or two. The con- 
stitution will be in operation in the ninth year, and a par- 
liament under it will assemble at Peking. 

It should not be inferred from the pi-eceding paragraph? 
that the Chinese are interested only in the study of govern- 
ment. Their entire system of education is to be super- 
seded by a more enlightened one. Thousands of Chinese 
students are attending the institutions of learning in the 
outside world, especially in Japan and the United States, 
and qualifying themselves to teach. At the time the edict 
of August, 1908, was put forth, 10,000 Chinese teachers 
went to Japan alone, and though most of them have re- 
turned, there are even now more than 5,000 of them in that 
country. In the near future great numbers of them may 
be expected to enter our leading American universities. No 
educational movement so vast is recorded in history. 

Australia. — The first Europeans to visit this great 
island, or rather continent, were the Portuguese (1601). 
Nearly half a century later the Dutch navigator, Yan 
Dieman, sailed around it. Tasman, another Hollander, 
in 1642 discovered the island south of it that still bears 
his name. But the first European nation to make a 
settlement there was England, and the initial colony was 
the penal one of Botany Bay (1788). Ten years later 
most of the convicts sent there were Irish '98 rebels, 
among them the first priests in the country. From this 



678 MODERN HISTORY. 

beginning grew the now flourishing colony of Kew South 
Wales. Then followed Victoria, South Australia, Queens- 
land, West Australia, North Australia, all along the 
coast, and Alexandraland, in the interior. The discovery 
of rich deposits of gold, in 1851, gave a great impetus to 
immigration. Tasmania, long called Van Dieman's Land, 
was also originally a penal colony. New Zealand, dis- 
covered by Tasman in 1642, was made a British colony in 
1840. Early in the latter half of the nineteenth century 
these colonies each began to receive a local parliament. 
A federation of them has been agitated for some years, 
and a plan was at last adopted which went into effect on 
January 1, 1901. It partakes somewhat of the nature of 
the Constitution of the United States and of that of the 
Dominion of Canada. 

A system of defense for Australia has received careful 
consideration from the local government, and its provisions 
for coast and harbor defense have been approved by British 
admiralty officials. In that dependency there are now about 
800,000 adults, and from their number it is expected that 
in eight years Australia will have an army of 200,000 men, 
in addition to their flotilla. It should be added that the 
population is increasing rapidly. This is a consequence of 
an enlightened system of government applied to a coun- 
try whose extent and resources are great. 

The Canadian Federation.— The privileges granted 
to the Catholics of Canada at the time of its cession to 
England (1763) and by the Quebec Act (1774), which 
extended the province toward the southwest, were among 
the causes of the American Eevolution. Canada was first 
divided in 1791 into Lower (Quebec) and Upper (Onta- 
rio). England learned but little in the art of government 
from her experience with the Thirteen Colonies. Her 
tyranny caused a rebellion of the French, under Louis 
Joseph Papineau, in 1837. The Earl of Durham was sent 
out in 1840 to investigate the condition of affairs, and the 
report he made led to the granting of home rule and to 
his retirement to private life, so distasteful were his views 
to the British government. Nova Scotia (Acadia) has 
been an English possession since 1713. Cape Breton Island 
was added to it in 1763. In 1784 it was divided, and the 



OUTLYING COUNTRIES IN RECENT TIMES. C70 

part north of the Bay of Fundy was then called ISTew Bruns- 
wick. Prince Edward Island was also ceded to England by 
France in 1763. Manitoba was organized as a province out 
of the Northwest Territories in 1870. The first settlement 
in British Columbia was made in 1806, but there were not 
many settlers in it until the great rush to its gold fields 
began in June, 1856. The colonization of Newfoundland, 
to which Labrador is politically united, was begun by the 
English in 1610. France subsequently disputed its owner- 
ship, but without success. 

By a Confederation Act of the British Parliament the 
provinces of Ontario, Quebec, which had been again united 
since 18-11, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were joined 
together in 1867 as the Dominion of Canada. They had a 
common Parliament elected by the people and a governor- 
general appointed by the Crown. Manitoba came into the 
Dominion in 1870, British Columbia in 1871, and Prince 
Edward Island in 1873, Newfoundland has never be- 
longed to it. The District of Kewatin was formed in 1876 
by the Dominion Parliament, out of the Northwest Terri- 
tories, and so were Assiniboin, Saskatchewan, Alberta and 
Athabasca in 1882. 

A rebellion in the northwest was suppressed in 1885. This 
was led by one Eiel, who had many years before been con- 
nected with another insurrection. After the rebellion of 
1885 he was put to death. Some years before, 1866 and 
1870, Canada was troubled by two invasions, or rather 
Fenian raids from the United States. After some skirmish- 
ing these were repelled. 

Concerning tariff regulations and the question of fish- 
eries, there have occasionally been minor differences be- 
tween Canada and the United States. More recently there 
was revived an old dispute over the eastern boundary of 
Alaska. The discovery of gold in the Klondike region has 
given considerable importance to this controversy. 

The Latin- American States. — With the exception of 
Brazil, which was a dependency of Portugal, and the Guia- 
nas, possessions of Holland, France and England, all the 
states from the Eio Grande to Cape Horn were originally 
Spanish colonies. Throughout the whole of the nineteenth 
century, Spain had trouble with her dependencies, and by 



680 MODERN HISTORY. 

reason of unscientific coloniar administration she lost them 
one by one, the last, Cuba and Porto Eico, in a war with 
the United States in the year 1898. 

At the beginning of that century Mexico showed signs of 
discontent, and by 1821, after having been a Spanish prov- 
ince for precisely three hundred years, she won her inde- 
pendence. For a brief period the new state was an Empire 
under Iturbide, who was deposed and shot in 1824. It 
then became a federal republic, and after more than a 
decade was reorganized, in 1835, as a centralized state. 
-This course was one of the causes of the rebellion of Texas, 
which soon established its independence. By a joint reso- 
lution of Congress the new republic was annexed to the 
United States in 1845. When Texas entered the Union, 
she came in with an unsettled boundary line. The slave 
interest in the United States desired more territory for 
the extension of the system of negro slavery, and it was easy 
to find what international law would regard as a decent pre- 
tense for hostilities. These causes produced what for 
Mexico was a disastrous war. By the treaty of Guadaloupe 
Hidalgo (1848) the United States acquired the entire 
southwest, a splendid tract, including California, Nevada, 
Utah and parts of Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona and New 
Mexico. 

To collect debts due their subjects, Spain, England and 
France sent ships and troops to Vera Cruz in 1861. The 
first two powers soon retired from the country, but a French 
army remained, overturned the republic and set up the 
Grand Duke Maximilian, of Austria, as Emperor. As the 
United States was at that moment (1862) in the midst of 
the Civil War, France had her way, and her candidate ruled 
the country till 1867. She was then forced by the United 
States to withdraw her troops, the government was over- 
turned and the unfortunate Maximilian was shot. Until 
1876 there was great unrest in Mexico. At that time Por- 
firio Diaz organized a successful revolution and made him- 
self president. 

Except during the interval from 1880-1884, Diaz has 
ever since guided the destinies of his country. Under him 
the career of Mexico has been one of peace and prosperity. 
During the presidency of Diaz there has been completed a 



I 



OUTLYING COUNTRIES IN RECENT TIMES. 681 

series of important internal improvements. Several lines 
of railway have been constructed, and the Mexican valley 
has been drained. Harbors have also been improved. 

By a law of May 6, 1904, the constitution was so modi- 
jfied as to provide for the election of a Vice-President, and 
to extend the term of the President from four to seven 
years.- This adds greatly to the stability of public policy. 
On December 1, 1904, General Diaz was chosen President 
for the seventh term. At the same time Senor Eamon 
Corral was elected to the Vice-Presidency. The successive 
administrations of President Diaz have been marked in 
almost every line by continuous and orderly progress. In 
1876 the population of the republic was 9,380,439. In 
1908 it was estimated at 15,000,000. Of Mexico's pros- 
perity hardly any other proof is required. In her foreign 
relations she has been not less fortunate. Perhaps her 
greatest achievement, however, has been in the difficult 
field of finance.^ After an era of undoubted progress 
Mexico can look forward to the future with confidence. 

Central America. — In 1821 the vice-royalty of Guate- 
mala declared its independence of Spain, and two years 
later set itself up as a federal republic. This confed- 
eracy was dissolved in 1839, the result being the five 
independent states of Guatemala, San Salvador, Hon- 
duras, Nicaragua and Costa Eica. Several attempts have 
since been made to reunite them, but they have always 
failed. It is tedious to follow their mutual quarrels and 
internal turmoils. We have been most interested in Nica- 
ragua, in the first place, because of the filibustering expedi- 
tion of the American, William Walker, who set up an arbi- 
trary rule there in 1856, and got shot for his pains in 1860 ; 
and secondly, because of our negotiations for an inter- 
oceanic canal through the southern part of its territory. At 
this moment, December, 1909, there is in that coimtry a 
civil war growing out of an attempt to overturn the gov- 
ernment. To protect its citizens and their interests the 
United States has interfered in the affairs of Nicaragua. 



>For a more detailed account of the progress of Mexico, see Kemey's 
Compendium of History, pp. 565-568. 



682 MODERN HISTORY. 

Columbia, or New Granada (including Ecuador) united 
in 1810 with Venezuela in throwing off the Spanish yoke, 
and next year they declared themselves independent. The 
leader of this movement was the young Venezuelan, Simon 
Bolivar, surnamed "the Washington of South America," 
who, in 1813, received the title of Liberator. In 1819 all 
the territory was constituted as the Kepublic of Colombia, 
with Bolivar as president. Spanish power was destroyed 
in 1821, except the province oi Quito (Ecuador), which 
was liberated the following year. Venezuela became a sep- 
arate republic in 1829, and Ecuador in 1830. Then the 
name New Granada was limited to only the northwestern 
part of its original territory ; and this name was changed to 
Colombia in 1861. All three republics have had a stormy 
history, changes of government being frequently effected by 
revolution. . Even the year 1902 opened with formidable 
rebellions in both Colombia and Venezuela. For an account 
of the loss by the former of the important province of 
Panama the student is referred to the section on the United 
States. 

Venezuela. — For many years Venezuelan affairs have 
been marked by a succession of blunders. These have been 
chiefly of an international character. There are old quar- 
rels with Colombia, France, the United States and Great 
Britain. To these the dictatorial policy of President 
Castro has added new ones. Diplomatic relations with the 
United States have been severed, and Holland has sent 
warships to patrol the Venezuelan coast. Late in the 
year 1908, Castro went to Europe; on insurrection, took 
place in his absence, and from this disturbance one Gomez 
emerged as President. At present, December, 1909, this 
troubled country appears to be entering, if not upon a 
career of prosperity, at least upon an era of peace. 

Peru was a little later than her neighbors in seeking 
and achieving independence. It was proclaimed only 
when General San Martin entered Lima in 1821. Bolivar 
came to the same city two years later, overthrew the 
Spaniards at Ayacucho in 1824, and was then made dic- 
tator^ The Spaniards evacuated Callao in 1826. In 1825 
Bolivia seceded from Peru, so there were two republics 
that, like those north of them, have had a stormy time 



OUTLYING COUNTRIES IN REGENT TIMES. 683 

almost ever since. Spain waged an unsuccessful war on 
Peru in 1866. Both Peru and Bolivia were almost ruined 
in the war they waged against Chili (1879-83), the re- 
sults of which have scarcely yet been settled. The last civil 
war occurred in May, 1894. The present executive is 
Augusto B. Leguia, chosen President in May, 1908. 

Chili has had the most peaceful history and the most 
uniformly prosperous career of any of the former Spanish 
possessions in America. Its revolution began in 1810, and 
in 1818 its freedom Avas secured by the battle of Maypti. 
Like Peru, it had a war with Spain in 1865-6. The most 
famous epoch in its history since independence was its war 
with Peru and Bolivia (1879-83). Chili began the 
contest. On May 21, 1879, two Peruvian ironclads at- 
tacked two Chilian men-of-war at Iquique and sank one of 
them; but while pursuing the other, one of the Peruvian 
vessels ran on a shoal and foundered, and the second was 
captured by the Chilians on October 8. They occupied 
Pisagua on November 2, defeated the combined Peruvians 
and Bolivians on November 19, occupied Iquique on the 
23d, and won a decisive victory at Tarapacd on the 27th. 
Thereupon, in December, President Prado fled from Peru 
and Pierola proclaimed himself dictator. On February 27, 
1880, the Chilians made an unsuccessful attack on Arica; 
but on March 20 and 21, they entered Moquegua and 
stormed the heights commanding it. They began the 
blockade of Callao in April, and on May 26 stormed the 
positions of their opponents at Tacua. Less than two 
weeks later they made themselves masters of Arica. They 
defeated the Peruvians at Chorillos on January 13, and at 
Miraflores on January 15, 1881. Though they entered 
Lima on the 17th, Pierola continued the war in the prov- 
inces. A provisional government, under President Cal- 
deron, was set up in Peru in March; but, by orders of 
Admiral Lynch, he was seized in the following November. 
All through 1882, bands of Peruvians kept up a guerrilla 
warfare. Next year the Iglesias government in Peru ac- 
cepted Chili's terms of peace, and in October the Chilian 
forces evacuated Lima. Chili gained provisional possession 
of the provinces of Tacua and Arica, which she now holds in 
violation of the treaty ceding them. In 1891, she had her 



^4 MODERN HISTORY. 

one great internal disturbance. A conflict between the Con- 
gress and President Balmaceda culminated in civil war, 
wMch began in January with the revolt of the greater part 
of 'the fleet. This enabled Colonel Canto to land near Val- 
paraiso an army that he had organized in the north. In 
August this force vanquished the Balmacedists in the out- 
skirts of Valparaiso, captured that city, and then marched 
on Santiago, which it entered almost without opposition. 
The deposed dictator fled to hiding, where he committed 
suicide in September. Subsequently difficulties arose with 
the United States on account of a murderous assault on 
American seamen at Valparaiso, in October. In November 
the government was reorganized, and peace has since pre- 
vailed. 

For many years Chili has been regarded as the most pro- 
gressive of the South American states. In the race for 
precedence, however, she is falling behind. From 1905 to 
1907 there was a decrease in the population, which is now 
but a little more than half that of Argentina. The govern- 
ment, however, is attending more than formerly to the 
internal development of the country, and has established 
more friendly relations with the neighboring states. The 
Congress which convened June 1, 1908, adopted measures 
to improve the condition of the working people, and en- 
deavored to remove the causes of disputes between them 
and their employers, 

Argentina, after the beginning of the revolutionary 
struggle in Buenos Aires in 1810, was for a very long time 
one of the most active of the American political volcanoes. 
A congress held at Tucuman proclaimed the independence 
of the Plata provinces in 1816. After much disturbance 
Eosas attained to supreme power in 1829, and maintained 
it, frequently by force, until he was overthrown in 1853. 
At this time the province of Buenos Aires seceded, and 
was brought back to the confederation by force in 1859. 
It revolted again in 1861, but a reunion was effected the 
following year. There was war with Paraguay between 
1865 and 1870. In 1890 a financial panic completely up- 
set the country. In recent years there has been comparative 
tranquillity. 

In this interval of peace, the country has made remarka- 



OUTLYING COUNTRIES IN RECENT TIMES. 685 

ble progress. This is seen in the rapid increase in its popu- 
lation, which, in 1905, was 3,954,911. On January 1, 
1908, the population was estimated at 6,210,428. An ex- 
planation of this extraordinary increase is found in the 
great immigration to Argentina. During the first two 
weeks of November, 1908, the number of arrivals at the 
port of Buenos Aires was 17,000. 

The financial condition of the country is good, and its 
foreign relations have greatly improved. Buenos Aires, its 
capital, is one of the largest as well as one of the finest 
cities in the world. It has a population of 1,129,286; has 
clean streets and magnificent buildings, among them the 
finest theatre in the world. Still greater prosperity appears 
to be in store for this favored republic. 

Paraguay, the paradise of dictators, began the revo- 
lutionary struggle in 1811. Scarcely was independence 
won when Fsancia made himself dictator, in 1814, and held 
power until 1840. C. A. Lopez maintained the same posi- 
tion from 1844 until 1862, and F. S. Lopez from the latter 
year until 1870. In this year was ended a war against Ar- 
gentina, Brazil and Uruguay that was disastrous to Para- 
guay. The country has since made but little progress,* 
even in its political methods. In a revolution of July, 
1908, nearly 500 people were killed in the streets of Asun- 
cion. 

Uruguay, which was recognized as an independent re- 
public in 1828, has had not only its internal troubles down 
to very recent times, but in its early history with Argentina 
and Brazil also. 

Brazil. — If we except the two fitful experiments in 
Mexico and two in Hayti, Brazil was the only monarchy in 
America. It was a Portuguese possession from 1500 until 
1822, when it was separated from the mother country and 
set up as a monarchy with Dom Pedro I as Emperor. Its 
independence was recognized in 1825. In 1831 the first em- 
peror abdicated in favor of his son, Dom Pedro II, who was 
deposed in 1889, when a republic was established. The 
-abolition of slavery was begun in 1871 and completed in 
1888. The provisional government came to an end in 
February, 1891, when the constitution of the United States 
of Brazil was proclaimed. In the following November, 



686 MODERN HISTORY. ' 

President Fonseca attempted to usurp dictatorial power. 
Then there was a formidable revolt in the province of Eio 
Grande do Sul, and at the same time a revolutionary move- 
ment in Eio Janeiro that forced Fonseca to resign. The 
Vice-President, Peixoto, succeeded him. In 1893 the navy 
revolted and the insurgents blockaded and subsequently 
bombarded Eio Janeiro. At the same time there were in- 
surrections in various provinces. Peixoto fitted out a fleet. 
Under his able direction the naval rebellion collapsed in 
March and April, 1894. In November he was succeeded by 
Moraes Barros. Though the President's life was attempted 
in 1897, there has been peace since 1896. On March 1, 1906, 
Dr. Alfonso Penna was elected President. The country was 
then tranquil and has so continued. 

The immigration to Brazil is considerable. Among new 
arrivals both the Germans and Italians retain their national 
customs. Of course, the Portuguese are easily assimilated, 
but the native population itself is by no means homo- 
geneous. There are about 400,000 Indians; 3,500,000 
negroes, 5,000,000 whites, and of mixed races, or half- 
breeds, there are more than 6,000,000. In area the Eepub- 
'lic of Brazil is somewhat larger than the United States, not 
including the insular possessions, and its vast resources are 
almost untouched. More friendly relations with our coun- 
try resulted from a recent visit of the American Secretary 
of State, Elihu Eoot. 

Hayti (Hispaniola) was the first colony that Spain 
acquired in America, and was also the first that she lost. 
The western part of the island was occupied by the French 
in the seventeenth century, and against this domination the 
negroes rebelled in 1791. Two years later the French Con-!- 
vention proclaimed their freedom. With Toussaint I'Ouver^ 
ture as leader, they joined the French against the English 
and Spaniards in 1794. Next year Spain ceded her portion 
of the island to France and Toussaint became governor 
of the whole of it. In 1802 Napoleon made war on him 
and perfidiously seized him. The French were expelled in 
1803, and Dessalines became Emperor (1804-6). Inde- 
pendence was recognized by France in 1825. In 1844 the 
Eepublic of San Domingo was constituted. Soulouque was 
proclaimed Emperor of Hayti in 1849, but a revolution 



i 



i 



THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1876. 687 

restored the republic in 1858. The government of San 
Domingo was transferred to Spain by Santana in 1861 ; 
but a rising in 1863 regained independence, which was 
recognized by Spain in 1865. Between 1869 and 1871 a 
scheme was set on foot to annex it to the United States. 
Both republics have been much troubled with insurrection 
and revolution. 

THE UNITEB STATES SIBfCE 18*6. 

The Hayes and Garfield-Arthur Administrations. 

— Our country entered upon its second century with its 
credit as well as its union restored. Scarcely had Presi- 
dent Hayes assumed his office when, by removing United 
States troops from South Carolina and Louisiana, in 1877, 
he brought the work of reconstruction to an end. He 
appointed an ex-Confederate officer as a member of his 
cabinet. An act of Congress passed in 1875 had fixed 
upon January 1, 1879, as the date for the resumption of 
specie payments, and it took effect without the least 
trouble. The premium on gold, lessening for years, had 
disappeared some months before, and silver, demonetized 
in 1873, was remonetized by the Bland- Allison act early in 
1878, United States bonds, selling at this time only at a 
trifle over par, in a couple of years commanded a very high 
premium. Thus the Government's credit was completely 
restored. 

In the Presidential election of 1880 James A. Garfield, 
of Ohio, and Chester A. Arthur, of New York, were 
successful over General W. S. Hancock, of Pennsylvania, 
and William H. English, of Indiana, the Democratic 
nominees for President and Vice-President. On July 2, 
1881, President Garfield, while in a railway station in 
Washington, on his way to attend the commencement 
exercises of Williams College, was shot by Charles J. 
Guiteau, a disappointed office-seeker. He died of his wound 
at Elberon, N. J., on September 19, six and a half months 
after he had been inaugurated, and then General Arthur 
became President. By the succession act of 1792 the next 
in succession were the President pro tern, of the Senate and 
then the Speaker of the House of Kepresentatives. As the 



68S - MODERN HISTORY. 

Forty-Seventh Congress had not yet met, these offices were 
vacant, and there was no one to succeed in case of the death 
or disability of the new President. Yet the defect was not 
corrected for nearly five and a half years. During Arthur's 
administration, Congress, in 1882, prohibited polygamy in 
Utah and placed that Territory under five commissioners. 
On May 6, of the same year, the President signed a bill 
excluding Chinese immigrants for ten years. In January, 
1883, Congress passed the Pendleton Civil Service Act, 
which has since been amended and extended so as to cover 
by far the greater number of the Federal Government's 
employees. In this year also most of the internal revenue 
taxes remaining from the Civil War time were either abol- 
ished or greatly reduced. 

The Cleveland and Harrison Administrations. — 

The election of 1884 effected the first change of political 
party in the National administration since 1860. Grover 
Cleveland, of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of 
Indiana, the Democratic candidates, were successful over 
James G. Blaine, of Maine, and John A. Logan, of Illinois-, 
the Eepublican nominees, and were duly inaugurated on 
March 4, 1885. One of the leading men in the Civil "War, 
General Grant, died on July 5, following, and Democrats 
and Republicans, North and South, united in mourning 
at his tomb. The death of Vice-President Hendricks 
before the end of the year led to the passage, in January^ 
1886, of a new presidential succession act. This measure 
provideg that, in case of the death or disability of both the 
President and Vice-President, the succession shall pass to 
the members of the Cabinet in the order in which their 
offices were created. The counting of the electoral vote w'as 
regulated by a law enacted on January 18, 1887. An-aet 
passed on February 4, following, known as the Interstate 
Commerce Law, regulated freight charges on goods pa/SS- 
ingfrom State to State. In May, 1888, Congress author- 
ized the President to arrange for a conference, mainly, 
but not entirely, for purposes of trade between the United 
States and the Latin- American governments. He did so, 
arid sixteen nations sent delegates to a congress held at 
Washington in 1889. Then was established the Bureau of 
AmericaaEepubHcs. ......;..:::" :..._. 



THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1876. 689 

The ' Republican party was again successful in the 
national campaign of 1888, when Benjamin Harrison, of 
Indiana, and Levi P. Morton, of New York, defeated 
President Cleveland and Allen G. Thurman, of Ohio, 
Besides, both houses of the newly-elected Congress were 
Eepublican. At the close of April, 1889, the late President, 
as well as his successor, attended a splendid celebration 
in New York of the centenary of Washington's inaugura- 
tion. In September, nearly two years before, there had 
been held in Philadelphia an equally elaborate commem- 
oration of the adoption of the United States Constitution. 
On June 37, 1890, Congress passed the Dependent Pen- 
sion Law, under which pensions have risen to nearly 
$160,000,000 a year. At the same time there was enacted 
an Anti-Trust law, which has been far from being effective 
in its purpose of limiting great trade combinations. About 
this time six new states were admitted into the Union, 
namely. North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and Wash- 
ington, in November, 1889, and Idaho and Wyoming in 
July, 1890. In the latter month and year were passed the 
Sherman Act for increasing the circulation of silver, and 
the McKinley Tariff Act for rearranging import duties on 
a protection basis. Lotteries were driven out of the country 
by a bill passed on September 27, and two days later Con- 
gress declared forfeited all lands held by corporations tEe 
grants for which had not been complied with. ~ 

In the House of Eepresentatives elected in 1890 the Dem- 
ocrats had an overwhelming majority, and equally decisive 
was their victory two years later, when Grover Cleveland 
was again chosen President over Mr. Harrison. His col- 
league on this occasion was Adlai E. Stevenson, of Illinois. 
Congress, too, would be Democratic in both branches after 
March 4, 1892. On the preceding February. 15, President 
Harrison had sent to the Senate a treaty for the annexatioja 
of the Hawaiian Islands, where a revolution had just abol- 
ished royalty. Five days after his inauguration Presideiit 
Cleveland recalled the treaty, and- a. provisional republic 
was- set up in the islands. In the spring a panic broke 
out that kept business depressed for some years. The 
President, attributing the panic to the Sherman Act, called 
Congress to meet in extra session pn August 7_ta jepeal 



690 MODERN HISTORY. 

that measure and to amend the Tariff laws. The silver 
repeal bill was not passed until November 1, and the Tariff 
measure was not taken up until Congress met in regular 
session in December. It provided for a general reduction 
of duties. Known as the Wilson bill, it became a law with- 
out the President's signature on August 27, 1894. To it 
was annexed a provision imposing a tax on incomes of over 
$4,000. In the following year this clause of the law was 
declared unconstitutional by the United States Supreme 
Court. The new tariff measure caused such a reduction of 
revenue that Congress had to authorize several issues of 
bonds, all of which were at once taken up at a high pre- 
mium. Utah was admitted to Statehood in January, 1896. 

A very important incident in our foreign relations took 
place in 1895. Between England and Venezuela there had 
been a long-standing dispute about the western boundary 
of British Guiana. This had become so bitter that 
diplomatic relations were broken off, and the latter coun- 
try appealed to the United States for aid. After the 
State Department in "Washington had communicated with 
the British government to no purpose. President Cleve- 
land, on December 17, sent a strong special message to 
Congress discussing the case in behalf of the sister repub- 
lic and reasserting the Monroe Doctrine against its real 
author, who now bluntly refused to submit the case to 
arbitration. On the contrary, she assumed a tone of 
defiance, and for a time it looked as if war would ensue. 
The President then suggested that Congress provide for 
a boundary commission, which it promptly did. In a 
little while England began gradually to recede from her 
defiant position, and at last, on November 12, 1896, con- 
cluded an arbitration treaty with Venezuela. Ultimately 
the territory in dispute was divided between the contest- 
ants. The great non-political event of Cleveland's second 
term was the Columbian World's Fair, held at Chicago in 
1893. It was the most brilliant international exposition 
that had been seen until that time. Catholics took a 
prominent part in it, and their educational exhibit 
attracted universal attention and admiration. They were 
represented by Cardinal Gibbons, Mgr. SatoUi, and others 
in a Congress of Religions. They also held there a Lay 



THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1876. 691 

Congress of their own, the second of the kind in this 
country. The other had lieen convoked in Baltimore on 
the occasion of the celebration in that city, four years 
before, of the founding of the Catholic hierarchy in the 
United States. That event marked an epoch in our 
Church history, and was supplemented on the fourth day 
of the festivities, November 13, 1889, by the opening of 
the Catholic University of America at Washington. The 
Holy See was represented on these occasions by Mgr. 
Satolli, who came to this country again on a special mis- 
sion in 1892, and was soon thereafter made the first head 
of a permanent Apostolic Delegation in the United 
States, with residence in Washington. In 1896 he was 
raised to the cardinalate and was succeeded here by Mgr, 
Martinelli, who also became a Cardinal in 1901. In turn 
he was succeeded by the present incumbent. Archbishop 
Falconio, who has conducted the affairs of that office with 
great ability. 
President McKinley. — The Spanish-American 
War.-For years prior to the national campaign of 1896 
the free silver agitation had been leavening the Democratic 
party, and was now made its rallying cry. But its candi- 
dates, William J. Bryan, of Nebraska, and Arthur Sewall, 
of Maine, were defeated in the election by those of the 
gold-standard Republicans, William McKinley, of Ohio, 
and Garret A. Hobart, of New Jersey. The new Con- 
gress also was Republican in both branches. Almost 
immediately after his inauguration President McKinley 
called an extra session of Congress, which enacted a new 
protective tariff law, the Dingley Act of July 24, 1897. 

Early in 1895 an insurrection against Spanish rule 
broke out in Cuba, the third great rebellion in that island. 
Conditions kept on growing worse there, and American 
trade interests, as well as American citizens, were suffer- 
ing. Public opinion in the United States, irrespective of 
party, was aroused. On December 21, 1896, the Senate 
recognized the Republic of Cuba, but President Cleve- 
land insisted on observing strict neutrality. President 
McKinley, in March, 1897, demanded the release of all 
Americans who were prisoners, and before the end of 
April the last of them was free. The belligerent rights 



692 MODERN HISTORY. 

of the Cubans were recognized by the Senate on May 20, 
ajid the House soon endorsed this action, as well as 
granted supplies for suffering Americans in Cuba. At 
the same time pressure was brought to bear on Spain for 
a peaceful solution of the trouble, but to no avail. In 
January, 1898, our government decided to send a war 
vessel to Havana to watch our interests there, and aci.'ord- 
ingly the battleship Maine reached that destination on 
the 24th. On February 9 the Cuban insurgent Junta 
published a letter from the Spanish minister at Washing- 
ton, Seiior Dupuy de Lome, containing abuse of President 
McKinley. Its author was at once ordered to resign. 
On the 15th the Maine was blown up at her anchorage in 
Havana harbor, but by whom has never been determined. 
Two ofi&cers and 264 men were killed. 

This tragedy caused intense excitement in the United 
States, and war would probably have been declared at 
once had our government been ready for it. On April 11 
the President sent a special message to Congress, asking 
for power to put an end to hostilities in Cuba. Two days 
later the House adopted a resolution authorizing him to 
intervene, and on the 19th both Houses agreed to a reso- 
lution that Cuba ought to be free and independent. The 
new Spanish minister at once demanded his passports, 
and the American minister in Madrid was dismissed. On 
the 21st Admiral Sampson was sent with a fleet to Havana, 
and the blockade of that and the neighboring ports was 
begun. On the 25th Congress declared that war had 
existed with Spain since the 21st. Admiral Dewey, in 
charge of the Pacific squadron of six vessels, was ordered 
to Manila Bay, which he entered on May 1, and there 
destroyed a Spanish fleet of ten ships without losing a 
boat or even a man. He then blockaded the city of 
Manila, which was soon besieged by an insurgent army 
under General Aguinaldo. Another Spanish fleet under 
Admiral Cervera had sailed from the Cape Verde Islands 
on April 29, and had stolen its way unobserved into San- 
tiago harbor, where it was blockaded by Admiral Schley 
before the end of May. Here Admiral Sampson took 
chief command on June 1. On the 3d Lieutenant Hobson 
sank the collier Merrimac in the narrow mouth of the 



I 



THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1876. 693 

harbor. Ere this Sampson's squadron had been joined by 
the new battleship Oregon, which had made the voyage 
of 14,000 miles from San Francisco to Florida between 
March 19 and May 24. The cutting of submarine cables 
leading from Cuba had been begun at Cienfuegos on May 
11 by men from the "jSTashville." 

A hastily organized army of raw recruits under General 
Shafter, began landing on June 20, some distance east of 
Santiago. This force had its first fight with the Spaniards 
at Siboney on the 22-3, when Colonel Eoosevelt's "Rough 
Eiders" distinguished themselves. On the 30th the battle 
of San Juan Hill was fought, and on July 1 that of 
El Caney. There was further fighting, with another vic- 
tory, next day. In consequence, on Sunday morning, 
July 3, Cervera's fieet made a bold dash for liberty, 
emerged from the harbor and turned westward along the 
coast, where it was utterly destroyed by the American 
squadron. The army then laid siege to Santiago, which 
surrendered on the 16th. Another army, under General 
Miles, invaded Porto Eico on July 25, and had almost 
completed the subjugation of the island when, on August 
13, news arrived that a peace protocol had been signed. 
On the same day Manila surrendered. In due course of 
time a treaty of peace was concluded. By this instrument 
the independence of Cuba was recognized, Porto Eico was 
ceded to the United States, and the Philippine Islands 
sold to our government for $20,000,000. In addition to 
this sudden acquisition of nearly 120,000 square miles of 
territory and about 8,000,000 of people, the Hawaiian 
Islands had been annexed by Congress on July 7. 

Independent Cuba has since remained under our pro- 
tection, for the first two years with a military, then with 
a civil government. In the summer of 1901 it adopted a 
conservative republican constitution, and in the following 
N^ovember held its first election under that instrument. 
In 1902 Congress passed a special tariff act in its behalf. 
Porto Eico also began its change of masters with military 
rule, for which the civil, with a nominal tariff, was sub- 
stituted. The tariff was abolished in 1901. The Filipino 
insurgents, disappointed at not acquiring independence, 
rose in rebellion against the United States on the night of 



694 MODERN HISTORY. 

February 4, 1899, and this rebellion remained formidable 
for nearly two years. Its smouldering embers, indeed, 
were not extinguished until 1902. Aguinaldo, its leader, 
was captured in the summer of 1901. Then the experi- 
ment of civil rule was begun there. Since then a dispute 
with the Church about the property of the friars has been 
satisfactorily settled. 

In home aifairs. Congress passed a gold standard cur- 
rency bill, which became a law on March 15, 1900. The 
census of that year showed a population of about 85,- 
000,000 in all our States, Territories and possessions, 
and the area these people inhabited was more than six 
times as large as the thirteen states that achieved independ- 
ence. Our export trade had increased enormously, and 
showed that the United States was fast taking the lead 
among the manufacturing nations of the world. 

The Eepublican National Convention of 1900 renomi- 
nated President McKinley for the second term, with 
Theodore Eoosevelt, Governor of New York, as his col- 
league, and the Democrats again chose Mr. Bryan and 
ex- Vice-President Stevenson. The former were elected by 
an increased majority, and with a great preponderance in 
both branches of Congress. While holding a reception at 
the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, President Mc- 
Kinley was shot by one Czolgosz, an anarchist, on Septem- 
ber 6, 1901, and died on the 14th, A fitting tribute 
to his memory was paid by his successor, Mr. Eoosevelt, 
in his first message to Congress when it met in the . 
beginning of December. Soon afterwards the Senate 
ratified a treaty with England regarding the influence of 
the United States in Central America. Under the Clayton- 
Bulwer treaty of 1850 England claimed certain privi- 
leges that were in conflict with this country's interests. 
These, after years of negotiation, she now abandoned, as 
that instrument is expressly abrogated in the new arrange- 
ment. 

In assuming the Presidency, Mr. Eoosevelt announced 
his purpose to continue the policy and to retain the Cabi- 
net of his predecessor. Early in his administration there 
occurred among the anthracite mine-workers of Pennsyl- 
vania a protracted strike. The miners demanded higher 




THEODORE ROOSEVELT. 



THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1876. 695 

wages, fewer hours of labor and a recognition by em- 
ployers of the miners' union. Large enterprises were com- 
pelled to suspend work for lack of coal, and as winter was 
approaching, great suffering was certain to ensue. In 
these circumstances the President felt that it was neces- 
sary to interpose his authority. Very reluctantly the em- 
ployers consented to submit the dispute to the arbitration 
of a commission, which finally granted in substance the 
demands of the miners. 

In December, 1902, upon the President's recommenda- 
tion, a Department of Commerce and Labor was estab- 
lished. The Bureau of Corporations, one of its divisions, 
collects information to assist the President in enforcing 
intelligently the statutes against trusts. The public ser- 
vice was greatly improved by a thorough investigation of 
the Post Office Department. As a result of this inquiry 
an ex-member of Congress was sentenced to imprisonment 
and to the payment of a heavy fine. Several officials of 
the Department were convicted. Perhaps the most import- 
ant legislative measure of that period was the act author- 
izing the construction of a ship canal across the Isthmus 
of Panama. Since the accession of John Quincy Adams 
the project, in one form or another, had been before the 
American people. 

After having expended $250,000,000 in an attempt to 
dig a canal from Colon across to Panama, on the Pacific 
coast, a French company that began the work was declared 
bankrupt. By June, 1889, the reorganized company that 
succeeded to the rights of the original corporation had com- 
pleted, it was estimated, about two-fifths of the under- 
taking. At this point the new company offered to sell to the 
United States for $40,000,000 all its rights and property. 
In June, 1902, Congress authorized the President to accept 
this offer, provided a satisfactory title could be acquired, 
and to complete the canal at a cost not to exceed 
$120,000,000. 

For the necessary concessions the United States offered 
generous compensation to the Eepublic of Colombia. 
That government, however, failed to ratify the proposed 
treaty, under a belief that a much larger sum could be 
obtained. This action was the signal for a revolt in 



696 MODERN HISTORY. 

Panama and its erection into a separate state. On Novem- 
ber 3, 1903, the people of that province proclaimed their 
independence and set up a republican form of government. 
The United States, by sending warships to that region, 
prevented Colombia from making an attempt to win back 
her revolted province. More than that, our government 
promptly acknowledged the independence of the new State 
of Panama, and soon concluded a treaty which contained 
all the concessions necessary to complete the canal. To 
recover her lost province, Colombia was at this stage ready 
to grant even more than the United States had originally 
asked. The Colombian envoy was informed, however, that 
the offer came too late. Panama promptly accepted the 
$10,000,000 that had been tendered Colombia, also a per- 
petual annuity of $250,000, beginning nine years from the 
date of ratifying the treaty. In return our government 
secured jurisdiction over a zone of territory five miles wide 
on each side of the canal, and any other lands neceessary for 
its construction and maintenance. 

■ The Panama policy of President Eoosevelt was de- 
nounced by many Democratic Senators; nevertheless, the 
treaty was approved by a vote of 66 to 14. Colombia's 
efforts to further embarrass the United States came to 
naught. The completion of the canal will shorten the 
water route between New York and San Francisco by 
about 9,000 miles. However political parties in the 
United States may regard our interference in the affairs 
of Colombia, the completion of the canal will be of im- 
mense benefit to commerce. 

Though the outside world may have had doubts about 
the political morality of President Koosevelt's action with 
reference to Panama, there was no doubt what American 
citizens thought of it. In the Presidential election of 
1904:, on the ticket with Charles W. Fairbanks, he received 
343 electoral votes as against 133 for Judge Alton B. 
Parker, the Democratic candidate for the Presidency. 

President Eoosevelt's message of December 6, 1904, 
urged upon Congress some effective legislation relative to 
the regulation of railway rates, but in this matter as well 
as in his efforts to advance the cause of arbitration, he 
seems to have been thwarted somewhat by the Senate. 



THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1876. 697 

On the 18th of April, 1906, the city of San Francisco was 
visited by a severe earthquake, which by overturning many 
large buildings started a number of fires that grew into a 
destructive conflagration. As the violence of the earth- 
quake shocks had burst the water mains, the fire depart- 
ment was powerless, and for two entire days the flames 
continued to destroy everything in their path. There was 
great loss of life both in San Francisco and the adjacent 
towns. It is estimated that 300,000 persons were rendered 
homeless and that the value of property destroyed reached 
the extraordinary figure of $300,000,000. It was by far 
the greatest fire that has ever occurred in American ex- 
perience, and there is little doubt that it was the most 
destructive recorded in the annals of history. 

In his message of December, 1906, to Congress, Presi- 
dent Eoosevelt lauded the Japanese and scolded the people 
of California for the exclusion by the San Francisco 
School Board of the children of Japanese parents. Upon 
the recommendation of the President the prohibition was 
suspended. An agitation for the total exclusion of the 
Japanese then commenced, and though for a time it was 
set at rest, it may at any time revive. 

It was at this time, and, perhaps, not entirely uncon- 
nected with the strained relations with Japan, that a 
considerable part of our entire navy was ordered into the 
Pacific. The United States Government disclaimed any 
intention of challenging Japan, and insisted that the 
movement of the fleet was no more than "a practice cruise." 
The fleet was enthusiastically welcomed on the Pacifie 
coast, especially at San Francisco. Later it visited the 
East, was cordially welcomed in Japan and returned by 
way of the Suez Canal. Some vessels of the fleet gave 
timely assistance to the Italian earthquake victims, and 
then sailed for home, arriving at Hampton Eoads, Feb- 
ruary 22, 1909. 

Prosperity almost unparalleled, even in the United States, 
marked the beginning of the year 1907; at its close, busi- 
ness was greatly depressed. Many factories were running 
on half time, and multitudes were out of emplojrment. 
In October there was a panic which swept banks and trust 
companies into the hands of receivers. Though the 



69S MODERN HISTORY. 

Treasury adopted measures of relief, there was a little 
later a recurrence of the panic. By the beginning of the 
year 1908 financial conditions were once more almost 
normal. 

Oklahoma was admitted into the Union, ISTovember 16, 
1907, as the forty-sixth State. It was practically unsettled 
twenty years before, and was given over to cattle grazing. 
At the time of its admission its population was 1,408,732. 
Its area is large and its resources are great. It is already 
an important State. 

One of the most important social movements of recent 
. years was the temperance wave that swept over the country 
in 1907. The general success of the prohibition element 
was unexpected. At the present moment the indications 
pomt to the adoption of a prohibition policy in ail, or 
nearly all the States of the Union. 

In his message of December 3, 1907, President Roose- 
velt discussed, with his usual ability, a variety of import- 
ant topics. Much space was given to the subject of the 
Federal control of corporations. Laws providing for Fed- 
eral income and inheritance taxes were also recommended. 
Still more important was his suggestion relative to the 
establishment of machinery for the compulsory investiga- 
tion of industrial disputes. If Mr. Roosevelt had con- 
tinued in the Presidency, it is nearly certain that he would 
have persuaded Congress to act favorably in a matter so 
very important. 

On June 16, 1908, at Chicago, the Republican National 
Kommatmg Convention selected as its candidate William 
H. Taft for President, and James S. Sherman for Vice- 
President. The Democratic Convention, which was held at 
Denver, Colorado, nominated William J. Bryan and John 
W. Kern as its candidates. In the November election the 
Republican ticket was successful. 

By virtue of a treaty with the Dominican Republic, 
President Roosevelt appointed a receiver for the customs of 
that government. The proceeds were to be applied to the 
debts of that Republic. New debts could not be contracted, • 
nor the customs laws of the country changed without the 
consent of the President of the United States. 

Since they ceased to be subjects of Spain, the people of 




WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT. 



I 



THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1876. 699 

Porto Eico have been without a nationality. Though 
President Roosevelt recommended that the rights of Amer- 
ican citizenship be conferred upon them, Congress has thus 
far taken no action in the matter. The people of the 
Philippine Islands, however, have been given a measure of 
local government. In its treatment of Cuba, the United 
States has acted with great generosity. American troops 
were witdrawn as soon as a native government was 
established. In 1906 there was trouble in the islands ; the 
United States sent troops thither. These soon restored 
order. In the summer of 1908 there were elections and 
the government was reorganized. The Americans once 
more left the Cubans entirely free to manage their own 
aifairs, and now there exists a state of tranquillity in the 
new Eepublic. 

To redeem campaign promises made by the Republican 
platform. President Taft convoked Congress in special 
session for the purpose of revising the tariff laws. After 
much discussion a new tariff system was adopted early in 
the summer of 1909. Even among Republicans there is 
much criticism of this law. 

Discovery of North Pole.— During the month of Sep- 
tember, 1909, Commander Robert E. Peary, a veteran 
Arctic explorer, returned after a long absence in the Polar 
regions and reported that in the preceding spring he had 
discovered the North Pole. A short time before that, how- 
ever, another American citizen, one Dr. Frederick A. 
Cook, claimed that he had reached there almost a year 
before Peary had. From the early days of September until 
the latter part of December, 1909, a bitter controversy 
raged between the partisans of the two explorers. The 
National Geographic Society, of Washington, approved 
promptly the claims of Commander Peary, while about the 
middle of December, 1909, a commission representing the 
Unwersity of Copenhagen reported adversely on the claims 
of Dr. Cook. 



NOTES. 



NOTE A.— PAGE 33. 

CHAEACTEB AND DEATH OF SENECA, LTJCAN, ETC. 

This Seneca, surnamed the Philosopher, to distinguisli him from 
his father Seneca, called the Orator, was a man of great genius 
and learning. He left a great number of moral treatises, which 
contain beautiful maxims mingled with many errors, and the 
style of which, labored and refined, greatly contributed to the 
decline of good taste and true eloquence in Rome. As to his 
character, although he was possessed of many moral virtues, his 
weak connivance at several vices and crimes of Nero, his vanity, 
his usuries and immense riches, showed that his boasted philoso- 
phy consisted more in theory than in practice. In compliance 
with the orders of Nero, he died by taking poison and opening 
his veins. 

The death of Lucan the poet, his nephew, was very similar: in 
obedience to the same tyrannical orders, he also caused his veing 
to be opened. After having lost a ereat quantity of blood, find- 
ing his hands and feet grow cold, and the extremities of his body 
almost dead, while the parts nearer the heart still retained their 
natural warmth; he recollected the description he had given in 
his Pharsalia of a death very like his own, and recited from it the 
following lines, which were his last words: 

Scinditur avulsus, nee, sicut vulnere, sanguis 
Emicuit lentus: ruptis cadit undiqu4 venis. 
***** Pars ultima trunci 
Tradidit in letum vacuos vitalibus artus. 
At tumidus qua pulmo jacet, qua viscei'a fervent, 
Haeserunt ibi fata diii; luctataque multum 
Hac cum parte viri vix omnia membra tulerunt. 

Lucani, Pharsalia, III. 

# * * * Asunder flies the man. 
No single wound the gaping rupture seems. 
Where trickling crimson wells in slender streams; 
But from an opening horrible and wide, 
A thousand vessels pour the bursting tide. 
******** 

Soon from the lower parts the spirits fled. 

And motionless th' exhausted limbs lay dead, r 

70X _ t':' 



702 NOTES. 

Not so the nobler regions, where the heart 
And heaving lungs their vital powers exert: 
There lingering late and long conflicting, life 
Rose against fate, and still maintained the strife. 
Driven out at length, unwillingly and slow, 
She left her mortal house, and sought the shades below. 

Rowe. 

Many others, in the same corrupt age, either anticipated by a 
voluntary death, or consented to execute upon themselves the 
sentence of their condemnation: and it is worthy of remark, that 
the frequency of suicide always bears a proportion to the de- 
pravity of the time and country in which it is practised, it being 
one of the basest and most heinous crimes that can be committed. 
One of the basest, because, far from being a mark of true fortitude, 
it is, on the contrai-y, a sure mark of pusillanimity, and of a mind 
easily overcome by misfortune; as Martial the poet has said: 
" Fortiter ille facit, qui miser esse potest — he is truly courageous, 
who can bear to be unfortunate." One of the most heinous, against 
God, whose sovereign dominion over life and death it violates by 
a bold usurpation; against society, which it unjustly deprives of 
its members; and against the perpetrator himself, whom it con- 
signs to everlasting misery, in exchange for a temporal evil: for 
such, and no other, must be the result of suicide, not only on the 
principles of divine revelation, but even on those of reason and 
natural light. Whence Virgil, in his .^neid, speaking of the 
place of torments appointed in Tartarus for those who have com- 
mitted suicide, vei'y justly exclaims : 

***** Quam vellent aethere in alto, 
Nunc et pauperiem et duros perf erre labores ! — ^neid, vi. 

The whole passage stands thus in Dryden: 

The next in place, and punishment, are they 

Who prodigally threw their souls away; 

Fools, who repining at their wretched state, 

And loathing anxious life, suborn'd their fate. 

With late repentance now they would retrieve 

The bodies they forsook, and wish to live; 

Their pains and poverty desire to bear. 

To view the light of heaven, and breathe the vital air. 

But fate forbids; the Stygian floods oppose, 

And, with nine circling streams, the captive soul enclose. 

Thus the guilt and folly of suicide were acknowledged by the 
wisest of Pagans; and if the contrary opinion was more prevalent 
among them, it must be ascribed to the depravity of the times, 
and to that almost universal daikness which an absurd polytheism 
had spread over the principles of morality; a circumstance this, 
which renders the admission of suicide among Christians still 
more unjustifiable. As to the equally criminal and brutal prac- 
tice of duelling, so common in our days, it was totally unknown 
to the civilized nations of antiquity, and originated in the ferocity 
of those barbarians of Northern Europe, who, in the fifth century, 
overthrew the Roman empire. 



NOTES. 703 



NOTE B.— PAGE 44. 

THE HISTORIAN JOSEPHUS. 

NeABLY all that we relate concerning the Jewish war, being 
taken from Josephus, it will not be amiss to make some remarks 
respecting that great historiarf ; referring, for a fuller account of 
his life, to his own writings. 

Josephus was born of an illustrious Jewish family. From his 
youth, he appeared still more remarkable for the qualities of his 
mind than for the nobleness of his extraction, and showed so ac- 
curate a knowledge of the Mosaic law^ that, even at the age of 
fourteen years, he was consulted on important matters by the 
doctors themselves. Having, in course of time, acquired more 
and more credit and authority among his countrymen, he made 
every effort to prevent them from rebelling against the Romans; 
and, when he found his endeavors of no avail, he resolved at least 
to retard, as long as possible, the moment of their ruin. He was 
appointed by them governor of Galilee, one of the Jewish prov- 
inces most exposed, from its position, to the attacks of the enemy. 

Notwithstanding many obstacles, Josephus, by his ability, pru- 
dence and firmness kept that province in good order for some 
time; but the approach of a powerful army commanded by Ves- 
pasian, compelled him to retire into Jotapat, the best fortified 
town in the country. Though pursued and besieged by the Ro- 
mans, he defended the town, with astonishing skill and valor 
during forty-seven days, at the end of which, .Jotapat was taken 
by surprise, and its inhabitants were put to the sword, with the 
exception of some hundred women and children. Josephus took 
refuge in a deep cavern, where he concealed himself with forty of 
his soldiers. Three days after, the place of his reti-eat having 
been discovered by the conquerors, he would have immediately 
intrusted himself to the genei'osity of Vespasian, had he not been 
prevented from surrendering by the tJireats of his companions. 
These furious men, to avoid falling into the hands of a victorious 
enemy, resolved to kill themselves with their own swords; Jose- 
phus prevailed on them rather to die by the hands of others, pro- 
posing to them to decide by lot who should be first killed by his 
companion, who should follow next, and so on to the last: a pro- 
posal, after all, not less exceptionable than their first design. They 
followed it however, till Josephus, most fortunately, remained, 
with only one man, whom he persuaded to surrender with him to 
the Romans (see Josephus himself, De Bello Judaico, lib. iii. c. 
7 and 8). 

He was kindly treated by Vespasian, and still more so by Titus, 
who had conceived a great esteem for his merit. He afterwards 
followed this prince to the siege of Jerusalem, where he I'epeat- 
edly exhorted his countrymen to imitate his example, and to de- 
serve the clemency of the Romans by an entire submission : but, 
far from being successful in the attempt, he was insulted, and, 
on one occasion even wounded ; he would have been either slain 
or taken prisoner, had not Titus speedily sent a body of soldiers 
to his assistance, who succeeded in carrying him back to the 



704 notes: 

camp. After the destruction of Jerusalem, he went with the 
same prince to Kome, where he continued to be much honored by 
him and liis fatlier Vespasian. 

It was during liis residence in Rome, that Josephus finished his 
many historical works, which display a talent for narrative, a 
warmth of imagination and a beauty of style, that have gained 
for him the surname of the Grecian Livy. The most celebrated 
of his writings is the " History ot the Jewish War " in seven, 
books. It obtained the unqualified approbation of Vespasian, 
Titus, and King Agi-ippa, who were all perfectly acquainted with 
the facts there mentioned. 

Indeed nothing is wanting to render that work both highly in- 
teresting and credible. It is the history of a war unparalleled in 
the annals of nations, a narrative of notorious as well as extraor- 
dinary events, written by one whO; had been an eye-witness, and 
even one of the chief actors in them: a narrative published at a 
time when it could have been easily contradicted by a thousand 
other witnesses, had it been deemed at variance with facts — far 
from being thus contradicted, it met with universal admiration 
and praise. It is a history, the author of which Almighty Grod: 
saved by a special protection from innumei-able dangers, tha/t we 
might have in him an unexceptionable witness of the entire ful- 
filment of the divine prophecies concerning the tenjple and city 
of Jerusalem. In a word, it is both an authentic and admirable 
record, which, though very favorable to the cause of Christianity, 
cannot in the least be suspected of partiality for the Christians, 
since the writer was not a Christian, but a Jew constantly attached 
to his religion, his nation, and his country. , 

NOTE C— PAGE 99. 

NUMBER OF MARTYRS DURING THE GENERAL PERSECUTIONS OF 
THE CHURCH. 

What we have related of the persecutions of the church during 
the first ages, plainly shows that the multitude of those who weie 
put to death for the cause of the Christian faith, was immense. 
Still Gibbon, in his "Decline and Fall of the Boman Empire,'" ch. 
XVI., maintains that the number of martyrs was not considej-aWe, 
nor their courage astonishing. The following additional quota- 
tions from ancient sources, will show at once, it is hoped, the 
falsity of his assertions, and the accuracy of our statement Foi 
the saice of brevity, we shall confine our remarks to tjie first, 
fifth and tenth persecutions. 

For the first persecution, besides TertuUian and other ecclesias- 
tical writers, we have the grave and contemporary pagan historian 
Tacitus, who writes thus: "An immense multitude {multitudo in- 
(/6ns) of Christians were condemned, not, indeed, upon evidence of 
their having set the city (of Rome) on fire, but rather on account 
of the hatred of the whole human race. To their sufferings Nero 
added mockery and derision. Some were covered with the skins . 
of wild beasts, to make dogs devour them; others were crucified, 
and many, covered over with inflammable matter, were lighted 
up, when the day declined, to serve as torches during the night." 
i'Fa,cit, Annul., lib. xy.n. 44.) 



NOTES. 705 

With regard to the fifth persecution (which Gibbon modestly 
calls a mitigated one), merely to mention the martyrs of Lyons; 
Ado of Vienne says in his martyrology (28th of June), that St. 
Irenaeus, bishop of that city, suffered martyrdom with an ex- 
ceedingly great multitude. An ancient epitaph, inscribed on a 
curious mosaic pavement in the great church of St. Irenaeus at 
Lyons, says that the number of the martyrs who died with him 
amounted to the number of nineteen thousand, besides women 
and children. St. '^jrregory of Tours writes that St. Irenaeus had, 
in a very short tim^ converted to the Christian faith nearly the 
whole city of Lyons, and that with him were butchered almost 
all the Christians of that populous town ; in so much that streams 
of blood flowed through the streets: Tanta multitudo Christian- 
orum jiujulata est, ut per plateas Jlumina currerent de sanguine 
Christiano; {Hist. Franc, lib. i. c. 29.) St. Eucherius writes on the 
martyrs of Lyons in the like manner; and Eusebius, speaking in 
more general terms of the same persecution, says: "WhenSev- 
erus raised a persecution against the Church, there were illustri- 
ous testimonies given by the combatants of religion in the vari- 
ous churches everywhere" (Eccl. Hist. lib. vi. c. 1). So much 
for the mitigated persecution of Septimius Severus, 

The same Eusebius relates more at large the tenth persecution, 
the atrocities of which he had witnessed with his own eyes. To 
the texts and facts which we have quoted from him, page 94, we 
will subjoin the following, also taken from his Ecclesiastical His- 
tory, book VIII, according to the English edit. Philad. 1834. 

Ch. 6 "Innumerable multitudes were imprisoned in every 
place, and the dungeons formerly destined for mui'derers and the 
vilest criminals, were then filled with bishops, and presbyters 
( priests), and deacons, I'eaders, and exorcists ; so that there was 
no room left for those condemned for crimes. But, when the 
former edict was followed by another, in which it was ordered 
that the prisoners should be permitted to have their liberty if 
they sacrificed, but persisting, they should be punished with the 
most excruciating tortures, who could tell the number of those 
martyrs in every province, and particularly in Mauritania. The- 
bais, and Egypt, that suffered death for their religion ? " 

Ch.8. "In Egypt thousands, both men and women, acd chil- 
dren, despising the present life for the sake of our Saviour's doc- 
trine, submitted to death in various shapes. Some, after being 
tortured with scrapings and the rack, and the most dreadful 
scourgings, ai>d other innumerable agonies, which one might 
shudder to hear, weie finally committed to the flames ; some 
were plunged and drowned in the sea ; others voluntarily offered 
their own heads to the executioners ; others died in the midst of 
their torments, some wasted away by famine, and others again 
fixed to the cross. Some, indeed, were executed as malefactors 
usually were ; others, more cruelly, were nailed with the head 
drw^nwsraa, and kept alive until they were destroyed by starving 
■^ tiic ci'oss itself." 

Ch. 9. " But it would exceed all power of detail to give an idea 
of the sufferings and tortures which the Martyrs of Thebais 

endured And all these things done not only for a few 

days, or some time, but for a series of whole years. At one time, 



706 NOTES. 

ten or more ; at another, more than twenty, at another time, not 
less than thirty, and even sixty ; and again, at another time, a 
hundred men with their wives and littje children were slain in 
one day, wliile tliey were condemned to various and varied pun- 
ishments. We ourselves have observed, when on the spot, many 
crowded together in one day, somo suffering decapitation, some 
the torments of flames ; so that the murderous weapon was com- 
pletely blunted, and having lost its edge, broke to pieces ; and 
the executioners tliemselves, wearied with slaughter, were 
obliged to relieve one another. Then also, we were witnesses to 
the most admirable ardor of mind, and the truly divine energy 
and alacrity of those that believed in Christ. For, as soon as the 
sentence was pronounced against the first, o Jiers rushed forward 
from other parts to the tribunal before the judge, and, most 
indifferent to the dreadful and multiform tortures that awaited 
them, openly declared that they were Christians." 

Ch. 12. " In Pontus and other countries of Asia, the martyrs 
endured torments that are horrible to relate. Some had their 
fingers pierced with sharp reeds thrust under their nails. 
Others were roasted by masses of melted lead .... Some were 
suspended" by the feet, and a little raised from the ground with 
their heads downward, were suffocated with the ascending smoke 
of a gentle fire kindled below .... Others were roasted on 
grates of fire, not to kill immediately, but torture them with a 
lingering punishment .... It is impossible to tell the great and 
incalculable number of those that had their right eye dug out 
with the sword, and then seared with a red hot iron ; those too, 
whose left foot was maimed with a searing iron : after these, 
those who in different provinces were condemned to the copper 
mines, not so much for the service, as for the contumely and 
misery they should endure. Many, also, endured conflicts of 
other kinds, which it would be impossible to detail ; for their 
noble fortitude surpasses all power of description. In this, the 
magnanimous confessors of Christ that shone conspicuous 
throughout the whole world, everywhere struck the beholders 
with astonishment, and presented the obvious proofs of our 
Saviour's divine interposition in their own persons." 

Is not all this more than sufficient to overthrow at once the 
whole system of Gibbon concerning the Christian martyrs ? 
The sceptical author has himself perceived it very well ; and 
hence his anger against Eusebius. 

Lactantius has fewer words, but is not less positive than 
Eusebius on the excessive cruelties and ravages of the persecu- 
tion of Diocletian. "Though I had," says he, "a hundred 
mouths and tongues, with an iron breast, it would be Impossi- 
ble for me to describe the various and horrid tortures that were 
inflicted on the guiltless Christians, throughout the provinces of 
the empire." ( De Morte persec. n. xvi. ) 

Sulpicius Severus, who lived in the same century, though a 
little later, expresses himself in the same manner on the present 
subject. The following are his words, in the 2d book of his Hist. 
Sacr. : " Under the empire of Diocletian and Maximian, a most 
rigorous persecution arose, which made frightful ravages in the 
church for ten years in succession. During that peiuod, nearly 



NOTES. 707 

the whole world was stained with the blood of the holy martyrs. 
Never was the earth more depopulated by any war, than by this 
persecution ; nor did the church ever obtain a greater triumph, 
than when it could not be conquered by a continual slaughter 
which lasted ten years.". .Diocletiano et Maximiano imperantibus, 
acerbissltna persecutio exorta, quae per decern continuos annos ple- 
bem Dei depopulata est. Qud teinpestate omnis fere sacro mar- 
tyrum cruore orbis infectus est . . . NuUis umquam magis bellis 
mundus exhaiistus est: neqiie niajore unquam triwnpho vicimus, quhm 
quum decern minor uin stragibus vinci nun potuimits. 

There is yet extant a medal of Diocletian with this inscription : 
"The name of Christians being annihilated ;" Nomine Christian- 
orum deleto. This indeed was asserting what had never hap- 
pened ; still, what an immense quantity of blood must have been 
shed, to make the persecutors believe that they had obliterated 
the Christian name, and destroyed a religion which filled the 
whole empire ! 

After such unexceptionable testimonies, which certainly sup- 
pose the number of martyrs to have amounted to millions, how 
ridiculous and absurd must the assertions of Gibbon appear, 
when, besides frequently contradicting himself, he maintains : 
first, that there were not more than fifteen hundi'ed or two 
thousand martyrs in the persecution of Diocletian ; secondly, 
that their sufferings ought to be asci-ibed to a cause different 
from that of religion, and their fortitude to mere human motives, 
such as pride, ambition and desire of glory ; thirdly, that their 
tortures only existed in the imagination of the monks of latter 
ages ! Indeed, was Gibbon serious, when writing these things, or 
did he not rather intend to trifle with his readers ? In how 
deceitful and shameful a manner does he endeavor to answer 
and oppose the most authentic monuments of antiquity ! 

1st. He conceals, omits, alters, or calls in question the strong- 
est passages of ancient historians, which are contrary to his sys- 
tem ; a commodious way indeed to get rid of the most forcible 
proofs, when they cannot be met with solid argument! 

2d. He impeaches the veracity, or at least the accuracj' of 
Tacitus in the passage above quoted, under the pretence that 
Tacitus had not seen what he relates: as if ocular demonstration 
were the only means of acquiring the knowledge of facts, and as 
if Tacitus could not be perfectly acquainted with an event quite 
notorious in its nature, which happened in Rome where he wrote 
his Annals, and a few years only before he began to write ! But, 
if the principle be true, that the testimony of the eyes is requisite 
to know and surely transmit historical events, what credit, we 
ask, can possibly be given to any part of Gibbon's work, since the 
facts there recorded, are supposed to have happened many centu- 
ries before Gibbon was born ? What right has an inconsistent 
and infidel author to claim the least reliance on his word, while 
he himself so boldly discredits the testimony of a grave, judicious, 
and renowned historian ? 

3d. He appeals to the well known moderation of Trajan, Mar- 
cus Aurelius, and other such princes, to exculpate them from 
the guilt of having been persecutors. Some of those emperors, 
we admit, did not enact laws against Christianity ; but they at 
least suffered the ancient laws to be executed, and themselves 



708 NOTES. 

sometimes carried on the persecution, as we learn from Eusebius 
{Ecci; Hist. lib. in. iv. and v.), St. Justin and Meliton (in their 
Apolog.), and Pliny the Younger (Epist. ad Traj.). Moreover, 
what does their supposed moderation prove against the violence 
of the persecutions raised by Nero, Septimius, and others ? 

4th. Gibbon insists on the small number of Christians who 
were juridically condemned. Small it may have been, but how 
many, how very many more perished everywhere, without the 
formality of a judicial sentence, as ancient historians testify! 

5th. He emphatically adduces a sentence of Origen, which says 
that the number of martyrs was inconsiderable (Contra Celsum, 
lib. III. n, 8). But he ought to have added likewise what comes 
next in Origen, and shows his true meaning, viz. that there 
always remained more Christians alive, than had perished during 
the persecution, "God being unwilling," says he, "that the 
Christian society should be destroyed." Hence the small num- 
ber of martyrs spoken of by this Father, is to be understood 
relatively to the number of the survivors; which does not favor 
the system of Gibbon, nor contradict our statement; the less 
so, as Origen wrote this before the persecutions of Decius, 
Valerian, and Diocletian, the most cruel and bloody of all. 

6th. Eusebius positively testifies that he was an eye-witness 
to the multitude, the sufferings, and the constancy of the 
martyrs of Thebais and Egypt;* Gibbon calls the fact in ques- 
tion — which of the two ought to be believed? 

* Gibbon, to elude the difficulty, contents himself with saying that the term 
used by Eusebius may signify either that he had seen or that he had heard. 
We will give the original text, and place by its side the Latin translation of the 
learned Henry de Valois who will be acknowledged to have known Greek as 
well as Gibbon, and who translates another word of the context by the very 
strong expression, oculis nostris conspeximus: 

" IffTopr/aausv 6e kuI avrot ettI tuv Nos quoque, cCim in illis partibus 

TdTTuv yevouEvoi, TvMovg adpoug Kara degeremus, qu^m plurimos acervatim 

, . / , ^ \ v^.'^^j.. uno die: alios quidemcapitetnmcatos, 

fxiav TjfiEpaV Toyg /xev Ttjg^ ke^mAijq alios ver6 flammis traditos W.iiwtw . . 

aiTOTOfiTjv vTrofieivavrag, rovg Ss Tfjv Quo quidem tempore mi- 

dia Tvpoc TiLLLLupiav rabilem imprimis animi ardorem, 

"^ '"7 -f 'a ' vereque divinara virtutem et alacrita- 

.... "Ore KatOav/xaaiuTaTTiv tern eorum qui in Christum Dei credi- 

epiifiv, dEiav TE uf aTir/dug dvva/iLV derant, oculis nostris conspeximus. 
Kal npodv/iiiav tuv Eig tov 'K.piarbv 

TOV QeOV 'KEKLaTEVIi6rUV CWEUpUflEV. 

— Lib. VIII cap. 9. 

In the two following passages, Eusebius has employed the term of which we 
are speaking. The candid reader will decide on the meaning of the author.— In 
the first, speaking of the statue erected in Csesarea Philippi to our Saviour by 
the woman mentioned in the Gospel, he says: 

" EfiELVE Se Kal Eig ^/uag, ug Kal Mansit porro (the statue) ad nostra 

oxbEi napaAaBslv tmdmriaavTag ah- "f^ue tempora: nosque ade6 urbem 

\ .^ ,- "^ ■„• V /I V • r~ lUam mgressi, tpsam conspeximus. 

Tovg TT/ndMi. Kai Oav/xacTov ovdEV Nee verd mirandum est Gentiles k 

Tovg ■KO.'kaL £^ kdvuv EVEpyETrjdEVTag Servatore nost.ro beneficiis affectos 

ivpbg TOV -LuTVpog tjuuv, ravra tcetto. haec prsestitisse: cdm et Apostolorura 

^ ; ^ T i T. .' ■ - Petri ac Pauli, Chnstique ipsius pictas 

iTTKEvac OTE Kat TUV AttoutoAuv avTOv imagines, ad nostram usque memo- 

Tog ElKovag ILavTiov Kal ILsTpov, Kal riam servantas in tabuiis viderimus. 
avTov 6^ TOV Xpiarov, 6ia xP'^fJ-o^Tuv 
£v ypafalg au^oakvag laropijaa^EV. — 
L. VII cap. 18. 



NOTES. 709 

7th. In order to weaken the overwhelming authority of the same 
Eusebius, and also of Lactantius, the English sophist calls the 
former a courtier, and the latter a rhetorician; as if I'hetoric 
or the court had any thing to do with the present subject, and 
could have deprived these illustrious writers of their ears, eyes, 
learning and judgment. Assui'edly if such angry and preposter- 
ous accusations be once admitted, there is at once an end of 
historical knowledge. The truth is, that Gibbon, being an 
enemy to the Church of Christ, chose rather to fall into 
absurdities, than permit her quietly to enjoy the lustre thrown 
around her by the multitude and constancy of her martyrs. 

Many other reprehensible assertions against the Christian 
Keligion, her tenets and her ministers, are to be found in the 
work of Gibbon: although they are equally destitute of proof, 
it is not our object here to discuss them. We have said enough 
to show that this author is, at least in what regards Christianity, 
unworthy of credit, and a real infidel, who covers, but cannot 
conceal his hatred against our holy religion with the veil of 
affected moderation and learning. Hence it is most deplorable, 
that a work so well calculated to instil the poison of scepticism 
and infidelity, should be so much read, praised, and recom- 
mended in Christian and enlightened countries. Will any literary 
advantage, derived from some beauties of style, ever compensate 
so pernicious a result ? 

NOTE D.— PAGE 119. 

ATTEMPT OF THE EMPEROK JULIAN TO KEBUILD THE TEMPLE 
OF JERUSALEM. 

That this attempt entirely failed, and that its failure was not 
a natural event, is so certain, and so well proved, that it can be 
denied only by one who is ready to deny everything. In the 
first place, the fact is related by a great number of contemporary 
writers, viz: St. Gregory Nazianzen, in the year immediately 
following the event (Orat. v. contr. Julian.); St. John Chry- 
sostom, in several parts of his works, especially his first, fifth 
and sixth Discourses on the Jews, where he appeals to eye- 
witnesses yet living; St. Ambrose, in his 40th Epistle, written 
A.D. 388, to the emperor Theodosius; Rufinus, in his Eccle^. 
Hist. (6. I. c. 37, etc.); Philostorgius, the Arian (b. vir. c. 14); 
Theodoret, the celebrated bishop of Cyra (6. iii. c 20); Socrates, 
(b. III. c. 20); Sozomen, who says that many were still alive who 
had seen the splendid prodigy (b. v. c. 22); etc. 

The second passage is still more to the point : relating the sufferings of certain 
martyrs in Phoenicia, Eusebius ases the following words: 

. . . . Olg yiyvofiEvoig koi avToi Quae cum gererentur, nos ipsi prae- 

-W-'i-rr lov^^-Prvpov^.evov ^^^J.tmifrrtrris "n'o'sfr^ j'^rSK^i, 

l^uTTipogrjUMavTOvdrj Itjgov Xpiajov cui unc martyres testimonium perhi- 

TTjv ddav 6vvafiiv Eirnvapovcrav^ kva- bebant, prsesentem et semetipsam 

pywf re avrhv Tolg adprvrnv etvl- manifesto martyribus exhibentem 
osiKiwaav oaTop^aafiev. — Lib, VIII. 
cap. 7. 



710 NOTES. 

This unanimous testimony of the Ecclesiastical historians is 
corroborated by that of the Jews and gentiles. Rabbis Gans- 
Zemach and Gedaliah relate the fact with its principal circum- 
stances; the latter especially, is clear, positive, and the more 
deserving Of credit, as he transcribed what he wrote from the 
annals of his nation. Libanius, a friend and perpetual admirer 
of Julian, speaks in two places of earthquakes and dreadful 
accidents which had lately happened in Palestine. Julian him- 
self, in one of his letters, confesses that he attempted to raise 
the Temple of the Jews from its ruins, and cannot help insinuat- 
ing the insurmountable obstacles he met with, which obliged him 
tx) give up the enterprise. 

Above all, we have the expi-ess testimony of Ammianus 
Marcellinus, another heathen and contemporary author, who 
writes thus in the 23d book of his History.: "While Alypius, 
assisted by the governor of the province, urged with vigor and 
diligence the execution of the work, fearful balls of fire fre- 
quently breaking out near the foundations, several times burned 
or scorched the workmen, and rendered the place inaccessible. 
The terriule element continuing in this manner obstinately to repel 
every effort, the undertaking was abandoned." Ciim itaque 
rei fortiter instaret Alypius, juvaretque provinciae rector, 
metuendi globi flammarum prope fundamenta crebris assulti- 
Ims erumpentes fecere locum, exustis aliquotifes operantibus, 
inaccessum; hocque modo elemento destinatius repellente, cessavit 
incejitum. — Amm. lib. xxiii. c. 1. 

To such a mass of evidence what can be opposed, and what is 
really opposed by Gibbon and other infidels ? Do they adduce 
against the fact just related, anything, I do not say evident, but 
even plausible; for instance, the contradictory statement of 
some historians worthy of credit? By no means; they merely 
appeal to the silence of some ancient authors who thought it 
unnecessary to mention the wonderful event. But, when was it 
ever admitted that the silence of a few, and even of many, could 
destroy or even weaken the positive asseveration of others among 
whom collusion was utterly impossible, of numerous and learned, 
contemporary and unexceptionable vouchers? What can we be- 
lieve in the annals of nations, in the transactions of human life, 
in courts of judicature, etc., if in order to obtain suflScient evi- 
dence of a fact, the express attestation of innumerable persons 
is required ? This is certainly a strange rule of criticism. Nor 
is there less fallacy and absurdity in the affected doubts of our 
modern infidels, in their usual resource of a maybe or perhaps, 
in their vague charges of exaggeration, fanaticism. Christian 
credulity, and the like : — what have such charges to do with an 
event equally important and notorioiis, with a fact openly 
proclaimed and recorded by a multitude of writers, at a time 
when innumerable witnesses were still alive, and when, had it 
not really taken place, it would have been related by none, by 
none have been believed? 

Let us then conclude, with the learned Warburton, in his dis- 
sertation on this subject, that the defeat of Julian's attempt by 
fire and earthquakes, stands forth in a full blaze of evidence, and 
is as incontestable as any event mentioned in history. Either it 



NOTES. 711 

must be admitted, or we must fall into the most extravagant 
scepticism, and reject altogether the exploits and conquests of 
Alexander, Julius Caesar, Charlemagne, etc., which indeed are 
not so well substantiated as the event in question. 

But if, admitting the existence of the fact, infidels deny, or 
like the same Gibbon, call in question its being a real miracle, 
this new paradox is as easily refuted as the former. For it is 
impossible that any sincere mind should not perceive a super- 
natural intervention of God, and a derogation from the ordinary 
laws of this visible world, in the event now before us, whether 
we consider it in its moral or in its physical circumstances. 

In the first place, it is true that earthquakes and the eruption 
of volcanic fire are commonly the mere donsequences of the ordi- 
nary laws of nature and do not, of themselves, suppose or demon- 
strate any particular design of the providence of God. But, wlien 
these various phenomena come all together and unexpectedly, 
just at the moment in which a great and religious object is to be 
obtained, or an impious attempt to be defeated, there can be no 
doubt that they are a special manifestation of the divine will and 
power, expressly made by the Almiglity for the above purposes. 
To deny this, would be to deny the wisdom and providence of 
God in the moral government of the world, and, with equal 
impiety and absurdity, to substitute in their stead a ridiculous 
chance or a blind necessity. 

These evident truths being presupposed, let us examine the 
peculiar tendency and circumstances of .Julian's exertions 
toward the rebuilding of the Jewish Temple. Since its irreparable 
and entire overthrow had been foretold both in the Old and New 
Testament, Julian, by undertaking to rebuild it, bade defiance 
to Heaven itself, and was inclined, could he once succeed, to 
bring ^the charge of falsehood and imposture on those sacred 
prophecies. If then Almighty God, just at the moment when the 
intended work was to be begun, prevented it by awful earth- 
quakes and eruptions of fire, though these effects might, to some 
appear natural in themselves, who can doubt but that so singular 
a concurrence of the malicious attempt and the obstacles opposed 
to it, should be attributed to a supernatural intervention ? What 
sincere mind will not, on beholding the Christian religion, as it 
wei'e, protected by the very elements, conclude that the Sover- 
eign Lord of nature is also the founder and preserver of Chris- 
tianity? 

Moreover, all the physical circumstances which accompanied 
the event, concurred to prove it a real and most splendid miracle. 
Independently of the fact that there had never been a volcano in 
Palestine, we learn from Ammianus Marcellinus that the balls of 
fire came out of the earth near the foundations of the Temple — at 
repeated times — with a sort of deliberate intention to subdue the 
persevering obstinacy of the workmen, and, after consuming 
several of them, rendered the place inaccessible. According 
to Rabbin Gedaliah, a great earthquake took place, and a terrible 
fire melted the ii'on instruments, and burned a great number of 
Jews. According to Rufinus and Theodoret, porticos under 
which the workmen retired, fell by the violence of the earth- 
uuake. and crushed them to death, while others were devoured 



712 NOTES. 

by fire on the site of the Temple. According to St. Gregory 
Nazianzen, Socrates, Sozomen, etc., a brilliant cross appeared in 
the sky, and smaller crosses were imprinted on the garments of 
the spectators, etc. 

Who will not acknowledge in all this something manifestly 
above the laws of nature ! Who can explain, by those laws, why 
the balls of fire burst forth from the foundations, at the very 
moment when the work was begun, and whenever it was 
resumed; why the destructive element directed its whole fury 
against the workmen and the Jews, and not against other per- 
sons; and why it did not cease its attacks, until the enterprise 
was entirely abandoned ? How did it happen that the shaking of 
the earth overthrew thte porticos, where many workmen were 
assembled, and not other buildings in the city? Why no fissures 
and chasms were left in the ground, like those formed by natural 
earthquakes and volcanoes ? Why those crosses, great and small, 
etc. etc.? Did nature ever produce effects like these? Was not 
the finger of God visible in every circumstance of this awful 
event; and does not the man who voluntarily shuts his eyes 
against such light, deserve to be abandoned with the Apostate 
Julian to his own obduracy, as to an equally just and rigorous 
punishment ? 

NOTE E.— PAGE 184. 

MOHAMMED'S PRETENDED MIRACLES. 

Although Mohammed, on several occasions, disclaimed the 
power of woi'king miracles, he maintained that Almighty God 
did wonderful things in his favor, and his followers also ascribe 
to him a great number of prodigies of the most extraordinary 
natui*e; for instance, that the moon was divided into two parts, 
one of which came down into the sleeve of the prophet, by whom 
it was sent back to heaven ; — that fountains sprang forth from his 
fingers, etc. ; but, who does not see that all these things are mere 
stories, unworthy of having the God of majesty for their author, 
besides being totally unsupported by credible testimonies or by 
any proof whatever ? For, they were either blindly adopted upon 
the bare word of Mohammed, or forged only after his death; most 
of them not being found even in the Koran, but in the Sonna, a 
fabulous and ridiculous record of somewhat later date, which 
holds among the Mussulmans the same standing that the Talmud 
holds among the Jews. 

The most famous of those prodigies is the voyage of Moham- 
med to the highest heaven. Of this he continually boasted; this 
he adduced as the strongest proof of his favor with God, and, 
after his example, several Arabian authors related it with the 
utmost gravity. 

They say that, during a certain night, the wonderful mare 
Al-Borak upon which the ancient prophets usually rode trans- 
ported Mohammed from Mecca to Jerusalem, whence he was, by 
the help of the Archangel Gabriel and of a ladder of light, taken 
up, through an immense distance, to the summit of heaven, 
before the throne of the Almighty, there to receive his instruc- 



NOTES. "^13 

tions from God Himself. Most admirable were the things which 
he saw in his journey thither, and on his way back; amonjij 
others; 1st, the stars as big as the mountains of Arabia, and 
fastened to the first heaven by golden chains (which shows, by the 
bye, how learned a scholar and astronomer Mohammed was!) 
2d, a cock, whose head reached the second heaven, though distant 
from the first, where the cock stood, about ten or twelve times 
the distance from the moon to the earth; 3d, an angel so tall and 
large that it would have taken seventy thousand days to walk 
from one of his eyes to the other; 4th, another angel who had 
seventy thousand heads, each head having- seventy thousand faces, 
each face seventy thousand mouths; each mouth seventy thou- 
sand tongues; and each tongue being able to speak seventy thou- 
sand languages, of which he made use to praise Almighty God, 
etc. Mohammed returned in the same manner, and with the same 
rapidity in which he had gone to heaven, the whole voyage hav- 
ing been completed in the short space of a few hours. (See Uni- 
vers. Hist, composed by a body of learned Englishmen, Paris 
edit. 1782, vol. xLi. pp. 92-116, where are found references to num- 
berless writers, Abulfeda, Gagnier, Prideaux, etc. — Anquetil, 
Precis de VUistoire Univers., vol. iv. in 8vo. pp. 249-253). 

Tales not only so unworthy in every respect of being compared 
with the miracles of Christ and His disciples, but even so ridicu- 
lous and absurd, found admirers among the enthusiastic Arabs. 
Still, it must be observed that they were not believed by all the 
Mohammedans; nor did the followers of Mohammed support their 
preaching by the authority of his pretended miracles, but by 
force of arms. The use of their swords, aided on one side by the 
impulse of ambition, corrupt nature and fanaticism , on the other, 
by the weakness of the Greek and Persian empires at that pe- 
riod, was the real and only cause of the rapid progress of their re- 
ligion. (See again Univers. Hist, same vol. XLi. pp. 45, 46: — An- 
nales du moyen age vol. iv. last pages ; — Lebeau Hist, du Bas Em- 
pire, b. 58. n 31, 32; Bergier, Diction, de theol. art. Mahometisme). 

As to the Koran, which the Mussulmans give also as a proof of 
the divine mission of their prophet, we have already observed 
that, with the exception of a glowing style and some beautiful 
moral maxims, it is, according to all persons of good sense, noth- 
ing but a miserable rhapsody. The Mohammedan doctors them- 
selves confess that it is full of perplexing difficulties and contra- 
dictions, which they endeavor to reconcile by admitting a distinc- 
tion between its various articles, some, they say, being abrogated, 
and some being destined to abrogate the others; but, unfortu- 
nately for their purpose, the abrogating articles, instead of being, 
as they certainly ought to be, later, are on the contrary more 
ancient than those to be abrogated. 



714 NOTES. 



NOTE F.— PAGE 206. 

AKSWER OF POPE ZACHAEY TO A CONSULTATION OF THE 

FKENCH. 

By some authors and critics of later times (Le Cointe, Ann. 
Francor.; — Feller, art. Childeric III.; — Berault-Bercastel, ad.ann. 
752, etc.), the fact of Pope Zachary being consulted about the 
accession of Pepin, has been called in question, but we think 
without sufficient reason. It is thus related by Eginhard, an 
almost contemporary writer: "Burcard (a bishop) and Fulrad 
(first chaplain of the palace), were sent to Rome, for the purpose 
of consulting Pope Zachary concerning the kings who were then 
in France, and who, having merely the name of kings, did not 
enjoy any portion of the royal power. The answer was: ' It were 
better that he should be king, in whom the sovereign authority 
resided.' — Missi sunt Burcardus et Folradus Roman ad Zachariam, 
ut consulerent Pontificem de causa regum qui illo tempore 
fuerunt in Fi-ancia, qui nomen tantum regis, sed nuUam potesta- 
tum regiam habuerunt; secutum est responsum: melius esse ilium 
regem, apud quem summa potestatis consisteret." Eginhard. 
Annal. Franc. The same is recorded in substance by the authors 
of many annals of those times, Fidd.- Metens., etc.; by the cou- 
tinuator of Fredegaire and others [apud Duchesne, vol. i. pp. 
773, 796). From these it plainly appears that the fact in question 
is expressly asserted by a great number of contemporary or 
nearly contemporary writers. To reject the unanimous testi- 
mony of so many and so respectable annalists, seems to be rather 
unreasonable criticism, there being no certain proof of their 
having wanted either sincerity or correct information on that 
point. 

This being presupposed, it would be still more unjust to blame 
the answer of Pope Zachary. In fact, no one can fairly doubt 
that, among the northern nations of Europe, the crown was 
originally elective, as Robertson has well proved in his prelim- 
inary discourse on the history of Scotland. It had indeed be- 
come hereditary among the French, owing to the uncommon 
ability of their first leaders; but, since the last kings of the 
family of Clovis had, by their indolence and incapacity, brought 
contempt upon themselves, it was natural to expect that the 
French lords, in order to procure a worthy sovereign to the 
nation, would revive the ancient mode of succession to the 
throne. 

On the other hand, the exercise of the royal authority had, for 
a long series of years, entirely devolved on the French dukes of 
Pepin's family: they alone carried the whole burden and dis- 
charged all the duties of sovereignty at home and abroad; whereas 
the last Merovingian kings had accustomed themselves, generally 
speaking, to be satisfied with the easiest duty of managing their 
private household. This was an excellent reason for the French 
to resume, under these circumstances, the ancient mode of elect- 
ing their sovereigns which had not yet suffered a very hmg inter^ 
ruption, and, by a very proper use of their right, to confer the 



NOTES. 715 

royal title and prerogatives on such persons among them as 
exercised the royal power with so much glory and utility for the 
state. Since, moi-eover, the whole nation professed an explicit 
attachment and i-espect for the Apostolic See, it was likewise the 
duty and the interest of Pepin to have his election confirmed by 
the Pope. 

Zachary, in his answer, did not endanger the laws of wisdom 
and justice. In declaring that it was better to confer the title of 
king on that person who was already in possession of the sover- 
eign authority, he merely expressed a fact and a maxim which, 
far from disturbing the good order of the state, tended to re-estab- 
lish it by the adoption of a measure equally prudent and decisive: 
" melius esse ilhan (vocari) reyem, apud quern summa potestatis con- 
sistereV Had the decision of the Pope and the conduct of Pepin 
left everything as before, there would have remained in France, 
two sovereigns, the one nominal, the other real, contrary to the 
fundamental laws of that kingdom and to the just wishes of the 
Aiation. 

NOTE G.— PAGE 208. 

TEMPOBAIi DOMINION OF THE POPE. 

Among the different temporal sovereignties which exist in the 
world, there is none so evidently irreproachable in its origin and 
formation, as that of the Pope. Here we see neither artful 
intrigues, nor sedition and revolt, nor unjust attacks and usurpa- 
tion; but we behold the liberality of Christian kings and em- 
perors, united with a series of singular events, whose coincidence 
led the way to the addition of temporal power to the spiritual 
authority which the Sovereign Pontiff had always exercised. 

It is a fact of public notoriety, and placed beyond the possi- 
bility of a doubt, that the Popes, for many years, and especially 
in the first part of the eighth century, made every exertion to 
preserve to the court of Constantinople its possessions in the 
West (see Anastasius, in Pap. Greg. II. et Steph. II., Thomassin, 
Discipl. de I'Ec/l. part in. hook i. c. 29, vol. iii. pp. 199, et seq.) 
They incessantly endeavored, by the exercise of their great influ- 
ence, to maintain the Italians in their allegiance to the Greek 
emperors, and, by embassies and entreaties, to procure from the 
Greek emperors the assistance which the Italians needed in order 
to repel the repeated attacks of the Lombards. But those blind 
and wicked princes, instead of affording the relief so much de- 
sired, rather increased the public misery by tyranny and oppres- 
sion. 

Thus, finding implacable enemies both in the barbarians and in 
their own sovereigns, the people, driven almost to despair, began 
to sigh ardently after a new and better order of things. The eyes 
of all were turned towards the Pope, as their only refuge and the 
common father of all in distress. In this state of desolation, the 
Sovereign Pontiifs, unable any longer to resist the eagerness of 
multitudes flying into their arms for protection and refuge, and 
destitute of every other means, applied to the French, who 
alone were both willing and able to defend them against the 
Lombards. 



716 NOTES. 

The sequel is known ; and we shall not repeat here what Pepin 
and Charlemagne did for the people of Rome, and especially for 
the Pope with regard to his temporal dominion ; but we will ask, 
what can we find to censure either in the conduct of the French 
monarch, or in that of the Roman people? It is a principle laid 
down by civilians, and founded on the law of nations, that he 
who conquers a country in a just war not undertaken for the 
former possessors nor in union with them, is not bound to restore 
to them what they would not, or could not, protect and secure. 
Such exactly was the case with Italy at that time. The Greeks 
had lost their right to their possessions in that country, by 
suffering them to be taken or laid waste by the Lombards, with- 
out sending succor to defend and protect them. Those countries, 
therefore, by the claim of conquest in a just war, belonged to 
Pepin and Charlemagne, who bestowed them on the Popes. On 
the other hand, the Roman people, abandoned to barbarians, had 
a right, when the Greeks refused to afford them relief, to seek it 
from others, and form themselves into a new form of govern- 
ment. This they did, by choosing, under the protection of the 
French, to be governed by him who, besides being the common 
father of the faithful, had been their only support in their 
distress. 

" II n'y a rien," says Count de Maistre, " de si evidemment juste 
dans son origine que cette souverainete extraordinaire. L'inca- 
pacite, la bassesse, la ferocity des souverains qui la prec^dferent; 
1' insupportable tyrannic exercee sur les biens, les personnes et la 
conscience des peuples; 1' abandon formel de ces memes peuples 
livres sans defense a d'impitoyables barbares; le cri de 1' Occident 
qui abdique I'ancien maitre; la nouvelle souverainete qui s'^l^ve, 
s'avance et se substitue a I'ancienne sans secousse, sans r4 volte, 
sans effusion de sang, poussee par une force cach^e, inexplicable, 
invincible, et jurantfoi et fidelite jusqu'au dernier instant h, la 
faible et mepri sable puissance qu'elle allait remplacer; le droit de 
conquete enfin, obtenu, et solennellement cede par I'un des plus 
grands hommes qui aient exists, par un homme si grand que la 
grandeur a penetre son nom, et que la voix du genre humain I'a 
proclam6 grandeur au lieu de grand: tels sont les titres des Papes, 
et I'histoire ne presente rien de semblable." {Du Pape, vol. i. 
liv. II, ch. VI). 

This truth is expressed in a recent history of the Greek empire, 
with the same elegance, perspicuity and energy of style, as fol- 
lows: " A quel titre Copronyme revendiquait-il une souverainete 
abandonn^e, ou quels droits pretendait-il conserver sur des 
peuples deiaisses, qui des longtemps ne connaissaient plus 
I'autorit^ imp^riale ni par sa protection ni par ses bienfaits? Les 
empereurs avaient abandonne Rome aux barbares; et qui I'avait 
defendue, qui I'avait sauvee? L'histoire nomme Leon, Gr^gorie, 
ou quelqu' autre de leurs successeurs; et les peuples avaient 
reconnu pour maitres ceux qui s'etaient montres leurs peres. 
La puissance des Papes etait un fait, quand Pepin la reconnut 
comme un droit; et jamais souverainete n'eut une origine plus 
juste et plus sainte." (HisL du Bas-Einp. Paris, 1838. vol. x. 
pp. 272, 273). 



NOTES. 717 



NOTE H— PAGE 289. 

POPES OF THE MIDBLE AGES. 

Nothing in the history of the Middle Ages has been more 
frequently misrepx-esented and more grossly calumniated, yet 
nothing is more worthy of admiration, than the conduct of the 
Popes in the long struggle which they maintained against the 
depravity and tyi-anny of princes, in defence of religion and 
social order. It was truly the struggle of virtue against vice, of 
civilization against barbarism, of Christianity against the powers 
of darkness. At that time, whether the evil was owing to the 
invasions of new barbarians, to the feudal system, or to other 
causes, national and civil wars scarcely ceased one moment to 
lay waste the whole face of Europe. Nations oppressed by their 
sovereigns had no other resource than tlie protection of the Pope, 
and sovereigns who wished to act as tyrants, had no other check 
than his authority, which tliey generally acknowledged, not only 
in spiritual, but also in temporal concerns. The Pope then, in 
his proceedings against several emperors of Germany and some 
other princes, besides acting conformably to the common juris- 
prudence of those times, merely did what the state of society and 
the circumstances in which he was placed, evidently required of 
him as the head of the Christian family, and the common father 
of all the faithful. 

The better to understand this, we should revert to the epoch in 
which these important transactions took place. At a time when 
the nations of Europe closely adhered to the ancient faith, and 
preferred it to everything else, the profession of Christianity 
and submission to thfr Roman Church were conditions absolutely 
requisite in sovereigns, to exact and enforce obedience from their 
subjects. If a prince happened to revolt openly against the 
Catholic religion, or to incur, by his crimes, the penalty of ex- 
communication it was the prevailing opinion that the oath of 
allegiance taken to him was no longer binding, since he had 
ceased to be the religious prince whom the nation had intended 
to acknowledge for its monarch.* "Thus," says Schlegel, "we 
hear the Saxons declare to the emperor Henry IV., that, the 
Christian name being profaned by him, they were unwilling to 
disgrace themselves by having intercourse with a prince who 



* This is very well explained by Fenelon, who says: "Sensim Catholicarum 
gentium hsec fuit sententia animis alt6 impressa. scilicet, supremam potestatem 
committi non posse nisi principi Catholico. earaque esse legem sive conditionem 
appositam populse inter et principem, ut populi principi fldeles parerent, mod6 
princeps ipse Catholicae religioni obsequeretur. Qua lege posita, putabant omnes 
solutum esse vinculum sacramenti fldelitatis S, tota genta prsestitum, simul atque 
princeps, ea lege violata. Catholics religioni contumaci animo resisteret." 

Again : " Nihil est mirura si gentes Catholicae religioni quam maximS addictse, 
principis excommunicati jugum excuterent. Ea enim lege sese principi subditas 
fore pollicae erant, ut princeps ipse Catholicae religioni pariter subditus esset. 
Princeps ver6 qui. ob haeresim, vel ob facinorosam et impiam regni administra- 
tionem. ab Ecclesia excommunicatur, jam non censetur plus ille princeps, cui 
tota gens sese committere voluerat: unde solutum sacramenti vinculum arbitra- 
bantur." (Feneloi., Dissert, de auctoritate Summi Pontificis, c. xxxix). 



718 NOTES. 

insulted and despised the religion of Christ; and since they had 
sworn fealty to him, on condition that he should reign for the 
edification and not for the destruction of the Church, were he to 
infringe this duty, they would think themselves no longer bound 
by their oath of allegiance to him. Shortly after, the same 
Saxons wrote to the Pope, to lay before his tribunal both their 
grievances and the crimes of Henry and concluded their letter by 
saying that such a prince being unworthy of the throne, they 
therefore requested the Sovereign Pontiff to make use of the 
authority which he had over the empire, and, through an assem- 
bly of the princes, to procure for them a woi-thier and better 
monarch." 

"Not long before this, the emperor Henry III. had expressly 
acknowledged the Church jurisdiction, even in temporal affairs, 
when he wished to oppose the rising pretensions of the king of 
Castile to the title of emperor. He referred the case to a council 
in which the legate of Pope Victor II. presided (a. d. 1055). The 
result of the consultation being sent to Rome, .a sentence was 
passed; and King Ferdinand declared, in presence of the papal 
envoys, that he submitted to the decision of the Roman Pontiff. 
Hence, the high authority which Rome then exercised over kings 
and emperors, was grounded, first, on a political claim growing 
out of the circumstances which accompanied the revival of the 
western empire; and secondly, on the general opinion of that 
time respecting the subordination of the temporal to the spiritual 
power." (Schlegel, Philos. II. p. 137; Theorie sociale d V Evangile; 
Memorial Cathol. vol. ii. p. 375). 

"This doctrine," says Dr. Lingard, "hostile as it might be to 
the independence of sovei'eigns, was often supported by the 
sovereigns themselves. Thus, when Richard I. was held in cap- 
tivity by the emperor, his mother, Eleanor, repeatedly solicited 
the Pontiff to procure his liberation by the exercise of that 
authority which he possessed over all temporal princes. Thus, 
King John Lackland (whose excesses afterwards provoked 
against himself the animadversion of the Church) invoked the 
aid of the same authority to recover Normandy from the king of 
France. At first, indeed, the Popes contented themselves with 
spiritual censures: but in an age, when all notions of justice were 
modelled after the feudal jurisprudence, it was soon admitted 
that princes by their disobedience became traitors to God; that 
as traitors they ought to forfeit their kingdoms, the fees which 
they held of God : and that to pronounce such sentence belonged 
to the Pontiff, the vicegerent of Christ upon earth." (Lingard's 
Hist, of Eng, vol. iii., of the third London edition, p. 35, note). 

It was in virtue of these and the like principles, as the same 
historian relates, that Pope Innocent III. did against King John 
Lackland what St. Gregory VII. had done against the Emperor 
Henry IV., when, solicited by Englishmen themselves, and moved 
by the recital of the repeated crimes and enormities of their 
sovereign, he absolved them from their oaths of fealty. This he 
did however, as the sequel showed, rather with the secret inten- 
tion of terrifying the king, and bringing him back to a sense of 
his duty, than with a real determination to ruin him forever. 

From these examples and testimonies, to which others might 



NOTES. 719 

be added, we may form an accurate idea of the temporal power 
occasionally exercised by the Popes during the Middle Ages. 
They exercised it wilh the implicit consent of the sovereigns 
themselves, who frequently appealed to the decisions of Rome in 
their temporal debates, and none of whom scarcely ever com- 
plained, except (as was natural) the individual affected by the 
sentence. They exercised it only against sovereigns who de- 
pended more or less, on the free choice of their nation and the 
acknowledgment of the Holy See as was particularly the case 
with the German emperors. They exercised it only in cases of 
paramount necessity, and after every other means, such as ex- 
hortations and remonstrances, had proved fruitless. They exer- 
cised it for the interest of the people and of society, at the request 
of the people themselves, and upon their earnest entreaties to be 
delivered from the sway of wicked, impious and tyrannical 
princes; but never through caprice, nor for personal interest: on 
the contrary, those courageous and zealous Pontiffs,a Gregory, 
an Alexander, an Innocent, etc., saw before them the prospect of 
sufferings, and of every kind of obstacles and dangers which they 
had to encounter for the faithful discharge of their duty. 

Some Popes, it is true (though few in number), went farther, 
and acting in their secondary quality of temporal princes, raised 
troops, and took a more or less active share in the military opera- 
tions of other sovereigns. But, even that step was taken by them 
for laudable, nay, for necessary purposes; viz., to recover or 
defend their own provinces, to repel unjust attacks, to support 
the independence of the Italian republics, and particularly to 
check the alarming progress of the Mussulmans. Can any fault 
be found with such conduct; and does it not rather afford a new 
proof of the truth, that the Popes have been the preservers of 
civilization and social order, as well as of religion, in Europe ? 
This indeed was the grand object which they had in view, and 
the end at which they continually aimed in the exercise of both 
their temporal and spiritual power. Having well understood the 
sublime ofl&ce which they were called to perform, they discharged 
it with wonderful zeal and fidelity for the advancement of moral 
and religious principles. They protected the weak against their 
oppressors; they restored peace and ti'anquillity among nations; 
and, preventing the execution of wicked designs, they saved 
rising states and societies from the attacks of ambition, barbarity, 
and licentiousness. Hence, in reading the history of the Middle 
Ages, it is impossible for a reflecting mind not to be struck with 
admiration at the sight of Christian Europe devoted to 07ie foim 
of worship, ruled by one grand principle, forming, as it were, but 
one empire, and acknowledging one supreme head whose exalted 
duty it was to promote the reign of the Gospel upon earth. (See 
Michaud, Histoire des Croisades, vol. iv. pp. 98, 99; — Count de 
Maistre, Du Pape, part ii. c. v. x). 

Not bitter censure, therefore, but real praise is due to the 
exertions of the Popes, and to their acts of authority, with regard 
to temporal princes. This is at length candidly acknowledged by 
different writers of the Protestant communicm, after the example 
of Leibnitz in several of his works, especially in his fii-st disser- 
tation De Actorum Publicorum Usu. Very lately, two Protestant 



720 NOTES. 

German authors, Hurter and Voigt, have published their excellent 
lives of Innocent III. ard Gregory VII., in which the character and 
the conduct of these great Popes are powerfully vindicated, and 
held up to the unqualified admiration of posterity. Let us hope 
that the clouds which have so long obscured this part of history, 
will be entirely dispelled by impartiality and truth; and that full 
justice will at last be rendered to the Koman Pontiffs, for their 
noble efforts to promote the spiritual and temporal welfare of 
society. 

There is another charge to be examined with regard to the 
Popes of the Middle Ages. We allude, not to the ridiculous tale 
of the pretended Popess Joan, which is now rejected by all learned 
critics, whether Catholic or Protestant, but to the more serious 
charge of the vices of some Roman Pontiffs. It is true, a few 
among them gave great scandals to the Christian world in their 
private character and conduct; but it ought to be rtmembered, 
at the same time, that, through a special protection of Divine 
Providence, the irregularity of their lives did not interfere with 
their public duty froni which they never departed. The benefi- 
cial influence of sacred jurisdiction does not depend on the private 
virtue of the persons invested with it, but on their divine mission 
and appointment to feed the Christian flock. Christ did not say 
that there would never be scandals nor abuses, but that no power 
of darkness would ever prevail against His Church: nor did He 
promise personal sanctity to its chief pastors, but gave to them 
authority to teach and govern the faithful; and to the faithful, a 
command to follow their injunctions, without blindly imitating 
the bad example of a small number of them, whose conduct 
might not be edifying. 

It is moreover certain that the number of bad Popes has been, 
by some writers, greatly exaggerated. There were but few of 
this character, and those few lived, nearly all, in the tenth and 
part of the eleventh century, during which time the prevalence 
of civil factions in Rome obstructed the freedom of canonical 
election. Even during that period, there existed many excellent 
Popes; men distinguished by their exalted virtues and intellectual 
endowments, patrons, in an eminent degree, of science, letters 
and the arts. Roscoe himself, though a Protestant, does not 
hesitate to say in his life of Leo the tenth (vol. i. p. 53), that 
" the Popes may in general be considered as superior to the age 
in which they have lived;" and an American editor of statistics 
has lately confessed that "most of the Popes were excellent 
men." These, however, are the sovereigns, whom a recent aiid 
elementary author has, in his profound wisdom, thought proper 
to compare with the Mussulman caliphs, namely, with men who 
were either the most itnjust conquerors, or the most indolent and 
insignificant monarchs that the world ever saw; whereas the 
greatest enemy of the See of Rome might be boldly challenged to 
show anywhere in history a succession of princes, who have 
been half as eminent for their virtues and piety, for their talents 
and learning, and for their benefits to the great family of man- 
kind, as the Roman Pontiffs. 



NOTES. 721 

NOTE L— PAGE 299. 

CONQUEST OF IRELAND. 

Before we pass any judgment and censure upon past events, 
we should invariably weigh with great attention their causes, 
their nature and their real character, and also take into serious 
consideration, the manners, customs, and opinions of the age in 
which they happened. Had this equitable rule been constantly 
adhered to in historical composition there would have been an 
end to those false assertions and unjust remarks which fill up the 
pages of Hume, Voltaire, and other equally bold and superficial 
writers. For want of this rule's being followed in the particular 
point of which we intend to treat in this note, " the conquest of 
Ireland," we shall find, upon diligent inquiry, that the conduct 
of Pope Adrian IV. in this affair has been, in latter times, neither 
duly appreciated nor sufficiently understood. 

It was foi'merly a common opinion, that not only Ireland, but 
also every Christian island, was the property of the Holy See. 
" There is no doubt, as you yourself acknowledge," wrote the 
Pontiff to King Henry II., " that Hibernia and all the islands to 
which the sun of justice, Christ, has shone forth, belong to St. 
Peter and to the holy Roman Church;" (^pist. i. Adr. papcB iv. in 
collect. Cone. vol. x. Col. 1143). This belief, as we learn from 
John of Salisbury, who acted as negotiator between the king and 
the Pope, was founded on a certain donation of Constantino the 
Great, the authenticity of which was never questioned by the 
critics of those ages: "All islands," says that author (Metalog. 
IV.), " by ancient right and from a donation of Constantine, are 
said to belong to the Roman Church." This having been the 
case, it is hard to conceive why Adrian IV. should be blamed for 
having performed (if he did perform), an act of high temporal 
jurisdiction over Ireland; since in doing so, he merely acted up 
to the tenor of an instrument which all believed to be authentic, 
and he merely exercised, over Christian islands, that right of 
sovereignty which was conceded to him by the general opinion of 
his age. To find a real fault in his conduct, would be preposter- 
ously to require that the Popes of the Middle Ages should have 
divested themselves of the feelings common to their contempo- 
raries, should have rejected the opinions which were then preva- 
lent about temporal sovereignty, and, through an anticipation of 
several centuries, should have followed our own views and 
modern political discoveries of which there was no idea in their 
time. 

It would be equally wrong to assert, that Adrian IV. was led, 
in this transaction, by human considerations, and that, being an 
Englishman by birth, he did not hesitate to sacrifice the interests 
of Ireland to those of his own country. This charge, if seriously 
made, would involve a complete injustice against the well known 
character and uncommon virtue of that Pope. For, how can such 
base motives be fairly attributed to a Pontiff whose whole life 
exhibited a perfect model of piety, whom personal merit alone 
raised from the lowest rank in the world to the highest dignity in 



722 NOTES. 

the Church, and who constantly distinguished himself by the 
nobleness of his sentiments, as historians unanimously testify? 
So great indeed was his disinterestedness and delicacy of con- 
science, that he preferred to leave his mother in a state of indi- 
gence, rather than do anything for her 'through private affec- 
tion; and he even contented himself, before dying, with recom- 
mending her to the charity and alms of the Church of Canterbury; 
(see Fleury, Hist. Eccles., ad ann. 1159). Is it credible then, is 
it even possiiile, that a Pontiff, so remarkable for the sanctity of 
his life and the purity of his views, who scrupled to raise his 
nearest and dearest relatives ever so little above their distressed 
condition, should have betrayed his duty and conscience in order 
to gratify the ambition of a monarch from whom he had received 
nothing, and had nothing to apprehend ? 

Nothing then but pure and disinterested views guided Pope 
Adrian IV. in his share of the transaction which regarded Ireland, 
even in admitting the supposition which presents the less favora- 
ble side, viz: that he made a grant of that country to the British 
monarch. But, is it true after all, at least is it certainly proved, 
that he did so, and thus authorized the king to invade and con- 
quer Ireland, as we find it almost everywhere asserted ? We 
rather think not, and this is the reason why, in relating the fact 
(p. 299), we made use of expressions somewhat different fi'ora 
those in which it is mentioned by the generality of historians. It 
appears indeed certain, that the intention of Henry was, from the 
beginning of his reign, to add this important island to his domin- 
ions; and it is probable, likewise, that the Pope suspected his 
real design. Yet, it is not from half-concealed views or probable 
suspicions, that we should judge of the nature of the concession 
made to Henry; but from the manner in which the whole affair 
was conducted, and from the authentic words in which both the 
request of the king and the grant of the Pope were expressed. 

Now, we do not see that the English monarch asked the Pon- 
tiff's approbation of his design to conquer Ireland and to occupy 
it for his own advantage; but he requested Adrian to consent 
that he might enter that country for the purpose of subjecting its 
inhabitants to the laws, and repressing vice and disorder, ad sub- 
dendum ilium populum legibus, et vitiorum plantaria inde extirpanda. 
The ambassador whom he sent to the Pope, was charged to 
assure his Holiness that Henry's principal object was to provide 
instruction for the Irish people, to extirpate abuses from the 
Lord's vineyard, etc., '* but that, as every Christian island was the 
property of the Holy See, he did not presume to make the 
attempt without the advice and consent of the successor of St. 
Peter." (Dr. Lingard, Reign of Henry II. ). 

On the other hand, it is very remarkable that Adrian, in the 
instrument of concession which he addressed in answer to the 
king does not mention any absolute grant of possession and sov- 
ereignty; much less by sword and conquest: he merely signifies 
his acquiescence in the king's project, he is willing that Henry 
should enter Ii-eland for the zealous purposes above mentioned, 
and that he should be honorably received and acknowledged as 
lord by the natives: " Gratum et acceptum habemus ut. . . insu- 
1am illam ingrediaris, et quod ad honorem Dei et salutem illius 



NOTES. 723 

terrae spectaverit, exequaris, fit illius terrae populus honorifice te 
recipiat, et sicut dominum veneretur " (in Epist. citatii, collect, 
concil. vol, X. Col. 1143). Hence, in the expressions and intention 
of the Pontiff, the whole concession made to the king consisted in 
approving the laudable views which that prince had manifested 
through his ambassador, and his future right of sovereignty over 
Ireland depended on the free acknowledgment of the natives. 
John of Salisbury, who negotiated the affair at the court of 
Rome, calls, it is true, this concession a grant of inhei"itance, 
"dedit Iliberniam hsereditario jure possidendam: " but, as the 
same author, in proof of his assertion, refers to the rescript of the 
Pope, by immediately adding, "sicut litterae ipsius testantur; " 
his words, consequently, must be understood, like those of 
Adrian, to imply as a previous condition of the grant, the volun- 
tary agreement and consent of the Irish people. At all events, 
we should always prefer the obvious meaning of the pontifical 
rescript to every other record of the transaction; for, if any one 
understood well the real intention of the Pope, it must certainly 
have been the Pope himself. 

The truth of these observations is supported by the conduct of 
the English monarch, both before and after the conquest of Ire- 
land. The answer of Adrian to his request, had been obtained in 
the year 1156, and it was not till after the lapse of almost twenty 
years, and when a great part of Ireland had already submitted to 
the British, that Henry thought of producing the letters of the 
Pope, and presented them to be read in a synod of Irish bishops. 
Now, is it reasonable to suppose that, if these letters had con- 
tained a real and absolute grant of sovereignty, he would have kept 
them in oblivion all that time, and deferred so long to enforce 
their execution? Would he not, at least, have exhibited them 
when the first English troops entered the island (a.b. 1169), in 
order to justify himself before the natives and gain them over to 
submission ? Since, then, he did not do so, but postponed the exhi- 
bition of the important instrument till three or four years later, 
and even then directed it solely to an assembly of prelates; are we 
not entitled to conclude that, ambitious and interested as he was, 
he saw little in the concession of the Pope of which he might 
boast as giving him a claim to rule over the Irish, independently 
of their own consent ? 

Thus the manner in which the affair was conducted, the expres- 
sions of the king and of the pontiff, the conduct of Henry both 
before and after his attempt upon Ireland; everything tends to 
prove or to render it at least probable, that he received indeed an 
approbation of his zealous designs for the good of that country, 
and a wish that lie might carry them into effect but no right to 
force the submission of the natives by invasion and conquest. — Let 
us add to this, that Adrian very probably was not ignorant of the 
project which had been already formed by several of the English 
monarchs, viz: Henry I. and William the Conqueror, to subdue 
Ireland. In this critical situation of the Irish, continually 
exposed to the attacks of a formidable enemy, and divided among 
themselves, the best that could be done for them, since Henry 
II. seriously entertained the same project and prepared to enter 
their country, was to procure that he should enter it with views 



724 NOTES. 

the most favorable to the religion, the liberty, and the improve- 
ment of the natives. This is exactly what the Pope did, by the 
manner in whicli his letters of concession, or approbation of 
Henry's design, were written, discarding all notion of military 
conquest and absolute right of sovereignty, but exhorting the 
king always to bear in mind the laudable purposes and condi- 
tions whicli he himself had proposed. No blame therefore, can 
be attached to the conduct of this virtuous Pontiff; nor was it 
his fault if his excellent and sincere intentions to procure the 
greater good of the Irish, were in subsequent Jiges so wofully 
frustrated. 

NOTE J.— PAGE 352. 

PKOSECUTION AND ABOLITION OF THE KNIGHTS-TEMPLAB3. 

The autlientic acts of the whole trial of the Knights-Templars, 
are still extant (apud Natal. Alexand. Dissert x. in Sec. xiv. Qucest. 
II. Art. I.; — Brumoy, Hist, de V Eglise Gall., I. xxxvi, ad ann. 1307 
-1312 ; — Dupuy, — Baluze, etc). From those documents, it is 
manifest that the royal commissaries, men of exemplary virtue 
and probity, examined a vast number of Templars in the differ- 
ent pai'ts of France, viz : one hundred and forty at Paris, one 
hundred and eleven at Troyes, eleven at Caen, ten at Pont-de 
I'Arche, fortyfiveat Beaucaire and in the neighboring places ; and 
that all, except three, acknowledged themselves guilty of the 
denial of Christ, of sacrilege, and other abominable crimes. 

We have moreover the acts of the Council of Vienne (Labbe, 
Collectio Conciliorum, vol. xi. part n. Col. 1557-1560), and the let- 
ters of Pope Clement V. (ibid. Col. 1559 and 1572) concerning this 
affair. In one of these, addressed to all the Christian princes in 
Europe, the Pontiff declaies that, when he himself examined at 
Poitiers seventy-two Templars on the charge of apostacy, sacri- 
lege and other crimes, they exi)ressly, spontaneously, and repeat- 
edly acknowledged the justice of the charges ; and that the same 
free and spontaneous acknowledgment was made, in presence of 
his delegates, by the grand-master and other chief personages of 
the Order. Nor was this depravity, although more common 
among the Templars in France, confined to that countiy ; sev- 
eral others were found guilty of the same enormous crimes in 
Tuscany, Lombardy, England, etc. (Natalis. Alexander, in Dl^ser- 
tatione citatd vol. vii. pp. 505 and 512 ; — Hist, de VEgl. Gall. vol. 
XII. pp. 4:^1 and 433). The Pope, therefore, with the approbation 
of the general council then assembled at Vienne, published his 
bull suppressing the institute, on account of the infamy of so 
many among its members, which had made it an object of con- 
tempt and scandal ; and decreed that their property should be 
given for ever to the Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jeru- 
salem. 

The whole transaction being thus stated from original and 
authentic sources, it is impossible for any reflecting mind to con- 
sider the series and duration of the inquiries : the fair manner in 
which they were conducted ; the great number of witnesses that 
were heard ; the perfect agreement in the avowals made by the 
accused in so many different parts of Christendom ; the high 



NOTES. 725 

standing and .character of their judges, who were the first and 
most commendable personages of Church and State, in fine, 
the deliberations and unanimous decision of the Pope and of 
three hundred prelates assembled in the council of Vienne : it is, 
I say, impossible to take all these circumstances into considera- 
tion, without being at once fully convinced that the Templars 
deserved to be suppressed, and that the sentence pronounced 
against their Order, in the council of Vienne, was not only 
. proper and just, but even, being the only sure means to remove a 
shameful scandal, ought to be considered as a very signal ser- 
vice rendered by Pope Clement V. and King Philip, to religion 
and society. 

Who will not, after this, feel astounded and indignant at the 
following narrative of Hume, when, having stated the indolence 
and degeneracy of the Templars, he adds, in his usual positive 
manner : 

" But, though these reasons had weakened the foundations of 
this Order once so celebrated and revered, the immediate cause of 
their destruction proceeded from the cruel and vindictive spirit 
of Philip the Fair, who, having entertained a private disgust 
against some eminent Templars, determined to gratify at once 
his avidity and revenge, by involving the whole Order in an 
undistinguished ruin. On no better information than that of 
two Knights, condemned by their superiors to perpetual impris- 
onment for their vices and profligacy, he ordered on one day all 
the Templars in France to be committed to prison, and imputed 
to them such enormous and absurd crimes, as are sufficient of 
themselves to destroy all the credit of the accusation. Above a 
hundred of these unhappy gentlemen were put to the question, 
in order to extort from them a confession of their guilt. The 
moi-e obstinate perished in the hands of their tormentors : 
several, to procure immediate ease in the violence of their 
agonies, acknowledged whatever was required of them : forged 
confessions wore iraputated to others ; and Philip, as if their 
guilt were now certain, proceeded to a confiscation of all their 
treasures." 

The writer then proceeds to relate, at great length, the punish- 
ment inflicted on the Templars, which indeed he does with 
affected pathos, but not without several inaccuracies ; and at last 
concludes thus : 

" In all this barbarous injustice, Clement V., who was a 
creature of Philip, and then resided in France, fully concurred; 
and, without examining a witness, or making an inquiry into the 
truth of facts, he summarily, by the plenitude of his apostolic 
power, abolished the whole Order. The Templars, all over Eu- 
rope, were thrown into prison; their conduct underwent a 
strict scrutiny; the power of their enemies still pursued and 
oppressed them; but nowhere, except in France, were the small- 
est traces of their pretended guilt to be found. England set an 
ample testimony of their piety and morals; but, as the Order was 
now annihilated, the Knights were distributed into several con- 
vents, and their possessions were, by command of the Pope, 
transferred to the order of St. John." (History of England^ 
reign of Edward II.). 



726 NOTES 

Such is, concerning the affair of the Knights-Templars, the 
narrative of Hume, which evinces indeed much of the inventive 
imagination of an orator, but very little of the exactness and sin- 
cerity of an historian. Here we see an almost uninterrupted 
series of inaccuracies and falsehoods blended with some true 
statements, a violent spirit of rancor against one of the two inter- 
ested parties, scarcely concealed under the veil of affected com- 
passion for the other, and an inveterate desire of finding fault 
with the conduct of the Pontiff and the King. Throughout the 
whole of his narrative, the author takes little care to relate facts 
in the order in which they happened, and does not even know the 
names of several among the chief personages of whom he speaks, 
calling the grand-master John instead of James de Molay; and 
the companion of his punishment, a brother to the sovereign of 
Dauphiny, instead of a brother to the Dauphin of Auvergne; mis- 
taking likewise the place in which they underwent their last 
trial, for that in which they suffered death. These blunders, 
however, are mere trifles, compared with the calumnious charges 
of precipitancy and want of investigation ; of violence employed 
to extort a confession of guilt; of avarice and revenge; of injus- 
tice and barbarity; which he so readily lavishes on King Philip 
the Fair and Pope Clement V., and which we will now succes- 
sively examine. 

1st. It is wrong to state that King Philip ordered the imprison- 
ment of all the Templars in France on the mere deposition of two 
Knights. Before issuing this order, he had instituted new inqui- 
ries which gave additional strength to the former charges. Hence 
it is manifest that the imputation of enormous crimes to the 
Oi'der of the Templars did not proceed from that monarch, as 
Hume asserts, but from the very members of the Order; it being, 
moreover, justified by their proverbially bad character, which 
gave rise to the expression, boire comme un Templier. 

2d. It is equally false that the confessions of the Templars with 
regard to the crimes imputed to them, were forged, or wrung 
from them by the violence of torture. The one hundred and forty 
knights who were tried by the royal commissaries at Paris, and 
the seventy-two others whom the Pope himself examined at 
Poitiex's, were not tortured, but voluntarily and freely confessed 
their guilt (see again Bruinoy; — Natalis Alexander; — especially 
the letters of Pope Clement V., quoted above; — also Bergier, 
Diction. Theolog. art. Templiers). The grand-master and the cliief 
commanders did the same, without any constraint whatever; 
libere ac sponCe, absque coactione quAlibet et timore. Most of them 
persevered in their avowals ; and, if several afterwards retracted 
what they had said, this circumstance may prove indeed that they 
could no longer bear to see themselves the object of public scorn, 
but not that they were sincere in their retraction. For, how many 
culprits are there, whp obstinately maintain their innocence, not- 
withstanding the clear evidence of the crime laid to their charge; 
or, changing their plan of defence, deny what they had previously 
confessed, and vice versA. 

3d. Notwithstanding the peremptory assertion of Hume, that 
nowhere but in France were thei'e to be found the smallest traces 
of what he calls the pretended guilt of the Templars, the contrary 



NOTES. 727 

is certain from various testimonies concerning the Templars of 
Tuscany, Lombardy, and even England, as Walsingham relates 
{Hist. Angl.in vitd Edward II.), and Dr, Lingard acknowledges 
with regard to a few individuals (Hist, of Emjl. vol. iii., p. 472). It 
appears, indeed, that in several countries, most of the accused 
were acquitted ; but this only proves what we before said, that 
the Order was not equally corrupt everywhere, and that the 
poison of impiety and vice had not infected the wliole body of 
the Knights-Templars, although it had tainted many of its mem- 
bers. — It was also incumbent on Mr. Hume to furnish some proofs 
of the reality of that violent and universal persecution which, he 
supposes, was carried on against the Templars, after the sup- 
pression of their institute: he probably thought it, as usual, an 
easier task to assert boldly than to prove. The truth is, thei'e is 
no trace of such a persecution to be found in history. 

4th. Groundless too is the assertion made by the same author, 
that King Philip acted as a vindictive and avaricious tyrant. 
That prince may have been eager and hasty in his proceedings, 
at least with regard to the chief personages of the Order; still, it 
ought to be observed that, in inflicting the rigorous punishment 
of death by fire, he merely followed the jurisprudence commonly 
adopted in those ages against heinous crimes. With regard to 
the confiscation of the property of the Templars in France, there 
are undeniable proofs of the disinterestedness of Philip in this 
transaction: all that he did, had for its object to preserve that 
property for the public utility of Christendom, as the Pope and 
the general council should deem advisable ; nor did any portion 
of it pass into his own hands, except what was requisite to defray 
the expenses which he had incurred in so long and so complicated 
a suit. The immense possessions of the Templars (except those 
situated in Spain and Portugal), were, as is well known, and as 
Hume himself acknowledges, transferred to the Order of St. John 
of Jerusalem. 

5th. Still more iniquitous and atrocious than the preceding, is 
the charge of violence, injustice and barbarity directed against 
Pope Clement; who far from acting as the faithful historian 
assures us he did, adopted the diametrically opposite course, as 
all the monuments and authentic acts of this important affair in- 
variably testify. He continually endeavored to temper the zeal 
of Philip; he constantly recommended equity and prudence to 
the commissaries appointed to preside in this complicated trial: 
neither he nor his legates had anything to do with the precipitate 
condemnation of the grand-master. While the papal commissa- 
ries heard upwards of two hundred witnesses either for or against 
the accused Order, Clement himself tried and examined seventy- 
two knights, with equal impartiality and care he took all possible 
means to know the truth, and had recourse to all possible sources 
of information; in a word he continued the inquiries with inde- 
fatigable patience during five years, before he would come to a 
decision respecting the Order, the persons, and the property of 
the Templars. Is there, in such conduct, anything that savors in 
the least of violence, injustice, and barbarity ? 

6th. Moreover, what can be more equitable, prudent, and wise 
than the decision which the Pontiff, after long deliberation, and 



728 NOTES. 

many conferences with the cardinals and other prelates, published 
in the second session of the council of Vienne, on the third of 
April, 1312? In that document, he did not pronounce the whole 
Order guilty of the horiid crimes which had been the object of so 
many inquiries ; but, considering the state of acknowledged de- 
generacy into which it had fallen, the infamy with which it was 
loaded by the mere imputation of such disorders, and the well as- 
certained guilt of many of its members, he abolished it as having 
become not only useless, but even an object of scandal to all 
Christendom, 

Such was the dignified conduct which Hume has dared to brand 
with the appellation of barbarous injustice, and which another 
equally bold and superficial writer has presumed to call an in^ 
famous proscription. If there is, on this subject, anything calcu- 
lated to provoke the feelings of a just indignation, let the reader 
judge on which side it stands : on that of a Pontiff and a prince 
whose proceedings, throughout the whole of this grand affair, 
were marked with so much equity and disinterestedness; or on 
that of two unfaithful authors, who, careless about historical 
truth and justice, have ventured, without proof, and against all 
reason, to paint the important transaction in such sombre colors P 

NOTE K.— PAGE 405. 

INQUISITION. 

What has not been said about, or rather against, the Spanish 
Inquisition? We everywhere see it depicted in the blackest 
colors, and represented as the offspring of papal ambition and 
ecclesiastical tyranny; as a bloody tribunal, condemning innocent 
persons to death for mere thoughts and opinions; an institution, 
whose proceedings are the most terrific that human bigotry and 
malice could suggest; etc. 

In answer to these charges we will remark, in the first place, 
that the Inquisition forms no part of the Catholic creed and of 
the obligatory discipline of the Church. We find, it is true, that 
it was established in some Catholic states as a political means 
to maintain the unity of religion within their limits, and remove 
from them the disturbances occasioned by newly invented sys- 
tems; but this was commonly done, either at the request, or by 
the authority of the sovereigns themselves, e. g., of King Ferdi- 
nand in Spain (a.d. 1480), of John III. in Portugal (a.d. 1557). 
This Inquisition therefore, besides being a local and temporary, 
institution, was rather civil than ecclesiastical in its origin. Its 
chief members, particularly in Spain, were indeed selected from 
the ecclesiastical order, but they always remained under the 
authority of the king, without whose previous consent their de- 
crees could be neither executed nor even published. 

In the second place, the Inquisition, far from being as bloody 
and inexorably severe as is commonly imagined, far from inflict- 
ing capital punishment even for mere thoughts and opinions, on 
the contrai"y never inflicted it even for open and atrocious crimes, 
the tribunal having never been authoi'ized to pass sentence of 
death or of mutilation upon any person : this power resided en-? 



NOTES. 729 

tirely and solely in the civil authority. All that the council of 
the Inquisition had to do, was to pronounce the individual 
arrai<?ned before them guilty, on the clearest evidence, of a crime 
declared capital by the law of Spain. There they stopped; and, 
instead of prosecuting to death, they rather displayed a degree of 
indulgence and clemency seldom witnessed in any other tribunal. 
If the culprit manifested sincere repentance, he was immediately 
screened from capital punishment, and condemned merely to 
undergo temporary and trifling penances. If, notwithstanding 
the convincing proofs of his guilt, he remained obstinate and im- 
penitent, then, and not till then, was he delivered over to the civil 
power to be dealt with according to law; and, even in this case, 
the inquisitors recommended the wretched individual to the 
mercy of the secular judge.* They had nothing to do with his 
death; and, when, at the moment of execution, the priest ap- 
peared by the side of the guilty man, it was only to inspire him, 
if possible, with sentiments of repentance, to soothe his agony by 
words of consolation, and to pi-epare him for eternity. 

Even admitting that some inquisitors, from time to time, acted 
with excessive rigor, which led to certain abuses and unjustifiable 
conclusions, still it is true that these proceedings should be 
charged only to the individuals in question, but not to the tri- 
bunal itself fairly considered in its nature, its end and its regula- 
tions, nor to the generality of its members, whose prudence, jus- 
tice and integrity have elicited the admiration of all attentive and 
impai'tial travellers (v. g., Abb6 de Vayrac, in his Voyage en 
Espagne et en Italic, 1731; Bourgoing, Nouveau Voyage en Espagne; 
and Journal de V Empire, 1805). Again, these abuses, whatever 
they were, might be ascribed to the civil, but not to the ecclesias- 
tical power, as is well explained by Count de Maistre in his two 
fii'st letters on the Spanish Inquisition; much less could they be 
imputed either to the Catholic Church at large, of which the 
Chui'ch of Spain is but a portion, or to the Roman See in partic- 
ular, since the Inquisition at Rome greatly differed from that of 
Spain, and always displayed such moderation, indulgence and 
meekness as to astonish the French infidels themselves (En- 
cyclop, art. Inquisition). 

With regard to the awful and terrible foi-ms which the Inquisi- 
tion is said to have adopted, the charge may be partly admitted 
without furnishing any ground for invective ; nor is it at all sur- 
prising that a tribunal should make an exterior snow of rigor, 
the better to strike the minds of the people, and the more surely 
to prevent the perpetration of crime. It is, however, certain that, 
on this point also, there have been many exaggerations and 



* The case of the famous heresiarch John Huss, in 1415, was conducted in the 
same manner. The council of Constance, not having been able, by remon- 
Btrances and exhortations, to overcome his obstinacy and bring him to a retrac- 
tation of his errors, handed him over to the civil power, without however 
soliciting his punishment. The secular court was not so indulgent: the em- 
peror Sigismond thought it his duty to punish the man who, besides repeatedly 
mfringing the conditions of the safe-conduct he had received, everywhere 
preached seditious doctrines; accordingly, John Huss was placed under the 
custody of the magistrate of Constance, who, following the jurisprudence of the 
age with regard to such trespasses, consigned him to the flames. 



730 NOTES. 

slanderous reports. Thus, as Count de Maistre observes (lett. 
II.), it is by no means true that the most trifling charge was suf- 
ficient to cause a man to be arrested ; that the accused remained 
unacquainted with the reasons of his confinement, and was not 
allowed the privilege of a lawyer to defend his cause. The pun- 
ishment of burning, too, far from being, as it is commonly sup- 
posed, the ordinary one to which the convicted persons were con- 
demned, was, on the contrary, very seldom employed, and that 
by the civil power only, and against such enormous crimes, sac- 
rilege, apostacy, and the like, as were not more mildly treated by 
the other European nations. Faults of a less grievous nature 
were punished merely by exile or imprisonment, sentence of 
death being very rare, especially in latter times, when, as well na- 
tives as foi'eigners, who did not attempt to disturb religious or 
social order, could live with as much tranquillity and security in 
Spain as in any other country. 

When the Spaniards are reproached with the rigors, real or pre- 
tended, of this famous tribunal, their answer is, that, by punish- 
ing a few obstinate individuals, it saved their monarchy from the 
awful disturbances and civil wars which desolated Switzerland, 
Germany, Holland, France, etc., in the sixteenth and seventeenth 
centuries; and did not, after all, cause so much blood to flow in 
all their dominions together, as the Calvinian reformation did in 
the single kingdom of France. 

NOTE L.— PAGE 417. 

BULL, OF ALEXANDER VI., CALLED THE BULL OF PARTITION. 

"Writers," says Dr. Lingard, "have not always sufficiently 
appreciated the benefits which mankind derived from the pacific 
influence of the Roman Pontiffs. In an age which valued no 
merit but that of arms, Europe would have been plunged in per- 
petual war, had not Pope after Pope labored incessantly for the 
preservation or restoration of peace. They rebuked the passions, 
and checked the extravagant pretensions of sovej-eigns: their 
character, as the common fathers of Christians, gave to their rep- 
resentatives a weight which no other mediators could claim : and 
their legates spared neither journey nor fatigue to reconcile the 
jarring interests of courts, and interpose the olive of peace be- 
tween the swords of contending armies" (Histor. of Engl. vol. iv. 
p. 80). 

These general remarks on the happy influence exercised at 
different times by the Sovei-eign Pontiffs, are particularly appli- 
cable to the conduct of Pope Alexander VI. with regard to the 
Spanish and Portuguese sovereigns. He had to settle between 
them, by a solemn decision, the respective boundaries of their 
foreign possessions, and, by so doing, prevent the endless and 
sanguinary contests that might have otherwise followed ; this the 
Pontiff did by issuing the famous bull Inter ccetera: he, at the 
same time, improved the opportunity of benefiting the natives of 
the newly discovered countries, by requiring of their conquerors 
that they should procure for them religious and Christian in- 



NOTES. 731 

struction.* Had he refused to listen to the appeal of the inter- 
ested parties, he might indeed have removed the danger of being 
charged with entertaining ambitious views; but would he not 
have incurred the guilt of unjustifiable want of zeal and care, both 
to prevent the effusion of human blood, and to promote the ad- 
vantage of the defenceless Indians ? For, it should ever be re- 
membered that the kings of Sijain and Portugal would, in any 
hypothesis, have taken and kept possession of the lands lately de- 
scried by their navigators, this having been their full determina- 
tion from the beginning; hence, there would have existed, on one 
side, a continued subject of quarrels between the two nations for 
the determination of their foreign limits, and, on the other, there 
would have been no condition imposed on them to better the 
fate of the Indians. The decision, therefore, of Alexander VI. 
was not only conducive to the preservation of peace among the 
conquerors, but highly advantageous to the vanquished them- 
selves, for whom it secured the blessings of civilization and 
Christianity. 

'' Ferdinand," says the elegant historian of Columbus, " had 
despatched ambassadors to the Court of Rome, announcing the 
new discovery as an extraordinary triumph of the faith .... 
At least as politic as he was pious, he insinuated a hint at the 
same time, by which the Pope might perceive that he was deter- 
mined, at all events, to maintain his important acquisitions. His 
amb.issadors were instructed to state that, in the opinion of many 
learned men, these newly discovered lands, having been taken pos- 
session of by the Catholic Sovereigns, their title to the same did 
not require the papal sanction; still, as pious princes obedient 
to the holy chair, they supplicated His Holiness to issue a bull, 
miking a concession of them, and of such others as might be 
discovered, to the crown of Castile " (Irving's Columbus, b. v. ch. 

VIII), 

From this it manifestly appears that the Spanish Sovereigns 
had not waited for the grant of the Pope, to take possession of 
the West Indies. "The question," says a leai-ned critic (Bergier, 
art. Demarcation), " was not to decide whether their conquests, 
and those of the king of Portugal, were lawful or not, but to 
remove, by the fixation of their limits, the evils of war which 
would have visited the European discoverers, without rendering 
the fate of the Indians better." Hence, it is useless to ask what 
right the Pontiff had to give lands and countries which did not 
belong to him, since his solemn award, although it seemed to 
contain a real grant, was simply a measure tending to prevent 
bloody quai'rels between two jealous and powerful monarchs; 
■while it also provided for the civil and moral improvement of 
their new subjects. To act the part of an authoritative arbi- 
trator, does not require to have jurisdiction over the object of 

* The words of the Pontiff are these; "Insuper mandamus vobis in virtute 
sanct» obedientiae (sicut pollicemini, et non dubitamus pro vestra maxima de- 
votione et regia magnanimitate vos esse facturos) ad terras flrmas et insulas 
prsedictas viros probes et Deum timentes, doctos, peritos et expertos, ad instru- 
Indum incolas et iiabitatores prsefatos in fide Catholica, et bonis moribus im- 
buendum. destinare studeatis, omnem debitam diligentiam in praemissis a^- 
hibeutes."— Bulla /n^er Coetera, n. 7. 



732 NOTES. 

the debate, but over the contending parties; especially, if they 
themselves have referred the case to their common acknowledged 
superior, and have asked his decision. 

Instead then of inveighing against the bull of Alexander VI., 
it would be better as Feller and Count de Maistre observe, to 
regi'et that the time has passed, when a single word from the 
Koman Pontiff was sufficient to maintain peace among kings and 
nations and when his impartial voice and universally revered 
influence easily removed the danger of obstinate dissensions and 
sanguinary conflicts. 

NOTE M.— PAGE 429. 

INFLUENCE OP THE KOMAN CHUKCH ON THE IMPKOVEMENT OF 

SCIENCE. 

AFFAIR OF GALILEO.— THE CALENDAR. 

The Roman Church, as we have already noticed in several parts 
of this work, has rendered multiplied and signal services to the 
arts, sciences, and belles lettres. Still, it is often said that she 
has, within the last ages, rather opposed their improvement; 
and were we to believe certain authors in their political, astro- 
nomical, and geographical descriptions, the very land and city 
in which there has always been found, to the present day, a 
greater share of true taste and solid learning than anywhere else, 
should be considered a half barbarous and hardly civilized region. 
The principal fact adduced to support this unjust charge, is 
the affair of Galileo, whom a multitude of writers represent as 
having been persecuted on account of his astronomical discov- 
eries, and condemned by the Roman inquisitors merely for 
teaching, according to the opinion of Copernicus, the true system 
of the world. But it is now well proved, from the letters of 
Guicciavdini and of Marquis Nicolini, both of them disciples, 
friends and protectors of Galileo, from the letters and writings 
of Galileo himself, that, for a long time, the public has been 
grossly imposed upon with respect to this point of history. 

This celebrated man was not arraigned as an astronomer, but 
as a bad theologian, and for having pretended to impute to 
the Bible dogmas of his own invention. His great discoveries, 
it is true, provoked envy against him, but his pretension to prove 
the Copernican system from the Bible was the real cause of his 
being summoned before the inquisitors at Rome; and the rest- 
lessness of his mind, the only source of the troubles which he 
underwent on that account. 

In his first journeys to Rome (1611, etc.), Galileo found only 
admirers among the cardinals and other distinguished personages. 
The Pope himself granted him a favorable audience, and Cardinal 
Bellarmin merely forbade him, in the name of His Holiness, to 
blend in future the Bible with his astronomical systems. Other 
learned prelates equally pointed out to him the course of pru- 
dence to be observed by him on this point; but his obstinacy and 
vanity did not permit him to follow their advice. 

Some years after, he published his " Dialogues and Memoirs," 



NOTES. 733 

In which he again took upon himself to raise the system of the 
rotation of the earth to the dignity of a dogmatical tenet. Being 
summoned before the tribunals of Rome, the lodging assigned to 
him in that city was not a gloomy prison, not a frightful dun- 
geon, but the palace of Tuscany, and, for eighteen days, the 
apartments of the attoi-ney-general, where he had every facility to 
take exercise and carry on his correspondence. During the 
trial, the main object of his answers was not the scientific view 
of the question, since he had been allowed to defend his system 
as an astronomical hypothesis, but its pretended association with 
the Bible. Not long after having received his sentence and made 
his recantation, Galileo obtained leave to revisit his native coun- 
try, and, far from being persecuted, was dismissed with new 
marks of esteem for his talents and of regard for his person. 

For these interesting documents respecting the affair of 
Galileo, we are indebted to the reseax'ches of an impartial Prot- 
estant, Mr. Mallet Dupan of Geneva, who wrote a dissertation 
on the subject, in the Mercure de France, 17 Juillet 1784, n. 29 — 
see Berault-Bei'castel, Zftsfoire de VEglise ad ann. 1634; and Ber- 
gier, Diction, de theoL, art. Monde, and Sciences. 

The Roman Church, far from impeding the progress of astron- 
omy or of other sciences, on this or any other occasion, has on 
the contrai-y rendered even in that respect, the most undeniable 
and signal services. We allude chiefly to the reformation of the 
calendar, an event which took place under Pope Gregory XIII., 
some years before the time of Galileo, and which is well deserv- 
ing of notice. 

By calendar is meant a certain distribution of time adapted 
to religious and civil purposes, and pointing out the order and 
succession of the days, weeks, months and festivals of the year. 
All civilized nations have ever felt the necessity of having such 
a regular distribution of time ; but it required a long series of 
ages, a deep study of astronomy, and innumerable calculations, 
to contrive a good and exact calendar. 

In former times, the year was believed to be eleven minutes 
longer than it is in reality. This difference, though apparently 
trifling, had become, by being repeated from year to year during 
the course of many centuries, so very sensible and material, that 
in the year 1582, the vernal equinox fell on the eleventh of March, 
whereas the calendar marked it on the twenty-first of the same 
month ; a day which had been assigned to it by the astronomers 
of Alexandria, in 325, The consequence was, that festivals were 
no longer celebrated in their proper time; and Easter, in partic- 
ular, which depends on the full moon of March, would, in the 
course of ages, have been successively found in Summer, Autumn 
and Winter. 

To remedy this confusion, Gregory XIII. suppressed at once 
from the year 1582 ten entire days (those between the 4th and 
15th of October), by which the real equinox was in advance of 
the equinox of the calendar; thus making them again coincide, 
and restoring all Christian festivals to their proper epoch 
throughout the year. Moreover, measures and precautions, sug- 
gested by skilful mathematicians and astronomers, were taken to 



734 NOTES. 

prevent the like confusion in future, and the whole work being 
completed, received the solemn sanction of the Pope, in his bull 
of the same year, 1582. 

These corrections in the calendar were successively adopted 
by nearly all Christian nations, even those separated from the 
See of Rome; e. g., by the English, in 1752; by the Swedes, in 
1753; by the German States, in 1776. The Russians are the only 
civilized people in Europe, who have hitherto refused to admit 
the important improvement, and still adhere to the old style ; the 
consequence of which is that they are now, in their computation 
of the year, twelve days behind the real time; thus preferring, as 
a judicious author pointedly remarks, rather to be at variance 
with the heavens and the stars, than to agree with the Roman 
Pontiff. 

NOTE N.— PAGE 467. 

MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY. 

Nothing perhaps is more common, and yet nothing can be 
more unjust, than to take advantage of the Massacre of St. 
Bartholomew's day, to inveigh against the Catholic community 
and the Catholic principles, as if the awful deed had proceeded 
from their influence. 

If we consult the authentic and contemporary documents col- 
lected and adduced by those persons who have made a deep and 
impartial study of the whole transaction e. g., Caveirac, Dissert, 
sur la St. Barthelemi; — Lingard, viii. Note T. ; — Daniel, Hist, de 
France, ad ann. 1572), we shall find that religion had nothing to 
do with it, except to check its course as much as possible, and 
to weep over the devoted victims of the massacre; that the whole 
affair was merely the effect of political resentment and of a 
sudden ebullition of anger; in fine, that a much smaller numbe'" 
of persons perished on the occasion than is commonly believed. 

The series and close connection of the events in mediately 
preceding the massacre, are sufficient to show that it originated 
in the animosity of the French court against the Protestant 
party, and was dictated by a violent desire of revenge. The 
mind of the young king, Charles IX., had been frequently 
harassed and exasperated by the repeated attacks of the Hugue- 
nots against his authority, and by the report of the many cruel- 
ties which they had committed throughout the kingdom during 
the last civil wars. Notwithstanding these causes of provocation 
he would not have adopted the dreadful measure, had it not been 
for the positive assertion of his mother and chief counsellors, 
that he could no longer escape the plots of that party, without 
putting to death or in confinement its chief leaders, and that, 
were he to wait till next morning, his most faithful officers, his 
family, perhaps himself, would be sacrificed to their vengeance. 
The king then gave his consent to the projected massacre ; the 
time was appointed, and the execution took place during a con- 
siderable part of the following day, the twenty-fourth of Augusti 
1572. 

Thus, the odious deed was not the result of a long premedi- 



NOTES. 735 

tated and general plot, but the effect of a sudden fit of anger and 
revenge; it was, moreover, projected against the leaders only of 
the Huguenot party, and intended to have taken place only in 
Paris. If the example of the capital was followed in many 
other cities, e. g., Lyons, Rouen, Toulouse, Bordeaux, etc., this 
was owing chieny to the violent excitement which the conduct 
and cruelties of the Calvinists, during the preceding insurrec- 
tions, had produced in the minds of the Catholics. Far from 
sending orders to the provinces against Protestants, Charles IX., 
on the contrary, both in writing and by word of mouth, fre- 
quently expressed his intention that the bloody scene should not 
be repeated, nor extended beyond the limits of Paris. And 
indeed, the great difference of the epochs at which the massa- 
cres were committed in the cities just mentioned, also sliows that 
they ought to be attributed rather to sudden ebullitions of pop- 
ular vengeance, than to any previously concerted and general 
plan. Every one may see the detailed proofs of these assertions 
in the two first authors above mentioned. 

Of the number of victims in all those towns, including the 
capital, it is impossible to speak with certainty. Among the 
Huguenot writers, some reckon seventy thousand ; others, thirty 
or twenty or fifteen thousand: but all these amounts seem to be 
exaggerated. "The reformed martyrologist adopted a measure 
of ascertaining the real number, which may enable us to form a 
probable conjecture. He procured from the ministers in the 
different towns where the massacres had taken place, lists of the 
names of the persons who had suffei'ed, or were supposed to 
have suffered. He published the result in 1582; and the reader 
will be surprised to learn that in all France he could discover 
the names of no more than seven hundred and eighty-six persons 
Perhaps, if we double that number, we shall not be far from the 
real amount." (Lingard in loco cit.) 

Above all, it is certain that religion had nothing to do with the 
massacre, whether as a motive or an encouragement. In the con- 
triving of the wretched scheme, the passions of the French court, 
jealousy, animosity, revenge, were the real and only cause; and 
the pi-etence was a supposed conspii*acy of the Protestant lead- 
ers against the king, his servants and his family. No clergymen 
were consulted about the adoption of the awful measure; and, 
when they heard of it after its execution, far from obtaining 
their approbation, it rather excited in their bosoms feelings of 
horror for the deed, and of commiseration for its victims. The 
only share which bishops, priests, and monks took in it, was to 
save as many as they could of the Protestants, who, in many 
towns, e. g., Lisieux, Toulouse, Lyons, Bordeaux, had taken 
refuge in their hospitable dwellings. 

It is objected that Pope Gregory XIII. publicly returned thanks 
to God on that occasion; — but what was the real object of this 
rejoicing ? Charles IX., in order to palliate the shame of his 
murderous edict against the Parisian Huguenots, wrote to every 
court in Europe, that having just detected their horrid plots 
against his authority and person, he had been fortunate enough 
to eseape from tlie imminent danger, by putting the conspirators 
to death without delay. The Pope then, under that impression, 



736 NOTES. 

rejoiced, not for the death of the supposed traitors, whose rigor- 
ous punishment he on the contrary deplored, but for the preser- 
vation of the French monarch and of his kingdom from utter 
ruin: exactly, as in a case of war, and of a signal victory against 
invaders, public rejoicings would take place, and every sensible 
person would willingly share in them, not indeed at the blood 
shed in battle, but at the advantages gained over an unjust 
enemy; and who could dare to find a fault in such conduct ? 

NOTE O.— PAGE 488. 

REVOCATION OF THE EDICT OF NANTES. 

Before attempting to present a vindication of this famous 
revocation, we will quote the words in which it is recorded by 
Hume, in the eighth volume of his History. *' Louis XIV," says 
he, " having long harassed and molested the Protestants, at last 
entirely revoked the Edict of Nantes, which had been enacted by 
Henry IV. for securing them the free exercise of their religion; 
which had been declared irrevocable; and which, during the 
experience of near a century, had been attended with no sensible 
inconvenience. All the iniquities inseparable from persecutions 
were exercised against those unhappy religionists, who became 
obstinate in proportion to the oppressions which they suffered, 
and either covered under a feigned conversion a more violent 
abhorrence for the Catholic communion, or sought among foreign 
nations for that liberty of which they were bereaved in their 
native country. Above half a million of the most useful and 
industrious subjects deserted France, and exported, together 
with immense sums of money, those arts and manufactures which 
had chiefly tended to enrich that kingdom. They propagated 
everywhere the most tragical accounts of the tyranny exercised 
against them, and i-evived among the Protestants all that resent- 
ment against the bloody and persecuting spirit of popery, to 
which so many incidents in all ages had given too much foun- 
dation." 

Such is, without the change of a single word, the language of 
Hume ccmcerning the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. That 
it is, in most points, and especially in the conclusion, the lan- 
guage of virulence, untruth, and calumny, will appear manifest 
from the bare recital, in this and the following note, of the facts 
connected with the important subject now before us, and of such 
notoi'ious facts, too, as the most envious criticism cannot ration- 
ally deny. 

Previously to the reign of Louis XIV., the Huguenots by their 
threats and violence had extoi'ted from the French kings, par- 
ticularly from Henry IV. in 1598, innumerable privileges, and a 
sort of separate government in the very heart of the kingdom. 
Their repeated insun-ections under Louis XIII. were checked, 
and their military forces annihilated by the genius of Richelieu; 
still they continued, even under this powerful minister, to pos- 
sess a legal existence, and to enjoy the free exercise of their 
religion. Unfortunately, their spirit of rancor and animosity 
always continued the same; they constantly manifested the most 



NOTES. 737 

shameful opposition to the interests of their own country, 
repeatedly endeavored to overturn her constitution and govern- 
ment, always favoi-ed her foreign foes, as was manifest from 
their authentic acts and writings, and carried so far their hostile 
designs, as to open, as far as they were able, her frontiers to the 
Germans and the Dutch, and her maritime towns, Le Havre and 
La Eochelle, to the English, tlie greatest enemies of France; in 
a word, so multiplied were their infractions of several articles 
of the Edict of Nantes, that it requii-ed no fewer than two hun- 
dred decrees of various courts of justice to check these new en- 
croachments, as may be seen in the work of Abbe Caveirac on 
this subject, pp. 195-246, and lxi.-lxiii. of the notes. 

Moreover, the bloody civil wai's formerly excited by the 
Huguenots, were not yet forgotten, and the fresh remembrance 
of past evils inclined the nation to adopt measures calculated to 
prevent their repetition. " I do not speak," says the illustrious 
pupil of Fenelon, the duke of Burgundy, in his memoirs, " of 
the calamities produced by the new doctrines in Germany, 
England, Scotland, Ireland, etc.; I speak of France only. Nor 
shall I enumerate one by one, the evils of which it was the 
theatre, and which are recox'ded in so many authentic documents; 
the secret assemblies; the leagues formed with foreign enemies; 
the attempts j»gainst tl>e government; the seditious threats, open 
revolts, conspiracies, and bloody wars; the plundering and sack- 
ing of towns; the deliberate massacres, and atrocious sacrileges: 
suffice it to say, that, from Francis I. to Louis XIV. during seven 
successive reigns, all these evils and many others, with more or 
less violence, desolated the French monarchy. This is a point of 
history which, although it may be variously related, can neither 
be denied nor called in question; and it is from this capital point 
that we should start in the political examination of this gi-eat 
affair." 

Under the fresh recollection of so many trespasses and obnox- 
ious deeds of the Huguenots, an intimate persuasion, founded on 
the natural rights of nations and the security of governments, 
had pervaded all classes of people, that the king was justifiable 
in adopting vigorous measures for the purpose of checking this 
ill-affected portion of his subjects. It was the general opinion, 
that the Edict of Nantes, both from its nature and on account of 
its numerous violations by the very party whom it favored, might 
be revoked, since the good and tranquillity of the state called for 
its revocation. So little doubt did there exist concerning this 
right of repeal, that even Arnauld, a Jansenist, and Grotius, a 
Protestant, openly acknowledged it in their writings;* nor 
indeed could it be denied without unjust partiality, since there 
was not, at this period, a single Protestant government in Europe, 
which, notwithstanding much more sacred ties or contracts, did 
not act more severely against their peaceful Catholic subjects, 
than the French court prepared to do against the restless and 
ever disaffected Huguenots. 

* The following are the words of the latter: "Norintilli, qui Reformatonim 
sibi imponunt vocabulura, non esse ilia foedera, sed regum edicta, ob publicam 
facta utilitatetn, et revocabilia. si aliud regibus publica utilitas suaserit.— iJiw 
tiani apologetici discussio, p. 23. 



738 NOTES. 

Moved by these considerations, the ministry under Louis XIV. 
employed itself in gradually undermining their party, and taking 
away from them the power and opportunities of exciting new 
disturbances in France; still nothing appeared to threaten the 
entire abolition of their privileges, when, alarming symptoms of 
insurrection manifested by them throughout the southern and 
western provinces, caused it to become a matter of serious debate 
in the council of the king. The proposed measure passed by the 
unanimous vote of the counsellors and ministers; the Edict of 
Nantes was revoked; and, as the factious and hostile spirit of the 
Huguenot ministers was too well known to be safely tolerated, 
such of their number as refused to abjure their tenets within the 
space of two months, were commanded to quit the kingdom. 
As to the other Protestants, they were not only allowed, but even 
encouraged to remain in France, where they might freely carry 
on their business and commerce as before, and enjoy their 
property and their civil rights under the protection of the law, 
" without being troubled and vexed on account of their religion." 
These are the very terms of the repealing statute. 

It is, therefore, a gross inaccuracy to assert or suppose that the 
French Huguenots were promiscuously condemned to banishment, 
or doomed to oppression and all the iniquities inseparable from 
persecutiorr in their native countiy. Many of them, it is true, 
pi'ef erred to follow their ministers into exile; but this was a 
mere effect of their own choice, which the government never 
intended nor encouraged. It is true also that, in several places, 
acts of rigor, owing to unforeseen incidents, were exercised 
against them; but this happened only in the places where the 
religionists, misunderstanding the moderate views of their sov- 
ereign, provoked his justice by their excesses and revolts. As to 
the acts of violence which some individuals occasionally recom- 
mended or practised, they were entirely repugnant both to the 
character and intentions of the monarch, who bitterly complained 
of this criminal abuse of his authority. 

He not only published new enactments to check these disorders, 
but also endeavored to remove from the attendance of Protestants 
at religious instructions even the appearance of constraint; fol- 
lowing in this the advice of Bossuet, Fenelon, and other dis- 
tinguished pei'sons of the clergy, as Cardinal de Bausset relates 
in the lives of these two illustrious bishops. Even before this, so 
remote were the ideas of the king from any thing like persecution, 
that, in a letter to the Intendants of the provinces, he said in 
express terms, that he recommended to them above all to treat 
the Protestants with mildness, je vous recommande surtout de 
menarjer avec douceur les esprits de ceux de ladite religion; and, 
when information was given him that two of these govei-nors had 
followed a diffei-ent course, he severely reprimanded one, and 
recalled the other. 

But did not Louis XIV. at least commit a great political fault, 
or, as some call it, a suicidal act against Franc©, by giving occa- 
sion to so many industrious and useful subjects to leave the 
kingdom? — So indeed it seems to sevei-al persons, but on what 
grounds does not appear. Even supposing the commercial and 
pecuniary disadvantage for some parts of France to have been as 



NOTES. 739 

great as is commonly supposed, Louis XIV. may have justly 
considered it a mere trifle, when weighed in the balance against 
the security and tranquillity of the wliole kingdom. After all, 
there has evidently been much exaggeration in estimating the 
loss which France may have suffered on that occasion. Whatever 
were the complaints issued by some interested individuals, time 
and experience showed that arts, manufactures, and trade had 
scarcely suffered any sensible detriment; or it was, at least, 
quickly repaired, since from nearly that period, commerce and 
industry became moi'e and more flourishing in France, and no 
later than two years after the Edict of Kevocation, the revenues 
of the crown, without any harsh or oppressive measure, were 
augmented. Nor is it at all true tiiat the French refugees ex- 
ported much money; the richest among them had remained in 
France, and those who freely chose to emigrate were mostly 
workmen and laborers, rather requiring support from the coun- 
tries which received them, than capable of enriching their bene- 
factors, as their own historians confess (apud Caveirac, pp. 93- 
97). Nor, in fine, did they materially contrit ute, except perhaps 
in Prussia, to the splendor of foreign manufactures, which were 
flourishing and prosperous before their arrival. 

As to the number of the emigrants, it is difficult to ascertain it, 
though we may be assured that there is another gross exaggera- 
tion in the amount of above half a million asserted by Hume. 
Larrey and Benoit, two Protestant authors, admit it to have been 
of about two hundred thousand persons; but several critics think 
that it ought to be reduced, upon fair calculation, to one-fourth 
or at least one-third of that amount. Among others, the Duke of 
Burgundy, whose candor and sincerity, as well as means of re- 
search, cannot be doubted, assures us that the French refugees 
were not more than sixty-eight thousand in all; a number less 
than was carried off by a single civil war. 

So little injury was thought at the time to result to France from 
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, that Louis XIV. received 
innumerable congratulations on this account. Both subjects and 
foreigners appeared more surprised at the rapid execution of the 
measure, than at the measure itself; even the famous Bayle 
proved to his fellow exiles that it was their own conduct that had 
forced the king to revoke their privileges, and that, after all, the 
laws enacted in most Protestant countries against Catholics were 
more stern and rigorous than any published by Catholic princes 
against Protestants {Avis aux Refugies, etc.). If then the Hugue- 
nots filled the world with their invectives against the French 
government, no reasonable man will refuse to ascribe their con- 
duct rather to the dictate of passion, than to their love of truth 
and justice. For, who does not know that the guilty commonly 
complain of the tribunal by which they were condemned? And 
who will ever consider as worthy of credit the historian who, 
lending an attentive ear to these complaints and invectives of on# 
party, sets aside the victorious defence and the unexceptionable 
reasons of the other ? 



740 N0TE3. 

NOTE P. 

ON BELIGIOUS PEKSECUTION. 

To all persons ever so little acquainted with the history of the 
last ages, it must be ^matter of the greatest surprise to see the 
charge of bloody and persecuting spirit so : incessantly urged 
against the Catholic Church by those against whom it may 
be so easily and so victoriously retorted. Without mention- 
ing the rigors exercised by Frederic William III., King of 
Prussia, the oppressive yoke laid over Catholic Poland by the 
Czar Alexander II. of Kussia and his father, Nicholas, and the 
inhumanity of the former penal laws of England, etc. , what violence 
and persecution did not the Catholics of the sixteenth century 
suffer in Denmark, Sweden and Scotland, although theirs was the 
ancient and established faith, while the doctrines of their perse- 
cutors were novelties both in Church and State I What crueltieis 
were not committed against them in different parts of Germany, 
where it may be said that streams of blood marked the progress 
of the reformed religion ; — in Holland, where the sanguinary 
Vandermerk slaughtered more unoffending Catholic persons in 
the year 1572, than the severe Duke of Alva executed Protestant 
insurgents during his whole government;— in France, where the 
fury of the Huguenots, besides many particular atrocities, burnt 
nine hundred towns and villages in the province of Dauphine 
alone, and excited nine or ten civil wars, which cost the lives of 
more than two millions of men; and that, too, upon avowed 
principle, and according to the maxims laid down by the very 
authors of the reformation, Luther, Calvin, Beza, etc. 

On the contrary, we have proved, in different Notes, that 
neither the pastors, nor the tenets and principles of the Catholic 
Church, had any share in the Massacre of St. Bartholomew's 
Day, in the Gun-powder Plot, in the abuses which may have 
accidentally taken place in the Spanish Inquisition, or in the 
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Sometimes, indeed, when 
there have existed sectarians, like the Albigenses, implacable 
disturbers of the public peace, and enemies of all social and 
religious order, the Church exhorted and requested the civil 
power to repress their excesses : but this surely cannot, without 
a manifest abuse of language, be termed persecution; otherwise 
we ought to call by the same name all civil laws enacted against 
robbers and murderers. As to the acts of real persecution, 
cruelty, and violence of which some Catholics may have occasion: 
ally been guilty, they not only never met with any kind of 
encouragement or approbation from her; but she rather endeaw 
ored, as much as lay in her power, to prevent or check those 
ebullitions of individual and popular fury; and, however zealous 
to propagate the Christian faith, she always inculcated that prin^ 
ciple, which has even become a part of the Canon Law, that no 
one should embrace it by force. That this has been constantly, 
from the primitive ages down to the present time, her true spirit 
and the rule of hei conduct, may be easily shown from a great 



NOTES. 741 

rariety of facts and testimonies, even confining ourselves to such 
as are connected with the events and personages mentioned in 
the course of this history. 

The first Christian emperor, Constantine the Great, was far 
from retaliating upon the heathens the rigor which his pred- 
ecessors had exercised against the Christians. However great 
was his zeal for the diffusion of the true religion, in which he 
had been instructed by Catholic bishops, he did not so much as 
attempt to compel, but contented himself with mildly exhorting 
his subjects to embrace it, and even gave orders that no one 
should be in the least annoyed on account of his religion. See 
his life by Eusebius, b. ii. ch. 47, 48, etc. 

Another Christian emperor, Honorius, having in 410 passed 
very severe edicts to repress the hoi'rid excesses and cruelties of 
the Donatists in Africa, St. Augustine and other orthodox pre- 
lates exerted all their influence to mitigate in favor of these 
wretched people the severity of the law, and to procure their 
conversion by instructions and conferences, rather than let their 
bodies perish by capital punishment. We learn from Possidius, 
the disciple and friend of St. Augustine, in the life of this holy 
doctor (n. 14 ), that they had the satisfaction to succeed in their 
charitable undertaking. 

Pope St. Leo the Great, who lived at a time when the Church 
was attacked by very dangerous heretics, speaking of the Man- 
icheans, the worst of all, says that " the ecclesiastical lenity was 
content, even in this case, with the sacerdotal judgment, and 
avoided all sanguinary punishments." A remarkable fact had 
recently proved the truth of his assertion. It was against a 
branch of these sectarians, the Priscillians, that the secular arm 
first exerted its severity, at Triers under the emperor Maximus, 
about the year 385. This event served to show how adverse the 
Catholic Church is to the bloody spirit of persecution: Pope St. 
Siricius, and the most holy prelates of the West, blamed the rigor 
that had been exercised against the Priscillians, and the two 
bishops Ithacius and Idacius, who had obtained their condemna- 
tion in a civil court, were themselves condemned for that very 
reason in the councils of Milan (a.d. 390) and of Turin (401). 

When Ethelbert, King of Kent, was converted to the true relig- 
ion by the apostle of England, St. Austin, he had a great desire 
that all his subjects should like him embrace Christianity; but, 
as venerable Bede relates, he did not compel any one to do so, 
because he had learned from the Roman missionaries that the ser- 
vice of Christ ought to be voluntary. — Pope St. Gregory the 
Great, by whom these holy missionaries were sent to England, 
evinced on many other occasions his firm adherence to this mild 
spirit of Chnstianity. Writing to the bishop of Terracina, who 
had used some violence against the Jews, he said: "It is by 
mildness and exhortations, not by threats and terror, that the 
infidels must be induced to become Christians;" and again, to a 
patriarch of Constantinople: " This is indeed a very strange way 
of preaching, which enforces the true faith by ill-treatment!" 
Such were the principles and the constant doctrine of that holj 
pontiff. 



742 NOTES. 

St Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux and the brightest ornament of 
his age, having learned that a fanatical preacher exhorted the 
people to murder the Jews as enemies of Christianity, I'ose 
against him with all the force of his eloquence, and rescued these 
devoted victims from the danger which threatened them. Pope 
Clement VI., in a similar ebullition of popular fury, hastened to 
forbid, even under penalty of excommunication, any violence to 
be offered to them either in their persons or in their property ; 
and it is well known in general that the Jews never enjoyed 
greater protection than under the Roman Pontiffs; so much so, 
that the city of Kome, where they occupy a separate quarter, 
with mere precautions of police, has been proverbially called the 
Paradise of the Jews, 

Eobertson, in his History of America, renders full justice to the 
zeal and charity of the Spanish ecclesiastics in favor of the 
Indians of San Domingo, at the time when these unhappy people 
were harshly treated by their conquerors. " The missionaries," 
says he, "in conformity to the mild spirit of that religion which 
they were employed to publish, early remonstrated against this 
conduct.^' Besides the Dominican fathers, and the zealous Bar- 
tholomew Las Casas whose exertions in that noble cause are so 
justly renowned, the monks of St. Jerome also "neglected no 
circumstance that tended to mitigate the rigor of the yoke; and 
by their authority, their example and their exhortations, they 
labored to inspire their countrymen with sentiments of equity and 
gentleness toward the Indians." (6. in, ad ami. 1517.) 

In the fifth book of his work, the same historian relates that 
Cortez having resolved, in his march towards Mexico, to destroy 
by open force the altars and the idols of the Tlascalans, was 
checked in his inconsiderate design by Father Olmedo, a chap- 
lain to the expedition. This venerable man "represented that 
religion was not to be propagated by the sword, or infidels to be 
converted by violence; that other weapons were to be employed 
in this ministry, namely, patient instruction and pious example. 
.... The remonstrances of an ecclesiastic no less respectable for 
wisdom than virtue, had their proper weight with Cortez: he left 
the Tlascalans in the undisturbed exercise of their own rites, 
requiring only that they should desist from their horrid practice 
of offering human victims in sacrifice." 

We have already noticed the charity and mildness displayed by 
the French clergy in favor of Protestants, at the time of the 
Massacre of St. Bartholomew's day and the Eevocation of the 
Edict of Nantes. We may now make a similar remark concern- 
ing the penal statute passed, under the reign of Queen Mary, 
against her Protestant subjects, in consequence of the provoca- 
tions which she had often experienced from their inordinate zeal. 
Motives of state policy actuated, indeed, the abettors of that 
rigorous measure; but, far from being supported by any argu- 
ment from ecclesiastical authority, it was on the contrary power- 
fully opposed by Cardinal Pole in the cabinet council, and even 
by King Philip's chaplain from the pulpit. When likewise, 
Emmanuel; king of Portugal, ordered some violent measures to 
be resorted to, apparently for the good of religion, the celebrated 



NOTES. 743 

Jesuit and historian Mariana observed, that the edict was most 
repugnant to the laws and statutes of the Christian Church, 
decretum a leyibiDi et institutis Christianis abhorrens maxime, ' 

It was from these sacred statutes and laws, still more than 
from his own benevolent heart, that Fenelon drew the following 
beautiful maxims and counsels which he addressed to the son of 
King James II., called the Pretender: "Above all, never force 
your subjects to change their religion. No human power can 
reach the impenetrable recess of the free will of the heart. 
Violence can never persuade men; it serves only to make hypo-- 

crites Grant civil liberty to all, not in approving 

everything as good, nor regarding everything as indifferent, but 
in tolerating with patience whatever Almighty God tolerates, 
and endeavoring to convert men by mild persuasion." " Sur 
toutes choses, ne forcez jamais vos sujets a changer de religion. 
Nulle puissance humaine ne peut forcer le retranchement impene- 
trable de la liberte du coeur. La foi'ce ne peut jamais persuader 

les hommes; elle ne fait que des hypocrites Accordez a 

tous la tolerance civile, non en approuvant tout comme indiffer- 
ent, mais en soutfrant avec patience tout ce que Dieu souifre, et 
en tachant de ramener les hommes parune douce persuasion." 
(Vie de Fenelon, par Ramsay, p. 176; or by Cardinal Bausset, vol. 
III. p. 208). 

The same benevolent and mild spirit of Catholicity has been 
also strikingly displayed on this side of the Atlantic. To prove 
this, we need merely refer to the history of the settlers of Mary- 
land, the only one of the early British colonies that was founded 
by a body of Catholics. " Its history," says Bancroft [vol. i. p. 
268), "is the history of benevolence, gratitude, and toleration. . . 
The Eoman Catholics, who were oppressed by the laws of Eng- 
land, were sure to find a peaceful asylum in the quiet harbors of 
the Chesapeake; and there, too, Protestants were shelteied against 
Protestant intolerance." (See also Wilson, Amer. Revol. ch. ii, p. 
21.) While the Episcopalians of Virginia would suffer no other 
form of worship than their own; while the Puritans of New 
England punished with exile, fines, or tortures, the dissenters 
from their creed, the Catholics of Mai-yland alone, instead of imi- 
tating the example, invited the suffei*ers to come among them, 
and kindly received into their hospitable colony the victims of 
intolerance from the other settlements. 

Nor has the American Catholic of the present day degenerated 
from the maxims of his ancestors. However ready to defend his 
just rights against all illegal attacks and actual' violence, he is 
equally disposed never to attempt the least unjust aggression 
against persons of a different creed. How strongly soever 
attached to his faith, it is only by a fair and mild exposition of 
his doctrines that he seeks to vindicate them; being satisfied that 
the true religion neither needs nor requires to be defended or 
promoted by plots and associations, riots, and conflagrations, mis- 
representations and calumny; he would be ashamed to use, and 
he is, above all, careful not to employ such unworthy weapons 
for the support of so sacred a cause. 

How falsely, then, do the enemies of the Catholic Church 
ascribe to her a bloody and persecuting spirit, than which nothing 



744 NOTES. 

is more contrary to her constant maxims and conduct! Is it not 
rather evident that the same society to which we are indebted for 
the preservation of religion, civilization, literature, awd learning; 
for the complete revival of sciences and belles-lettres in the age of 
Leo X., and their greatest splendor in the age of Louis XIV.; for 
the most successful exertions in repelling the invasion of barbari- 
ans and saving the liberty of our European ancestors ; for the 
most useful institutions; for the most important discoveries; 
etc., enjoys also the honor of having always maintained the 
.true spirit of Christianity upon earth, and ever practised, to- 
gether with unshaken adherence to the deposit of faith, that 
effectual benevolence and genuine charity which is so much 
recommended in the Gospel ? Wonderful Providence of God 
toward mankind in the institution of his Church, that, while she 
seems to have been established only to promote our spii'itual and 
eternal welfare, she has, moreover, been rendered so zealously 
active and so vitally instrumental in procuring even our tem< 
poral happiness 1 



TABLES 



OF 



CONTEMPOMEY SOVEREIGNS. 



K.B. THE DATES MASK THE BEGnrimrG OF EACH BEIGN. 



746 



CONTEMPORAEY SOVEREIGNS. 



TABLE I. 



31 

A.D. 

14 
18 
37 
41 
50 
54 
68 
69 
69 
69 
79 
81 
90 
96 
98 
107 



117 
133 



138 



180 
189 
193 
193 

193 



211 
214 
217 



218 



222 



Cassar Augustus. 



Tiberius. 



Caligula. 
Claudius. 



Nero. 

Galba. 

Otho. 

Vitellius. 

Vespasian. 

Titus. 

Domitian. 



Nerva. 
Trajan. 



Adrian. 



Antoninus Pius. 



Marcus Aurelius. 



Commodus. 



Pertinax. 
Didius Julianus. 

Septimius Seve- 
rus. 



Caracalla. 
Macrinus. 



Heliogabalus, 



Alexander Sev- 
erus. 



Phraates. 



Artabanus I. 
Vologeses I. 



Pacorus. 
Chosroes. 

Vologeses n. 



Vologeses III. 



Artabanus I. 



Empire of the 
Parthians de- 
stroyed in 226. 



TABLE II. 



235 



306 



455 



475 



Maximin. 



Gordion 

Philip. 

Decius. 

Gallus. 

^milian. 

Valerian. 

Gallienus. 

Claudius II. 



Aurelian. 



Tacitus. 
Probus. 
Carus. 

Carinus and Nu- 
raerian. 

Diocletian and 
Maximian. 



Constantius Chlo- 
rus and Gaieri- 
us. 

Constantine the 
Great. 



226 Artaxerxes I 



Sapor I. 



Hormisdas I. 
Varanes I. 
Varanes n. 



Narses. 
Hormisdas XL 



Constantine II. 
Constans and 
Constantius. 

Julian. 

Jovian. 

Valentinian and 
Valens. 

Gratian, Valen- 
tinian 11. and 
Theodosius the 
Great. The em- 
pire is divided. 



In the West. 

Honorius. 
Valentinian III. 

Eight short 
reigns {seep. 
133). 

Romulus Augus- 
tulus. 

Fall of the West- 
ern empire in 
476. 



Sapor n. 



Artaxerxes n. 
Sapor III. 
Varanes HI. 



For the continu- 
ation see table 
HI. 



CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 



747 



TABLE III. 



39.5 
3i» 
408 
420 
440 
450 
457 

474 

488 
491 
518 
527 
531 
565 
578 
579 
582 
590 
ti02 
610 
628 
632 



Anastasius I 
Justin I. 
Justiniaa I. 



632 
634 
641 

644 
.656 



661 
668 



685 
711 
713 
716 
717 



744 



EASTERN OR 

GREEK 
EMPERORS. 



Arcadius. 
Theodosius 11. 



Marcian. 

Leo the Thra- 

cian. 
Zeno. 



Justin II. 
Tiberius II. 



Mauritius. 



Phocas. 
Heraclius. 



Constantine III. 
Constans II. 



Constantine IV., 
or Pogonatus. 

.Instinian II. 
Philippicus. 
Anastasius II. 
Tiieodosius III. 
Leo the Isaurian 



Constantine V. 
or Coprony- 
mus. 



Isdegerdes I. 

Varanes IV. 
Isdegerdes II. 

Per OSes. 



Balasces. 
Cabades. 



Chosroes I. 

Hormisdas III. 
Chosroes II. 



Siroes. 

Isdegerdes III., 
the last of the 
Sassanides. 



Mohammed, the 
false prophet. 

Arabian Caliphs. 

Abu-Bekr. 
Omar. 



Othman. 

Ali. 

Ommiades. 

Moavias. 

After his death 
there was a 
rapid succes- 
sion of twelve 
caliphs during 
the space of 
sixty-four yre., 
terminating in 



Mervan, the last 
of the Ommi 
ades. 



TABLE IV. 



919 



963 



1025 



1081 



Leo Chazarus. 



Constantine VI. 
and Irene. 



Nicephorus. 

Michael I. 

Leo the Armeni- 
an. 

Michael II. the 
Stammerer. 

Theophilus. 



EASTERN OB 

GREEK 

EMPERORS. 



Michael III. 

Basil the Mace- 
donian. 

Leo the Philoso- 
pher. 

Alexander. 

Constantine VII. 
or Porphyroge- 
netes. 

Romanus I. Le- 
capenes; and 
Constant. VII, 
continued. 

Romanus II. 

Nicephorus 
Phocas. 

John Zimisces. 

Basil II— till 

Then, after a se- 
ries of fifteen 
emperors, who 
just appeared 
and disappear- 
ed, came 



Alexius Comne- 
nus, whose long 
reign belongs 
also to the 
epoch of the 
Crusades. 



ARABIAN CA- 
LIPHS : ABAS- 
SIDES. 



Abul-Abbas. 
Abu-Giafar 

Alnianzor. 
Mohammed 

Mahadi. 



Hadi. 
Haroun-Al-Ras- 

chid. 
Amin. 

Al-MamoUi 



Mutasem. 



The succeeding 
caliphs, devoid 
of personal mer- 
it, lost an im- 
mense portion 
of their power, 
and retained lit- 
tle more than a 
certain preemi 
uence of honor. 



748 



CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 



TABLE V. 



EMPERORS OF GERMANY FROM THE RE- 
VIVAL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 



KINGS OF ENGLAND FROM THE ENS 
OF THE HEPTARCHY. 



800 
814 
827 
836 
840 
855 
857 



871 
875 



Hotise of France. 

Charlemagne. 

Louis L, the Debonnaire. 



Lothaire I. 
Louis II. 



887 
889 
894 
900 



912 



919 
924 
936 
940 
946 
955 
959 
973 
975 
978 



Charles the Bald. 



Interregnum of three years. 



Charles the Big. 
( Arnold. 
J.Quy. 
( Lambert. 

Louis III. 



House of ^anconia. 

Com-ad I. 

House of Saxony. 

Henry I., the Fowler. 
Othoi., the Great. 



Otho n. 
othoiii.' 



Anglo-Saxon Kings. 



Egbert. 
Ethelwolf, 



Ethelbald. 
Ethelbert. 
Ethelred I. 
Alfred the Great. 



Edward the Elder. 



Athelstan. 

Edmund. 
Edred. 
Edwy. 
Edgar. 

Edward the Martyr. 
Ethelred IL 



CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 



749 





TABLE VI. 


- - 


A.D. 


EMPERORS OF 
GERMANY. 


KINGS OF ENG- 
LAND. 


KINGS OF FRANCE 

from the begin- 
ning of the Ca- 
petian dynasty. 


KINGS OF SPAIN, 

from the time 
when Castile 
was erected in- 
to a kingdom. 


987 
996 
1002 

1016 

1017 

1024 
1031 
1035 
1039 

1042 

1056 
1060 
1065 
1066 

1066 

1073 
1087 


House of Ba- 
varia. 


Anglo-Saxons, 
Continued. 


Hugh Capet. 
Robert. 

Henry I. 


■ 

Ferdinand I. 

Sanchez. 

■-.■-■'. \ 

Alfonso I., in 

. CastHe, and VI., 

as king of Leon. 






Henry II. the 
Saint. 


Edmund Iron- 
sides. 

Dajiish Kings. 

Canute the 
Great. 


House of Pran- 
conia. 


Gonrad 11. 


' Henry m. 


Harold I 


Hardicanute. 

Saxon line re- 
stored. 

Edward the 
Confessor. 


Philip I. 


Henry IV. 








Harold H. 

Norman dy- 
nasty. ! 

William I the 
Conqueror. 










William II.' the 
Red. ' 







750 



CONTEMPOEARY SOVEREIGNS. 



TABLE Vn. 



EMPERORS OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 



KINGS OF JERUSALEM. 



1099 
1110 
1118 
1131 
1142 
1143 
11.52 
1173 
1180 
1183 
1185 
1186 
1195 
1203 
1204 



1204 
1206 
1206 
1219 

1222 

1228 

1255 
1259 



Alexius Comnenus. 

John Comnenus. 

Manuel Comnenus. 

Alexius II. 

Andronicus I, 

Isaac Angelas 

Alexius III. ; 

Isaac and Alexius IV. Angelus. 

Alexius Y Ducas, or Murzupblis 



Constantinople taken by the Latins. 



Baldwin I 

Henry. 

Peter de Courtenay. 

Robert de COurtenay. 

J John of Briehne. 
I Baldwin II. 



Constantinople recovered by the 
Cfreeks. 



Godfrey of Bouillon. 
Baldwin I, 
Baldwin II. 
Foulques of Anjou. 
Baldwin III. 

Almeric or Amaury. 
Baldwin IV. 



Baldwin V. 

Guy of Lusignan. 



Fall of the kingdom of Jerusalem. 



Greek Emperors at Nice. 



Theodorus Lascaris I. 



John Ducas Vataces. 



Theodorus Lascaris II. 
I John Lascaris. 
I Michael Paleologus. 



1261 
■1282 



Michael Paleologus. 
Andronic II. 



CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 



751 



TABLE VIII. 



Hovse of Fran- 
conia. 



1100 
1106 
1108 

1109 
1125 

1126 
1135 
1137 

1138 



1158 

1154 
1157 

1158 
1180 
1189 
1190 

1198 

1199 
1214 
1216 
1217 
1218 
1223 

■1226 

1250 

1252 

1256 

1270 
1272 
1273 

1284 
1285 
1292 

1295 



Conrad ni. 

House of Sudbia 

Frederic I. Bar- 
barossa. 



EMPERORS OF 
GERMANY. 



Henry V. 



Norman dynasty. 
Henry I. 



Lothaire II. the 
Saxon. 



Stephen. 



Henry VI. 
j Philip. 
1 Otho IV. 



Frederic U. 



i Conrad IV. 

\ William of 

Holland. 



Interregnum. 
Anarchy. 



•Rodolph I. of 
Hapsburg. 



Adolph of Nas- 
sau. 



KINGS OF ENG- 
LAND. 



House of Blots. 



Plantagenets 
undivided. 



Henry 11. 



Richard I. Coeur 
de Lion. 



John Lackland. 



Henry HI. 



Edward I. 



KINGS OF 
FRANCE. 



Capetian dynasty. 



Louis VI. the Big. 



Louis VII. the 
Younger. 



Philip II. Augus- 
tus. 



Louis Vin. Lion- 
hearted. 

Louis IX. or St. 
Louis. 



Philip III, the Bold. 



Philip rv. the Fair, 



KINGS OF SPAIN. 



House of Bigorre. 



Alfonso VII. 
House of Burgun- 
dy. 
Alfonso Vm. 



Sanchez III. and 

Ferdinand II. 
Alfonso fX. 



Henry I. 
Ferdinand IH. St. 



Alfonso X. the 
Wise. 



Sanchez IV. 



Ferdinand IV. 



752 



CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 



TABLE IX. 


A.D. 


EMPERORS OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 


OTTOMAN SXn^TANS. 


1300 
1326 
1328 

1341 

1360 
1389 
1391 
1402 
1406 
1413 
1421 
1425 
1448 

1451 

1481 
1512 
1520 
1566 

1574 
1595 
1603 
1617 
1618 
1623 
1640 
i648 
1687 




othman. 
Orcan. 

Amurat I. 
Bajazet I., Ilderim. 

Soliman I. 
Musa. 

Mahomet I. 
Amurat n. 

Mahomet H. 

Bajazet n. 

Selim I. 

Soliman II., the Magnificent. 

Selim II. 

Amurat III. 

Mahomet in. 

Achmet I. 

Mustapha I. 

Osman I. 

Amurat IV. 

Ibrahim. 

Mahomet IV. 

Soliman UL 




Andronicus HI. 
(John Cantacuzene and 
( John Paleologus I. 




Manuel Paleologus. 








John Paleologus 11. 
Constantine Paleologus, or Draga- 
zes. 

1 

Fall of the Greek Empire, 



























CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 



753 



TABLE X. 



1398iAlbert I. of Aus- 
tria. 
1307 
1308 



1312 

1314 

1316 
1322 
1327 
1328 



131' 
1350 
1364 

1368 
1377 

1378 



1380 
1390 
1399 
1400 

1406 
1410 
1413 
1423 



1438 
1440 
1454 
1461 
1474 

1483 



1486 
1493 
1498 
1504 
1509 



EMPERORS OF 
GERMANY. 



Henry Vn. of 
Luxemburg. 



{Frederic of 
Austria. 
Louis of Bava- 
ria. 



House of Lux^ 
emburg, 

Charies IV. 



Wenceslaus. 



Robert, Count 
Palatine. 



Sigismund. 



House of Aus- 
tria. 
Albert II. 
Frederic III. 



Maximilian I. 



KINGS OP ENG- 
LAND. 



Plantagenets. 
Edward n. 



Edward m. 



Louis X. 



John I., Philip V, 
Charles IV. 
House of Valois. 



Philip 



John n 

Charles V., the 
Wise. 



Richard 11. 

House of Lan- 
caster. 



Henry IV. 



Henry V. 
Henry VL 



House of York. 



Edward IV. 



J Edward V. 
( Richard III. 

House of Tudor. 
Henry VH. 



Henry VHI. 



KINGS OP 
PRANCE. 



Capetians. 



Charles VI. 



Charles VH. 



Louis XI. 



Charles VHI. 
Valois-Orlians, 



Louis XII> 



Pedro the Cruel. 



Henry II., Trasta- 
mare. 



KINGS OP 
SPAIN. 



House of Bur- 
gundy. 



Alfonso XI. 



Juan I. 
Henry HI. 



Juan n. 



Henry IV. 

Isabella and 
Ferdinand V. 

Castile and Arra- 
gon united. 

fPhihp I. of Aus- 
J tria, and Fer- 
I dinand V. of 
t Arragon. 



754 



CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 



TABLE XI. 



1689 
1691 
1695 
1701 
1702 
1713 
1725 
1757 
1730 

1740 
1741 
1754 
1767 
1763 
1774 
1786 

1789 
1796 
1797 
1801 
1807 
1808 
1809 
1817 
1835 
182fl 
1837 
1839 
1840 

1841 
1845 
1849 
1853 
'1855 
1857 
1861 
1865 



1876 

1877 
1881 
1885 
1888 
1889 
1893 
1894 
1897 
1901 



Selim III. 



OTTOMAN SUL- 
TANS. 



Achmet 11. 
Mustapha n. 



Peter I. 
Great. 



Achmet III. 



Mahomet V. or 
Mahmoud I. 



Osman II. 
Mustapha III. 



Abdul-Hamid. 



Mustapha IV. 
Mahmoud II. 



Abdul Med j id. 



Abdul Aziz. 



( Araurath V. 
-( Abdul-Hamid 
I II. 



EMPERORS AND 

EMPRESSES OF 

RUSSIA. 



the 



Catherine I. 
Peter n. 
Anne. 



Iwan 

Elizabeth. 



Peter II.— Cathe- 
rine II. the Great 



Frederic I. 



Frederic Wil- 
liam I. 



Frederick II. the 
Great. 



Fred. William XL 



Paul. 
Alexander. 



Nicholas. 



Alexander II. 



Alexander m. 



Nicholas II. 



KINGS OF 
PRUSSIA. 



Fred. William III. 



Frederic Wil- 
liam IV. 



William I. 



j Frederick III. 
1 William U. 



PRESIDENTS OF 
THE UNITED 

STATES. 



Washington, 

first president 
John Adams. 
Jefferson. 



Madison. 

Monroe. 

John Q. Adams. 

Jackson. 

Van Buren. 



Harrison, Tyler. 

Polk. 

Taylor, Fillmore. 

Pierce. 

Buchanan. 
Lincoln. 
Johnson. 
Grant. 



Hayes. 

Garfield, Arthur. 
Cleveland. 

B. Harrison. 
Cleveland. 

McKinley. 
Roosevelt. 



CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 



755 



TABLE Xn. 



1515 
1516 
1519 
1547 
1553 
1556 
1558 
1559 
1560 
1564 
1574 

1576 
1589 

1598 
1603 
1610 
1612 
1619 
1621 
1625 
1637 
1643 

1649 

1658 

1660 

1665 
1685 

1689 

1700 
1702 



1705 
1711 
1714 
1715 
1727 
1740 



EMPERORS OF 
GERMANY. 



KINGS AND QUEENS 
OP ENGLAND. 



House of Aus- 
tria, continued. 



Charles "V. 



Ferdinand I. 



Maximilian II. 



Rodolph II. 



Matthias. 
Ferdinand II. 



Ferdinand III. 



Leopold I. 



Joseph I. 
Charles V. 



Charles VIL of 
Bavaria. 



House of Tudor, 
continued. 



Edward VI. 
Mary. 



Elizabeth. 



House of Stuart. 



James I. 



Charles I. 



Commonwealth. 
Cromwell, pro- 
tector. 

Restoration. 
Charles n. 



James II. 

lution. 
J Mary and 
) WiUiam UI. 



Revo- 



Anne. 



Hov^e of Hanover 

or Brunswick. 
George I. 



George II. 



KINGS OF FRANCE. 



Valois — Angou- 
leme. 

Francis I. 



Henry II. 



Francis U. 
Charles IX. 

Henry IH. 

House of Bourbon. 
Henry IV. the 
Great. 



Louis XTTT. 



Louis XrV. the 
Great. 



Louis XV. 



KINGS OF SPAIN. 



House of Austria. 



Charles I ; same as 
Charles V.m Gter 
many. 



Philip n. 



Philip m. 



Philip IV. 



Charles n. 

House of Bourbon. 

Philip V. 



756 



CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 



TABLE Xn.- 


— CONTDJUKD. 




A.D. 


EMPERORS OF 
GERMANY. 


KINGS AND QUEENS 
OP ENGLAND. 


KINGS OF FRANCE. 


KINGS AND (jITEENS 
OF SPAIN. 


1745 
1746 
1759 
1760 
1765 
1774 
1788 
1790 
1792 
1793 
1799 

1804 

1806 
1808 

1814 
1820 
1824 

1830 
1833 
1835 
1837 

1843 
1848 

1852 

1869 
1870 

1871 
1873 
1874 
1879 
1886 
1887 

1888 
1894 
1895 
1899 


House of Lor- 
raine. 

Francis I. 


House of Hanover 
or Brunswick. 


House of Bourbon. 


House of Bourbon. 

Ferdinand VI. 
Charles UI. 

Charles IV. 

Forced abdication 
Spain "Invaded, 
Ferdinand VII. 

Civil war and Re- 
volutions. 
Regency of Queen 

Christina- 
Then, of Espar- 

tero. 
Isabella. 

Republic, 
Marshal Serrano. 

Regent. 

House of SavQy. 

Amadeus. 

Alfonso XII. 
Alfonso XIII. 










George in. 


Louis XVI. 


Joseph II. 






Leopold n. 
Francis 11. 




Revolution. 
Republic. 
Louis XVII. 
Napoleon, First 

Consml. 
Napoleon, Empe- 
ror. 








Empire of Aus- 
tria. 
Francis. 










Restoration. 
Louis XVIII. 

Charles X, 
Branch of Or- 
leans. 
Louis Philippe. 




George IV. 






William IV 




Ferdinand. 












Francis Joseph. 




New Revolution 

and Republic. 
Louis Napoleon, 

President. 
Louis Napoleon, 

or Napoleon III., 

Emperor. 








German 
Emperors. 

William I 








Republic, 

M. Thiers, Pres. 

Mar'l. MacMahon. 














M.Gr6vy. 










Sadi-Carnot. 

>simir-P6rier. 
^. Faure. 
M. Loubet 


( Frederick I. 
1 William n. 













CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 



MEMORABLE EVENTS AND REMARKABLE 
PERSONAGES. 



N. B. The dates in the first column denote the years in which 
the events happened; — those placed in the second column mark 
the years in which the persons mentioned there died. 



PART I. 



B.C. MEMORABLE EVENTS. 

31 Battle of Actium. 

29 Change of the Roman Re- 
public into an Empire. 

20 Roman Ensi^s recovered 
from the Parthians. 

8 Temple of Janus shut. 
BIRTH OF CHRIST. 

A.D. 

4 Conspiracy of Cinna. 

9 Defeat of Varus in Ger- 

many. 
15 German War. 
31 Conspii-acy of Sejanus. 
33 Passion of our Saviour — 

Descent of the Holy 

Ghost — Foundation of 

the Church. 
43 Invasion of Great Britain. 
60 Conquest of Armenia. 
64 First persecution against 

the Church. 

70 Siege and destruction of 
Jerusalem. 

79 Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. 

93 Second persecution. 
106 Third persecution. [Jews. 
136 Final overthrow of the 



B.C. EEM ARK ABLE PEESON AGES. 

Cicero — Sallust — Varro — Corne- 
lius Nepos, died about this 
time, or a little before. 

Toung Marcellus died, b. c. 23 
—Virgil, poet, 19 — Agrippa, 
general, 12 — Drusus, general, 
9 — Horace, poet, 8 — Maecenas, 
statesman, 8. 

A.D. 

Livy, historian, died A. d. 17— 
Ovid, poet, 17 — Arminius, 
general, — Germanicus, 19— 
Strabo, geographer, 25-^Livia, 
empress, 29 — Velleius-Pater- 
cuius, historian, 31 — Phae- 
drus, fabulist. 

— Quintus Curtius, histO' 

rian. 
. . . — Philo. Jewish doctor, .. . 

Perseus, poet, 62 — Lucan, poet, 
65 — Seneca, philosopher, 65— 
Corbulo, general, 66 — Sueton- 
ius-Paulinus. 

. . . .—St. Peter and St. ..Paul, 
Apostles, 67. 

Pliny, the Elder, naturalist, 79 
— Agricola, genei'al, 93 — Jose- 
phus, historian,.... — Quin- 
tilian, rhetorician..,. — St 



757 



758 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



X.T). 



MEMORABLE: EVENTS. 



162 Fourth persecution. 

174 Miracle of the Tliundei'ing 
Legion. 

193 The empire put up at auc- 
tion. 

197 Battle of Lyons between 
Severus and Albinus. 

202 Fifth persecution. 

226 Fall of the Parthian empire 
— New kingdom of Per- 
sia. 

23.5 Sixth persecution. 

249 Seventh persecution. 

257 Eighth persecution. 

260 Captivity of Valerian. 

262 Universal and dreadful 
pestilence. 

273 Destruction of Palmyra. 

275 Ninth persecution. 

286 Martyrdom of the Theban 
Legion. 

303 Tenth and last general per- 
secution, the most 
bloody of all. 



REMARKABLE PERSONAGES. 

John, the Evangelist, 101 — St. 
Ignatius, bishop and martyr, 

107 — Tacitus, historian — 

Pliny the Younger . . — Ju- 
venal, poet, 128 — Plutarch, 
historian, 140 — Justin, histo- 
rian .... 

St. Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna 
and martyr, 166— St. Justin, 
martyr, 167. 

Between 140 and 180, died 
Ptolemy the astronomer — Ar- 
rian, the historian, and 
Lucian, the- satirist. 

Galenus, physician, about 200. 

St. Irenseus, bishop of Lyons,. 
202 — Clement of Alexandriaj 
doctor, 216 — Tertullian, about 
220. 

Dio-Cassius, historian, about 
230. 

St. Cornelius, pope and martyr, 
252— Origen, 253— St. Cyprian, 
archbishop of Carthage, 258— 
St. Lawrence, martyr, 258. 

Plotinus, philosopher, 270— 
Longinus, rhetorician, 273 — 
Zenobia, queen. 



PART II. 



312 Victory of Constantine 
over Maxentius — Tri- 
umph of Christianity. 

323 Licinius repeatedly de- 
feated and finally over- 
thrown by Constantine 

325 First General Council, at 
Nice. 

330 Foundation of Constanti- 
nople. 

351 Battle of Mursa. 

363 The attempt of Julian to 
rebuild the temple of 
Jerusalem, defeated by 
a splendid prodigy — His 
campaign and death in 
Persia. 

378 Battle of Adrianople. 

381 Second General Council at 
Constantinople. 



Arnobius, rhetorician and doc- 
tor, about 320. 

Lactantius, historian and doc- 
tor, about 328. 

Eusebius, historian and contro- 
versialist, 338 or 339. 



St. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, 
368 — St. T^.thanasius, Patriarch 
of Alexandria, 373 — St. Basil, 
archbishop of Caesarea, 379. 



Betwee'i 364 and 394, died 
the historians Eutropius, 
Ammianus Marcellinus and 
Aur«lius Victor. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



759 



A. D. MEMORABLE EVENTS. 

388 Defeat and death of the 
usurper Maxinius. 

390 Fault and repentance of 
Theodosius. 

394 Miraculous victory of 

Theodosius over Eugen- 
ius and Arbogastes. 

395 Final division of the em- 

, pire. 
402-5 Defeat of the Goths in 

Italy. 
406-9 Gaul and Spain invaded 
by the Vandals and 
other barbarians. 
410 Rome taken and plun- 
dered by the Goths. 

418 They settle in the South- 
ern provinces of Gaul. 

420 Beginning of the French 

monarchy. 

421 Roman troops entirely 

withdrawn from Great 
Britain — Inroads of the 
Picts and Scots. 

430 Africa subdued by the 

Vandals. 

431 Third General Council at 

Ephesus. 

438 Publication of the Theodo- 
sian code. 

451 Ravages of the Huns — Bat- 
tle of the Catalaunian 
plains. 

451 Fourth General Council, at 

Chalcedon. 

452 Pope St. Leo before Attila 

— Foundation of Venice. 

455 Rome plundered by the 
Vandals. 

455 First establishment of the 
Anglo-Saxons in Great 
Britain. 

472-3 Spain conquered by the 
Visigoths. 

476 Fall of the Western em- 
pire 



EEM ARK ABLE PERSONAGES. 

St. Cyril, archbishop of Jerusa- 
lem, 386 — St. Gregory Nazian- 
zen, archbishop of Constanti- 
nople, 389 — St. Gregory, 
bishop of Nyssa, 396. 

Rufinus, statesman, 395 — St. 
Ambrose, archbishop of 
Milan, 397 — St. Epiphanius, 
archbishop of Sal am is, 403 — 
St. John Chrysostom, arch- 
bishop of Constantinople. 



407 — Stilico, general 
statesman, 408. 



and 



Alaric, king of the Goths, 410— 
Rufinus of Aquileia, historian, 
410 — Prudentius, poet, 410— 
Claudian, poet, and Macro- 
bius, histoi'ian, about 415. 

Sulpitius Severus, historian, 420 

St. Jerome, doctor of the 
Church, 420, — Constantius, 
general and statesman, 421 — 
St. Augustine, bishop of 
Hippo, 430. 

Count Boniface, General, 432. 

Socrates, historian, about 440 — 
St. Cyril, patriarch of Alex- 
andria, 444 — St. Peter Chryso- 
logus, archbishop of Ravenna, 

450 Sozomen, historian, 

about 450. 



St. Pulcherla, empress, 453— 
Attila, king of the Huns, 453 — 
^tius, general, 454. 

St. Patrick, apostle of Ireland, 
about 460 



Theodoret, bishop of Cyra, 458 

— St. Leo the Great, pope, 

461. 
Ricimer, general and statesman, 

472. 
Gaiseric, king of the Vandals, 

477. 



760 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



PART III. 



A.D. MEMORABLE EVENTS. 

486-96 Conquests of the Franks 
in Gaul — Their con- 
version to Christian- 
ity. 

489-93 Ostrogoths in Italy. 

526 Tremendous earthquakes — 
Overthrow and rebuild- 
ing of Antioch. 

529 Justinian code. 

532 First use of the Christian 
era in Italy, 

534 Kingdon of the Yandals 
destroyed. 

551 Silk manufacture brought 
from India to Europe. 

553 Fifth General Council at 
Constantinople. 

553-4 Kingdom of the Ostro- 
goths destroyed — Battle 
of Casilino. 

568 The Lombards in Italy — 
Exarchate of Ravenna 
remains to the Greeks. 

576 Battle of Meliteue— Signal 
defeat of the Persians. 

584 Extraordinary inundations 
in Italy. 

587 Conversion of the Visigoths 
to the true faith. 

592 Bloody revolutions in 
Persia. 

597 Anglo-Saxons begin to em- 
brace Christianity. 

602 Tragical end of the em- 
peror Mauritius and his 
family. 

614-15 Ravages of the Persians 
in Syria and Palestine. 

622, et seg. Exploits of Herac- 
llus against the 
Persians. 

622 Rise of Mohammedanism. 

634 Saracens invade Syria. 

636 Persia. 

6a7 Palestine. 

639 Mesopota- 

mia. 

640 Egypt. 

641 Burning of the Alexan- 

drian library. 



REMARKABLE PERSkJNAGES. 

St. Sidonius ApoUinaris, bishop 
of Clermont, 482 — Evaric, 
king of the Visigoths, 484— 
Odoacer, king of Italy, 493. 

Clovis, king of the Franks, 511 
— Boethius, philosopher and 
statesman, 524 — Theodoric, 
king of the Ostrogoths, 526— 
Amalasontha, queen, 535. 

St. Fulgentius, bishop of Rusp, 
533. 

Dionysius Exiguus, the monk, 
54rf— St. Benedict, founder of 
the Benedictine order, 543. 

Totila and Teias, kings of the 
Ostrogoths, 553-54. 

Cassiodorus, statesman and 
doctor, 562 — Procopius, His- 
torian; Belisarius, general, 565 
— Narses, general, 568. 

Alboin, king of the Lombards, 
574. 



Evagrius, historian— St. Greg- 
ory of Tours, historian, 595 
— St. Gregory the Great, pope, 
604 — St. Augustine, first arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, 607. 

Fortunatus, poet, 609. 



St. Isidore, archbishop of Se- 
ville, 636— St. Sophronius, pa- 
triarch of Jerusalem, 638. 

About the middle of the 7th 
century, four celebrated Mus- 
sulman generals, Abu-Obeyda, 
Kaled, Amrou, Saad. 

Shortly after, four others, Mo- 
avias, Oucba, Zuheir, 4ssan. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



761 



A.D. 
651 

67a 



680 
697 



711 



718 



732 



752 



755 

756 

763 
774 

787 

796 



800 



MEMOKABLE EVENTS 

Extinction of the second 
Persian monarchy. 

Invention of the Greek 
fire — Siege of Constanti- 
nople during seven 
years. 

Sixth General Council, at 
Constantinople. 

Northern Africa, subju- 
gated by the Sai-acens — 
Destruction of Car- 
thage. 

Invasion of Spain — Battle 
of Xeres, which put an 
end to the kingdom of 
the Visigoths. 

Saracens defeated by land 
and sea, near Constanti- 
nople. 

Battle of Tours — New de- 
feat of the Saracens — 
Germany receives the 
light of the Gospel. 

Merovingian family suc- 
ceeded on the throne of 
France by the Dynasty 
of Carlovingian kings — 
Exai'chate of Ravenna 
conquered by the Lom- 
bards. 

Temporal dominion of the 
Popes. 

Foundation of the kingdom 
of Cordova in Spain. 

Excessive cold and heat. 

Extinction of the kingdom 
of the Lombards. 

Seventh General Council, 
at Nice. 

The Saxons subdued, and 
the Avari prostrated by 
the arms of Charle- 
magne 

Charlemagne crowned em- 
peror of the West. 



BEMABKABLE PEESONAGE8. 



Callinicus, chemist, about 675. 



Pepin of Heristel, statesman 
and general, 714. 



Venerable Bede, doctor and 
historian, 735 — Charles-Martel, 
duke of France, 741 — Lutt- 
prand, king of the Lombards, 
743 — St. Zaehary, pope, 752. 



St. Boniface, apostle of Ger- 
many, 755. 



Pepin, king of France, 768. 



St. John Damascene, doctor of 

the Church, 780. 
Adrian I., pope, 795. 



Witikind, Saxon general, about 

800. 



811 



827 



PART IV 



The emperor Nicephorus 
defeated and slain by 
the Bulgarians. 

End of the English Hep- 
tarchy. 



Paul of Aquileia, historian, 801 
Alcuin, doctor, 804. 



762 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



A.D HEMOBABLB EVENTS. 

841 Battle of Fontanet. 

857 Commencement of the 
Greek schism. 

869 Eighth General Council, at 
Constantinople. 

878 King Alfred compelled to 
take refuge in a small 
island; then defeats the 
Danes, and recovers his 
kingdom. 

012 Imperial crown transferred 
from the French to the 
German princes — Nor- 
mans take possession of 
Neu stria. 

921 Battle of Jonquera — Chris- 
tians of Spain defeated 
by the Moors. 

939 Battle of Simancas — Moors 
defeated by the Chris- 
tians. 

965 Battle of Mersburg; Hun- 
garians completely de- 
feated by Otho I. 

971 Tremendous battle of 

Drista between the 
Greeks and the Russians. 

972 Fatimites in Egypt. 

987 Capetian kings in France. 

—Invention of clocks 

with balance. — Gothic 

Cathedrals. 
1018 Normans in Italy. 
1022 Invention of the Gamut, or 

scale of musical notes. 



1030 First conquests of the Sel- 
jukian Turks. 

1035 The kingdoms of Castile 
and Arragon begin. 

1053 Renewal of the Greek- 
schism by Michael 
Cserularius. 

1086 Battle of Hastings; Eng- 
land conquered by the 
Normans. 

1085 Toledo taken from the 
Saracens. 

1095 Rise of the kingdom of 
Portugal. 



KEMARKABLE PERSONAGES. 

Eginhard, historian, about 842. 

Rabanus, archbishop of Mentz, 
856 — Lupus, abbot of Ferri- 
eres, doctor, 862 — Paschasius 
Radbertus, doctor, 865. 

Anastasius, the librarian, 880. 



Photius, first author of the 
Greek schism, about 892 — 
Alphonso III., king of Oviedo 
in Spain, 912. 



Rollo, Norman chieftain, 932. 



Abderahman, III., king of Cor- 
dova, 961 — St. Bruno, arch- 
bishop of Cologne and states- 
man, 965 — Flodoardus, histor- 
ian, 966. 

Fernando Gonzalez, count, sov- 
ereign of Castile, 979 — Maho- 
met Almanzor, Saracen gen- 
eral, 998. 

Sylvester ll. (Gerbert), pope, 

1003, 
Guy, monk of Arezzo, about 

1025. 
Fulbert, bishop of Chartres, 

1029. 



St. Peter Damian, cardinal and 
doctor, 1072. 

St. Gregory VII. (Hildebrand;, 
pope 1085 — Lanfrancus, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, 1089. 

Rodriguez Diaz de Bivar (El 
Cid), general, about 1095 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



7C3 



PART V. 



A.D. MEMOEABLE EVENTS. 

1095 Council of Clermont — 
First Crusade. 

1097 Siege of Nice, and battle 

of Dorylseum. 

1098 Siege of Antioch, and bat- 

tle of Orontes. 

1099 Siege of Jerusalem, and 

battle of Ascalon. 
Kingdom of Jerusalem. 
Knights Hospitallers of 
St. John, 
1118 Knights-Templars. 
1147 Second Crusade. 

1169 British enter Ireland. 

1170 Military order of St. 

James. 

1187 The Christians defeated 

by Saladin in the battle 
of Tiberias. 
Fall of the Kingdom of 
Jerusalem. 

1188 Third Crusade. 
1190 Teutonic Order. 
1196 Fourth Crusade. 
1200 Fifth Crusade. 

1204 Latin empire of Constan- 
tinople. 

1212 Prodigious victory of the 
Christians of Spain over 
the Moors at Murandal. 

1214 Battle of Bouvines, in 
which Philip Augustus 
conquers all his ene- 
mies. 

1217 Sixth Crusade, 

1220 Battle of the Jaxartes, 
between Genghis-Kliau 
and Sultan Mohammed. 



1230 Opposite parties of the 
Guelfs and Ghibeliues in 
Italy. — Mariner's com- 
pass, invented some 
time before, began to be 
used. 

1248 Seventh Crusade. 

1250 Captivity of St. Louis. 



BEMABKABLE PEBSOKAGSS. 



Adhemar de Monteil, bishop of 
Puy, A.D. 1098. 

Urban II, pope, 1099.— St. Bru- 
no, founder of the Carthusian 
Order, 1101. — Raymond, count 
of Toulouse, 1105.— Robert, 
earl of Flanders; and Bohe- 
mond, Prince of Tarentum 
and Antioch, 1111. — Tancred, 
warrior, 1112. — Peter the Her- 
mit, 1115. — Robert, duke of 
Normandy, 1184, 

William of Malmesbury, histo- 
rian, towards 1150. — Suger, 
abbot of St. Denis, 1152.— St. 
Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, 
1153, 

Nouradin, conqueror, 1174. — 
Alexander III., pope, 1181. — 
William, archbishop of Tyre, 
historian, about 1191. — Sala- 
din, conquei'or, 1193. — Dan- 
dolo, doge of Venice, 1205. — 
Averi'oes, Arabian philoso- 
pher, 1206, 

Maimonides, Jewish rabbi, 
1209, 

Villehardouin, historian, 1212. 

Innocent III., pope, 1216. 

Simon de Montfort, general, 
1218. 

St. Dominic, founder of the 
Dominicans, 1221. 

St. Francis of Assisium, foun- 
der of the Franciscans, 1226. 

Genghis Khan, Mogul conquer- 
or, 1227. 



Blanche of Castile, q^aeeri; 1252. 



764 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



1258 



1261 

1268 
1270 



MEMOBABLE EVENTS. 

Bagdad taken by the 
Moguls; end of the 
Arabian Caliphate. 

Fall of the Latin Empire 
of Constantinople. 

Eighth and last Crusade. 

Death of St. Louis. 



BEMABKABLE PEBS0NAGE8. 

Matthew Paris, historian, 1259 



PART VI. 



1291 Final overthrow of the 
Christian power in Syria 
— Invention of gunpow- 
der about this time; — 
also, according to many, 
of the magnifying glass 
and spectacles. 

1300 Rise wf the Ottoman Em- 
pire. 

1308 Commencement of Swiss 
independence. 
Conquest of Rhodes by 
the Knights of St. John. 

1312 Suppression of the 

Knights Templars. 

1313 Battle of Bannockburn, in 

which the Scots signally 
defeated the English. 
1315 Battle of Morgarten, 
which secured the inde- 
pendence of Switzer- 
land. 
1340 Awful and complete over- 
throw of the Moors at 
Tarifa. 
1348 Universal and dreadful 

pestilence. 
1340 Battles of Sluys, 
1346 Crecy, Nevil's Cross, 
1356 Poitiers, i oc 

1367 Navarrete j |" 

1372 English fleet destroyed by 
the Spaniards near La 
Rochelle. 

1396 Signal defeat of the Chris- 

tians, at Nicopolis. 

1397 Treaty of Calmar for the 

union of Denmark, Swe- 
den and Norway. 
1402 Tremendous battle of An- 
cyra between Sultan 
Bajazet I. and Tamer- 
lane. 



St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Bo- 

naventure, doctors of the 

Church, 1274. 
Charles of Anjou, conqueror of 

Naples and Sicily, 1285. 
Roger Bacon, mathematician, 

astronomer, etc., 1294. 



Joinville, historian, 1318 — Dante 
poet, 1321 — Robert Bruce, king 
of Scotland, 1329. 



Petrarch, poet, 1374 — Edward, 
prince of Wales, 1377— Ber- 
trand du Guesclin, general, 
1380. 



Tamerlane, the Tartar con- 
queror, 1405. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



765 



A-D. MEMORABLE EVENTS. 

1429 Siege of Orleans. 

1440 Invention of the art of 
printing. 

1450-1453 The English defeated 
at Fourmigny and 
Chatillon — Lose 
their possessions 
in France. 

1453 Fall of Constantinople. 

1456 Siege of Belgrade — Ma- 
homet repulsed with 
great loss. 

1461 Destruction of the empire 
of Trebizond. 

1480 First siege of Rhodes. 

1492 Extinction of the power 
of the Moors in Spain. 



REMARKABLE PERSONAGES. 

Margaret, queen of Sweden and 
Denmark, 1412. 

Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans, 

1431. 
Hunyadis, general, 1456. 



Scanderbeg, prince of Albania, 

1467. 
Guttenberg, Faust, Shceffer, 

first printers. 

Thomas a Kempis, 1471. 

Warwick, general, 1471 — Marga- 
ret of Anjou, queen of Eng- 
land, 1482. 

Matthias Corvinus, king of Hun- 
gary, 1490. 



PART VII. 



1492 
1497 

1497 

1509. 
1515 

1517 

1517 

1519 
1521 

1522 
1525 

1529 

1530 

1531 
1534 
1534 

1534 



Discovery of America. 
Discovery of the Northern 

American continent. 
Discovery of the Cape of 

Good Hope. 
League of Cambray. 
Battle of Marignano. 
The Protestant Reforma- 
tion. 
Egypt subdued by the 

Turks. 
First circumnavigation of 

the globe. 
Conquest of Mexico. 
Second siege of Rhodes. 
Battle of Pavia; Francis 

I. taken prisoner. 
First siege of Vienna by 

the Turks. 
Malta ceded to the 

Knights of St. John. 

Conquest of Peru. 

England separates from 

the See of Rome. 
Foundation of the Order 

of the Jesuits. 



Picus, prince of Mirandola, 1494 
— Peter d'Aubusson, grand- 
master of the Order of St. 
John, 1503 — Christopher Col- 
umbus, 1506 — Gonzalez of 
Cordova, general, 1512 — Bra- 
mante, architect, 1514 — Albu- 
querque the Great, conqueror 
of the East Indies, 1515 — Xim- 
enes, cardinal and statesman, 
1517— Magellan, 1520— Leo X 
(Medicis) Pope, 1521— Emman- 
uel the Great, King of Por- 
tugal, 1521, Bayard, warrior, 
1524 — Vasco da Gama, 1525. 

Zuinglius, 1531 — Ariosto,^ poet, 
1533 — Wolsey, cardinal, states- 
man, 1-533 — Villiers d'Isle 
Adam, grand-master of the 
Order of St. John, 1534— Caje- 
tan, cardinal, divine, 1534 — 
Fisher, bishop of Rochester, 
and Thomas More, chancel- 
lor, 1535 — Erasmus, divine, 
1536 — Garcilaso de la Vega, 
poet, 1536^Guicciardini, hiS' 
torian, 1540. 



766 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



A.l>. 
1545 



1556 
1557 



1558 



1565 
1571 
1572 

1580 

1581 

1582 



1587 

1588 
1590 

1610 
1620 

1626 

1607 
1608 

1613 
1630 



HEMOKABLB EVENTS. 

Opening of the Council of 

Trent, the last but one 

general council. 
Abdication of Charles V. 
The French defeated by 

the Spaniards, at St. 

Quentin. 
The French recover Calais 

from the English. 



Siege of Malta. 

Battle of Lepanto. 

Massacre of St. Bartholo- 
mew's day. 

Portugal annexed to 
Spain. 

Republic of Holland pro- 
claimed. 

Reformation of the Calen- 
dar. 



Unjust execution of Mary 
Stuart, queen of Scot- 
land. 

Defeat of the Spanish 
Armada. 

Invention of the telescope 
by Jansen. 

Invention of the thermom- 
I eter and the microscope 
by Drebbel. 

Invention of the barome- 
ter by Torricelli. 

Beginning of the English 
I and French settlements 
in North America. 

Foundation of Nevr Am- 
sterdam, or New York. 

Foundation of Boston. 



REMARKABLE PEKSONAGES. 

Francis Pizarro, conqueror, 1541 
— Copernicus, astronomer, 
1543— Luther, 1546 — Hernando 
Cortez, conqueror, 1547 — St. 
Francis Xavier, the apostle of 
East Indies and Japan, 1552 — 
St. Ignatius of Loyola, found- 
er of the society of Jesus, 1556 
— Pole, cardinal, 1558 — Julius 
Scaliger, physician, philoso- 
pher, etc., 1559— Cranmer, 1556 
— Robert Stephen, printer, 
1559— Calvin, 1564. 



Michael Angelo, painter and 
architect, 1564-^Vida, poet, 
1566 — John la Valette, grand- 
master of St. John, 1568 — S. 
Pius v., pope, 1572 — D. Juan 
of Austria, general, 1578 — 
Camoens, poet, 1579 — Ferdi- 
nand Alvarez,, duke of Alva, 
general, 1582 — St. Teresa, 
foundress of the Carmelites, 
1582— St. Charles Borromeo, 
archbishop of Milan, 1584— 
Gregory XIIL, pope, 1585— F. 
Louis Granada, divine, 1588 — 
Sixtus v., pope, 1590. 

Alexander Farnese, duke of 
Parma, general, 1592 — Tasso, 
poet, 1595 — Drake, admiral, 
1596. 

Tycho-Brahe, astronomer, 1601 — 
Baronius, cardinal, historian, 
1607 — Joseph Scaliger, histo- 
rian, poet, etc., 1609 — Casau- 
bon, historian, divine, etc., 
1614 — F. Alfonso Rodriguez, 
divine, 1616 — Shakspeare, dra- 
matic poet, 1616 — Cervantes, 
Spanish writer, about the 
same time — Suarez, divine, 
1617 — Duperron, cardinal, con- 
troversialist, 1 6 1 8 — Bellar- 
mine, cardinal, controversial- 
ist, 1621— St. Francis de Sales, 
founder of the Visitation, 
1622 — Mariana, historian, 1624. 

Herrera, historian, 1625 — Bacon, 
philosopher, jurist, 1626, 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



767 



1634 

1648 
1649 



MEMORABLE EVENTS. 

Foundation of the colony 

of Maryland. 
Treaty of Westphalia. 
King Charles I. beheaded. 

— -('ommonwealth in 

England. 



1658 
1659 

1669 

1672 

1674 

1674 S 
1675) 

1676 



1679 
1680 
1682 

1683 



1685 

1686 
1688 
1690 

1690 
1692' 



1692 
1693 



by 



of 
and 



Battle of Dunes. 

Treaty of Pyrenees be- 
tween France and Spain. 

Conquest of Candia by 
the Turks. 

Invasion of Holland 
the French. 

Battle of Senef. 

Brilliant campaigns 
Turenne in Alsace 
Germany. 

Sea-fights near Messina 
between the French and 
the Dutch. 

Peace of Nimeguen. 

Foundation of Charleston. 

Foundation of Philadel- 
phia. 

Second siege of Vienna; 
Turks repelled with 
immense loss. 

Eevocation of the Edict 
of Nantes. 

League of Augsburg. 

Revolution in England. 

Battle of Boyne in Ireland. 

Naval battles of La Man- 
che and La Hogue; 
French victorious in the 
first, defeated in the 
second. 

Splendid victories of Mar- 
shal Luxembourg over 
the allies at Steinkirk 
and Nerwinde. 



BEMABKABLE PERSOXAOES. 



Kepler, astronomer, 1630 — Spi- 
nola, general, 1630 — Tilly, gen- 
eral, 1632 — Gustavus Adolphus, 
king of Sweden, 1632 — Wal- 
stein, general 1634, 

Cornelius a Lapide, divine, 1637 
— Jansenius, 1638 — Kubens, 
painter, 1640 — Sully, states- 
man, 1641 — Richelieu, cardi- 
nal, statesman, 1642 — Galileo, 
astronomer,1642— Bentivoglio, 
. historian, 1644 — Grotius, civi- 
lian, divine, 1645 — Gerard Vos- 
sius, historian, 1649 — Descar- 
tes, metaphysician, philoso- 
pher, 1650 — Montrose, general, 
1650-— Petavius, divine, histo- 
rian, etc., 1652 — Van-Tromp, 
admii-al, 1653 — Usher, histo- 
rian, 1655 — Gassendi, mathe- 
matician, philosopher, 1655 — 
Blake, admiral, 1657 — Harvey, 
physician, 1657 — St. Vincent 
de Paul, founder of the Laza- 
rists, and of the Sisters of 
Charity, 1660 — Mazarin, cardi- 
nal, statesman, 1661 — Pascal, 
mathematician, etc., 1662 — 
Bollandus, historian, 1665 — 
Anne of Austria, queen, 1666 
— Moliere, dramatist, 1673 — 
Milton, poet, 1674 — Turenne, 
general, 1675 — Kiuperli, gen- 
eral and statesman, 1676 — 
Ruyter, admiral, 1676— Monk, 
general, 1679 — MontecucuUi, 
general, 1680 — Bernini, archi- 
tect and sculptor, 1680 — Col- 
bert, statesman, 1683 — Coi-- 
neille, dramatist, 1684 — Prince 
of Conde, general, 1686 — Solis, 
historian, 1686 — Isaac Vossius, 
historian and philosopher, 
1688 — Ducange, historian, 
1688— Duquesne, admiral, 1688, 
— Letrun, painter, 1690 — 
Charles, duke of Lorraine, 
general, 1690 — Boyle, philoso- 
pher and divine, 1691. 



768 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



A.D. MEMORABLE EVENTS. 

1697 Peace >of Ryswick between 
France, England, Ger- 
many and Spain. 

1697 Decisive battle of Zenta 
in favor of the Aus- 
trians against the Turks. 

1699 Peace of Carolovritz, be- 
tween the Ottoman 
Porte, Austria, Venice 
and Poland. 



1700 Eight thousand Swedes 

defeat eighty thousand 
Muscovites near Narva. 

1701 War for the succession of 

Spain. 
1704 The French and their 
allies defeated at Hoch- 
stadt. 

1706 , Kamilies and 

Turin. 

1708 Oudenarde. 

1709 Malplaquet. 

1707 Victorious at Almanza. 

1710 Villa- Viciosa. 

1712 Denain. 

1713 Peace of Utrecht. 

1716 Regency of the Duke of 
Orleans. 

{Turks signally defeated 
at Peterwaradin and 
Belgrade by prince Eu- 
gene of Savoy. 
1718 Ti-eaty of Passarowitz. 
1734 Naples and Sicily gained 
to the house of Bourbon. 
1736 Voyages of the French 
mathematicians to the 
North and to the Equa- 
tor, for the purpose of 
ascertaining the true 
figure of the earth. 

1739 Capture and plunder of 

Delhi, by Thamas Kouli 
Khan. 

1740 War for the succession of 

1745 Battle of Fontenoy. 

1746 The Pretender in England 

and Scotland. 



KEMAIiKABLE PERSONAGES. 

Puffeiidorf, civilian, 1694 — 

Arnauld, controvertist, 1694. 
Tillotson, orator, 1694 — Huy- 
gens, mathematician, astrono- 
mer, 1695 — Nicole, controver- 
sialist, 1695 — Thomassin, di- 
vine, 1695 — Luxembourg, gen- 
eral, 1695 — La Fontaine, poet, 
1695 — Domat, civilian, 1696 — 
Madame de Sevigne, 1696— 
Sobieski, king of Poland, 1696 
— Tillemont, historian, 1698 — 
D'Orleans, historian, 1698 — 
Racine, dramatist, 1699. 
Tourville, admiral, 1701 — ^Dry- 
den, poet, 1701. 
Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, 1704 
— Bourdaloue, orator and di- 
vine, 1704 — Locke, philoso- 
pher, 1704— Bayle, 1706— Mar- 
shal Vauban, 1707 — Aureng- 
zeb, Mogul emperor, 1707 — 
Mabillon, historian, divine, 
etc., 1707 — Flechier, bishop of 
Nismes, 1710 — Boileau, poet, 
1711 — Dominic Cassini, as- 
tronomer, 1712 — Malebranche, 
philosopher, metaphysician, 
1715 — Fenelon, archbishop of 
Cambray, 1715. 
Leibnitz, mathematician, divine, 
etc., 1716— Charles XIL, king 
of Sweden, 1718 — Addison, 
poet, etc., 1719— Madame de 
Maintenon, 1719 — Marlbor- 
ough, general, 1722 — Kang 
Hi, Chinese emperor, 1722 — 
Prideaux, historian, 1724 — 
Newton, astronomer, 1727 — 
Daniel, historian, 17 2 8 — 
Schetfmacher, controversial- 
ist, 1733 — Villars, general, 
1734 — Ferreras, historian, 1735 
Prince Eugene of Savoy, gen- 
eral, 1736 — Boerhaave, phy- 
sician, 1738 — Polignac, divine 
and statesman, 1739. 



Rollin, historian, 1741— J. B. 
Rousseau, poet, 1741 — Mont- 
faucon, historian and divine, 
1741 — Halley, astronomer, 1742 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



7GD 



A.D. MEMORABLE EVENTS. 

1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle- 

1752 Identity of ligjhtning and 
electricity ascertained 
by Fi-anklin, at Phila- 
delphia. 
About the same time, in- 
vention of the achroma- 
tic telescope. 

1755 Lisbon laid in ruins by an 
earthquake. 

1757 The French are defeated 
at Rosbach. 

1759 ( The French lose Quebec 

1760 I and all Canada. 

1765 Stamp act, the first cause 
of the American revolu- 
tion. 

1775 Battles of Lexington and 

Bunker-Hill. 

1776 Declaration of Indepen- 

dence. 

1777 Surrender of Burgoyne. 

1781 Surrender of Cornwall is. 

1783 Treaty of Paris or Ver- 
sailles. British troops 
evacuate New York — 
General Washington re- 
signs his commission in- 
to the hands of Con- 
gress. 



REMARKABLE PERSONAGfiS. 

— Massillon, bishop of Cler- 
mont, 1743— Pope, poet, 1744 
— Thamas Kouli Khan, the 
Persian conqueror, 1747 — Bei-- 
nouilli, mathematician, 1748 — 
Thomson, poet, 1748 — Count 
Saxe, general, 1750 — Calmet, 
divine, 1757— Benedict XIV., 
pope, 1758 — Wolf, Montcalm, 
generals, 1759. 



Clairaut, mathematician, 1765. 

Goldsmith, histoi'ian, poet, etc., 
1776— Hume, 1776— William 
Pitt, Lord Chatham, states- 
man, 1778 — Lebeau, historian, 
1778— Voltaire— J. J. Rous- 
seau, 1778 — Linnajus, natu- 
ralist, 1778 — Warburton, di- 
vine, 1779 — Cook, the navi- 
gatoi', 1779— Maria Theresa, 
empress, 1780 — Blackstoue, 
civilian, 1780 — Alban Butlei-, 
biographer, 1782 — Berthier, 
historian, divine, 1782 — Euler, 
mathematician, 1783. 



PART VIII. 



1783 Balloons invented by 
Montgolfier. 
During the following years 
of this and the next 
century, great progress 
of the natural sciences, 
chemistry, mineralogy-, 
geology, natural his- 
tory; invention of rail- 
roads, steamboats, etc. 

1787' Formation of the Federal 
Constitution of the 
United States. 

1789 Federal government car- 
ried into operation — 
Washington unanimous- 
ly elected president. 



Dr. Johnson, 1784— Greene, gen- 
eral, 1786. 



Buffon, naturalist, 1788. 

Franklin, philosopher and 
statesman, 1790 — Bergier, di- 
vine, 1790— Laudon, general, 
1790— Romanzow, general, 
1790. 



770 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



178T 
1793 



1789 
1792 

1792 



1793 

1793 
1794 
1795 



1796 
1797 



1798 



1799 



1800 



MEMORABLE EVENTS. 

Turkey and Poland hum- 
bled and almost pros- 
trated by the arms of 
the Eussians. 

French revolution — Perse- 
cution against the cler- 
gy and nobles — Emigra- 
tion; 

Battles of Jemmapes and 
Valmy; the Austrians 
and Prussians repelled 
from the French tei*ri- 
tory. 

Death of Louis XVI. and 
Marie Antoinette on a 
scaffold. 

The first general coalition 
against France. 

Battle of Fleurus— Fall of 
the tyrant Robespierre. 

Total dismemberment of 
Poland — Holland con- 
qujered by the French — 
The Directory — Rise of 
Napoleon Bonaparte. 

Brilliant campaign of Bo- 
naparte in Italy — Victo- 
ries of Lodi, Areola, 
Rivoli — Capture of Man- 
tua — Treaty of Campo- 
Formio — Extinction of 
the Venetian republic. 

Ecclesiastical State occu- 
pied by the French — 
Pope Pius VI. dragged 
into captivity and exile. 

Second coalition against 
France. 

Expedition of Bonaparte 
in Egypt — Battles of the 
Pyramids and Aboukir. 

Bonaparte, on his return 
to Paris, becomes the 
head of government un- 
der the title of Consul 
— Kingdom of Naples 
subdued by the French, 
who are soon after 
driven from Italy by 
Suwarrow. 

Election of a new pope — 
Sitting of the American 
Congress at Washington 



BEMABKABLE PEBSOXAGBS. 



Rodney, admiral, 1792 — Mozart, 
musical composer, 1792 — Rob- 
ertson, historian, 1793 — Gib- 
bon, 1794 — Lavoisier, chemist, 
1794. 



Wayne, general, 1796— Burke, 
statesman, 1797. 



Pius VI., pope, 1799 — Washing- 
ton, first president of the 
United States, 1799— Patrick 
Henry, statesman, 1799 — Saus- 
sure, naturalist, 1799. 



Suwarrow, general, 1800 — Blair, 
rhetorician, 1800; ' 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



771 



A.D. MEMORABLE EVENTS. 

for the first time — In- 
vention of the Galvanic 
battery — Battle of Ma- 
rengo — Exploits of Gen- 
eral Moreau in Germany 
— Mfilta surrenders to 
the English. 

1801 French evacuate Egypt — 

Peace of Lun^ville be- 
tween France and Aus- 
tria. 

1802 Treaty of Amiens between 

England and France — 
Re-establishment of the 
Catholic worship in 
France, in virtue of a 
concordat passed the 
year before. 

1803 San-Domingo entirely lost 

to the French — Republic 
of Hayti. 

1804 Napoleon crowned emper- 

or. 

1805 Third coalition— French 

and Spanish fleets de- 
stroyed at Trafalgar by 
Admiral Nelson. 
Signal victories of the 
French. 

1805 At Austerlitz, over the 

Austrians. 

1806 ...Jena, over the Prus- 

sians. 

1807 . ..Friedland, over the 

Russians. 

1807 Treaty of Tilsit. 

1807 ( Invasion of Portugal and 

1808) Spain by the French— 
Their defeat at Baylen 
— Siege of Saragossa. 

1809 Fourth coalition — Prodig- 
ious efforts of the Aus- 
trians rendered unavail- 
able by the courage and 
activity of Napoleon — 
Battle of Wagram ter- 
minates the war — Peace 
of Vienna — Attempt of 
the French emperor on 
the Ecclesiastical State 
— Pope and cardinals 
persecuted. 



REMARKABLE PERSONAGES. 



Feller, biographer, 180 2 — 
O ' L e a r y , controversialist, 
1802 — Gerdil, cardinal, me- 
taphysician, divine, etc., 1802. 



Pichegru, general, 1804 — Priesfc. 
ley, chemist, 1804. 



Nelson, admiral, 1805. 

William Pitt, the younger, and 
Charles J. Fox, orators and 
statesmen, 1806— Walker, 1807 
— Lalande, astronomer, 1807. 



Haydn, musical composer, 1809. 
Lannes, general, 1809. 



772 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



A.D. MEMORABLE EVENTS. 

1812 Ameiica declares war 

against England — Disas- 
trous campaign of Na- 
poleon in Kussia. 

1813 Fifth coalition — Cam- 

paign of Saxony — 
French victorious at 
Lutzen, Bautzen and 
Dresden, are entirely 
defeated at Leipsic, and 
lose all their conquests 
in Germany — Driven 
also from Spain by Wel- 
lington; battle of Vitto- 
ria — A British flotilla on 
Lake Erie all captured 
by the Americans. 

1814 New defeat of the English 

on Lake Champlain — 
Victorious at Washing- 
ton, they are foiled in 
their attempt on Balti- 
more. 
Allies enter France — Ab- 
dication of Napoleon. 

1815 Second American war 

closed by the signal vic- 
tory of New Orleans. 
Return of Napoleon from 
Elba — Sixth coalition 
against France — Decis- 
ive battle of Waterloo, 
which prostrates the 
power of the French 
emperor — His second 
fall, and exile to St. 
Helena. 

1816 Independence of Buenos- 

Ayres. 
1818 Independence of Chili. 

Columbia. 

Boliva. 

Peru. 

[ Mexico. 

1820 Discovery of Electro-Mag- 
netism. 
1823 Civil war in Spain — Suc- 
cessful exertions of the 
French in favor of Fer- 
dinand VII. 
1827 Naval battle of Navarino, 
which secured the inde- 
pendence of Greece. 



KEMABKABIiE PEKSONAGEB. 



Koutousoff, general, 1813 — Mo- 
reau, general, 1813 — Prince 
Poniatowski, 1813. 



Berthier, general, 1815 — Ney, 
general, 1815 — Murat, king of 
Naples, 1815— Robert Fulton, 
the inventor of steamboats, 
1815. 

John Carroll, first archbishop of 
Baltimore, 1815. 



Sherida;n, orator and poet, 1816. 

Kosciusko, general, 1817 — Mas- 
sena, general, 1817 — Blucher 
general, 1819 — Count Stolberg, 
historian, controversialist, 
18 1 9 — Count de Maistre, 
statesman, controversialist, 
1821 — Napoleon Bonaparte, 
the fallen emperor of the 
French, 1821 — Castlereagh, 
statesman, 1822 — Herscliei, 
astronomer, 1822 — Pius VII., 
pope, 1828. 

Miluer, controversialist, 1826. 

Fifty years exactly after the 
declaration of independence, 
Thomas Jefferson and John 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



773 



A.D. MEMORABLE EVENTS. 

1829 Emancipation of the Brit 

ish Catholics. 

1830 Conquest of Algiers by 

the French — Revolution 
of July. 

1833 New disturbances in Spain 
after the death of Ferdi- 
nand VII. 

1836 Formation of the Republic 
of Texas. 

1840 Intervention of England, 
Russia, Austria and 
Prussia, in favor of the 
Turkish sultan against 
the encroachments of 
the pacha of Egypt. 
fWar between China and 

1840 J G. Britain terminates to 

1842] the advantage of the 
[ English. 

1843 Fall of the Regent of 

Spain, Espartero. 

1844 Petition for the annexa- 

tion of Texas laid before 
the American Congress. 

1845 Annexation of Texas. 
Mexican War— Victories 

of the Americans at 

1846 J Monterey, Buena Vista, 

1847 I Churubusco, etc. — Cap- 
ture of Vera Cruz and 
Mexico. 

1848 Peace between Mexico 

and the United States. 

Great disturbances in 
Europe, especially in 
France, Italy, and Ger- 
many. 

France, a Republic. 

1849 Signal victories of the 

Austrians in Italy and 
Hungary, 
Intervention in the affairs 
of Rome — The factions 
conquered by the French 
— Restoration of the Pa- 
pal government. 

1850 Return of Pope Pius IX to 

Rome. 

1851 Coup d'etat of Louis Na- 

poleon — End of the 
French republic. 



BEMABKABL.E PERSONAGES. 

Adams, its chief supporters 
in Congress, die both on the 
fourth of July, 1826— Laplace, 
astronomer, 1827 — Davy, 

chemist, 1829. 
Bolivar, general, 1830— Cuvier, 
naturalist, 1832 — Lafayette, 
general, 1834 — Humboldt, ge- 
ographer, 1835 — Marshall, 
chief justice, historian, 1835 — 
Bowditch, astronomer, 1838 — 
Talleyrand, statesman, 1838 — 
M o e h 1 e r , controversialist, 

1838. 



John England, bishop of 
Charleston, 1842. 

Bernadotte, king of Sweden, 
1844 — Cardinal Pacca, states- 
man, historian, 1844 — Thor- 
walsden, sculptor. 

Jackson, general, and former 
president of the United States, 
1845. 

0' Council, statesman and ora- 
tor, 1847. 

Vico, astronomer, 1848. 
Berzelius, chemist. 
Chateaubriand, prose writer and 
statesman. 



Calhoun, statesman, 1850. 
Wordsworth, poet, 
Taylor, general, and president 
of the United States. 



774 



CflROS^QLOGICAL TABLE. 



A.D. IIBMOBABLE EVENTS. 

1864 War between the Russians 
and the Turks— England 
and France declare 
against Russia. 
Battles of Alma, Balaklava 
and lukerman. 

1855 Capture of Sebastopol. 

1856 The vice-roy of Egypt 
■ authorizes the open- 
ing of a canal from Pelu- 
sium to Suez. — Oude 
annexed to British India. 

1857 Dreadful mutiny of the 

Sepoys in India. 

1858 Commercial treaty be- 

tween Japan and the 
United States. 

1859 War and revolutions in 

Italy — Battles of Ma- 
genta and Solferino — 
Peace of Villafranca. 

i860 Savoy and Nice annexed 
to France — Ti-eaty of 
peace between Spain 
and Morocco, and also 
between France and 
. England, and the Chi- 

( nese emperor — Battle of 

Castelfidardo. 

1861 Bombardment of Fort 

Sumter — Civil war in 
the U. States — Victor 
Emmanuel proclaimed 
King of Italy— Expedi- 
tion of the English, 
French and Spaniards 
against Mexico — Decree 
of the Czar emancipating 
the serfs in Russia — City 
of Mendoza in the Ar-! 
gentine Confederation ; 
entirely destroyed by an , 
earthquake. 

1862 Revolution in Greece — 

King Otho's abdication 
— Surrender of New Or- 
leans — Battle of Antie- 
tam — Treaty of Saigon 
: between France and the 
emperor of Annam. ■ - 

1863 Proclamation of the Presi- 

dent emancipating the 
slaves in the United 



KEMARKABLE PERSONAGES. ■, 

Louis Philippe V ex-King of the 
French. 

Lingard, historian, 1851-r-Duke 
of Wellington, 1852— Thomas 
Moore, poet — Daniel Webster, 
statesman and orator— Ptfgin, 
architect— Arago, astronomer, 
1853. 



Cavaignac^ general, 1857 — 
Cauchy, mathematician — 
Radetzky, general,; 1858 — Rav- 
ignan, orator, divine. 
Hallam, historian, 1859. ' 
Irving, writer-^Prescott, his- 
torian. ■■'<> 



Hurter, historian, 1860. 
Macaulay, essayist, historian. 



Count Cavour, statesman,, 1861. 
Lacordaire, orator and divine. 



Nesselrode, statesman, 1862. 
Knowles, dramatist^Scheffer, 
poet. 



Kenrick, archbishop of Balti- 
more, 186.3 — Meyerbeer, com- 
poser. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



775 



A.D.- 



1864 



1865 



1866 



1867 



1868 



1869 



mSmJokable events. 
states — Battle of Gettys- 
burg — Surrender of 
Vicksburg — Insurrec- 
tion in Poland and de- 
struction of the last rem- 
nants of her nationality 
— Ionian Islands annex- 
ed to the Kingdom of 
Greece — Prince George 
of Denmark inaugurated 
King of Greece. 

War in Schleswig-Hol- 
stein — Emperor Maxi- 
milian at Mexico — Cap- 
ture- of Atlanta and 
Savannah. 

Surrender of Gen. Lee — 
Close of the civil war in 
the United States — As- 
sassination of Pi-esident 
Lineoln^ — Paraguay at 
war against Brazil, the 
Argentine Confedera- 
tion and Uraguay. 

Chili and Peru declare war 
against Spain— Prussia 
and Italy at war with 
Austria — Germany over- 
run by the Prussians — 
Battles of Custozza, Sa- 
dowa and Lissa — Annex- 
ation of several German 
provinces to Prussia and 
also of Venetia to the 
Kingdom of Italy — Sub- 
marine electric tele- 
graph across the Atlan- 
tic—Famine in India. 

Confedei'acy of the British 
Provinces of America — 
Russian America pur- 
chased by the United 
States — The emperor 
Maximilian made pris- 
oner by Juarez and exe- 
cuted. 

President Johnson ina- 
peached ^— Insurrection 
in Spain. 

Suez Canal opened-^Irish 
Church Disestablish- 
ment Act passed. 

46 



REMARKABLE PERSONAGES. 

Delacroix, painter — V e r n e t , 
painter. 



Taney, , chief-justice of the 
United- States, 1864— Hughes, 
archbishop of New York — 
Silliman, chemist — Pelissier, 
gerieral^Wiseman, cardinal, 
orator and divine, 1865— -Lord 
Palmerston, statesman — Leo- 
pold L, first King of Belgium 
— Lamoricifere, general. 



Scott, general of the U. S. army, 
1864^Delaroche, painter. 



Cousin, philosopher, 1867. 



Lord Brougham — Rossini. 
Lamartine — Sain te-Beuve. 



776 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



A. D. MEMORABLE EVENTS. 

1870 The Vatican Council 
adopts the dogma of the 
infallibility of the Pope 
— France declai*es war 
against Prussia — Battle 
of Sedan. 

Capitulation of Paris — Re- 
storation of the German 
Empire — Peace of Frank- 
fort. 

Great eruption of Mt. Ve- 
suvius. 

England pays the Ala- 
bama indemnity. 



1871 

1872 
1873 

1874 

1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 
1880 
1881 

1882 

1883 
1884 

1885 



Coup d'etat at Madrid. 

Arctic expedition — Alert 
and Discovery sail f rpm 
Portsmouth. 

Centennial exhibition of 
the United States at 
Philadelphia. 

Great railroad strike in 
the United States — Rus- 
sia- declares war against 
Turkey. 

Paris international exhibi- 
tion — Meeting of the 
Congress of Berlin. 

Zulus defeat English 
forces in South Africa. 

Work of tunneling Mont 
St. Gothard completed. 

Alexander II. of Russia 
assassinated — President 
Garfield shot. 

Alexandria bombarded by 
the British fleet — Arabi 
Pasha defeated by Gen. 
Wolseley at TeUel-kebir. 

Great floods in the valley 
of the Rhine — Vienna 
Inundated. 

Christians captured i n 
the Soudan, Gen. Gor- 
don and 3500 people 
massacred. 

British victory at Abu 
Klea in the Soudan- 
Withdrawal of British 
tx'oops from the Soudan. 



BEMABKABLE PERSONAGES. 

Charles Dickens — General R. E. 
Lee — Alexander Dumas. 



Sir John Herschel, astronomer. 



Archbishop Spalding — H. Gree- 
ley, journalist. 

Dr. Livingstone, explorer — 
Agassiz, scientist — Thierry, 
historian, — Napoleon III. 

Guizot, historian — Chas. Sum- 
ner, statesman. 



Harriet Martineau, authoress. 



Motley, histoi'ian — Semmes, ad- 
miral — Thiers, statesman and 
historian. 

Pius IX. — Bryant, poet — Victor 
Emmanuel. 

Marshall Von Roon. 

George Eliot, novelist. 

Carlyle, author — President Gar- 
field. 

Longfellow, poet — Darwin, sci- 
entist — Emerson, poet and esr 
sayist. 

Gustave Dor^, painter — Wagner, 
composer — Louis Veuillot, 
journalist. 



Victor Hugo, author — Ex-Presi- 
dent U. S. Grant — Cardinal 
Schwarzenberg. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



777 



A.D. MEMORABLE EVENTS. 

1886 Archbishop Gibbons of 

Baltimore raised to the 
cardiualate — Ludwig II. 
King of Bavaria, com- 
mits suiciae by drown- 
ing himself in Starnberg 
lake. 

1887 Leo XIII. celebrates the 

fiftieth anniversary of 
his ordination to the 
priesthood. — End of Kul- 
turkampf in Germany. 
— Kiel and Manchester 
canals begun. — Italians 
defeated by Abyssiniaus 
at Massowah. 

1888 Boulangist agitation 1 n 

France. — Slavery abol- 
ished in Brazil. Soudan- 
ese under Osman Digna 
defeated near Suakin. — 
Stanley finds Emin Pasha 
on Lake Albert Nyanza. 

1889 Boulanger, tried and con- 

demned, fi e e s to Bel- 
gium. — Military revolu- 
tion in Brazil; empire 
overthrown and republic 
established. — Parliamen- 
tary government estab- 
lished in Japan.— Inter- 
national exposition in 
Paris. — Johnstown, Pa., 
destroyed by flood. — Cen- 
tennial of U. S. Catholic 
Hierarchy and Catholic 
Congress in Baltimore; 
Catholic University, 
Washington, opened. 

1890 Bismarck deposed fi-om 

chancellorship of Ger- 
man Empire. — Fall of 
Parnell; Irish party 
split. — Unsuccessful in- 
surrection in Buenos 
Ayres. — Completion of 
new Croton Aqueduct in 
New York and Forth 
railway bridge in Scot- 
land. 

1891 Indian uprising in North- 

west quelled by Gen. 



REMABKABLE PERSONAGES. 

Von Ranke, historian — A. J. 
Ryan, poet, priest — Cardinal 
Jacobini. — Samuel J. Tilden, 
American statesman. 



H. W. Beecher, pulpit orator- 
Henry Stafford Northcote, 
Lord Iddesleigh. Kraszewski, 
Polish writer. — Kirchoff, Ger- 
man scientist. 



William I. and Frederick L Em- 
perors of Germany. — Gen. P. 
H. Sheridan, American soldier. 
— Asa Gray, American botanist. 
— Matthew Arnold, English 
poet. 

Louis, King of Portugal. — John, 
King of Abyssinia, killed in 
battle. — Ericsson, American 
naval engineer. — Jefferson Da- 
vis. — John Bright, English 
statesman. — Robert Browning, 
English poet. — M. E. Chevreul, 
French chemist. — Emile Au- 
gier, French dramatist. 



Sitting Bull, Sioux chief, killed. 
— Willian III., King of Holland. 
— Dr. Dollinger, Church his- 
torian and apostate to Old 
Catholicism. — Count Andrassy, 
Austro-Hungarian statesman. 
— Marquis Tseng, Chinese di- 
plomatist. — Gen. J. C. Fremont, 
American explorer. — H. Schlie- 
mann, German archaeologist. — 
Cardinal Newman, the famous 
English convert. 

Charles Stewart Parnell, Irish po- 
litical leader. — Dom Pedro II., 



778 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 



Miles. — Italians lynched 
in New Orleans. — Gsman 
' D i g n a completely de- 

: f eated at Suakin. — Civil 
war in Chili; President 
Balmaceda, overthrown, 
commits suicide; mur- 
derous assault on Amer- 
ican seamen in Valparai- 
so. — Constitution of the 
United States of Brazil 
: . promulgated; revolts in 
Rio J a n e i r o and Rio 
Grande do Sul.— Famine 
in Russia. — Trans-Sibe- 
rian railway begun. 
1892 Behring sea arbitration be- 
". :; tween England and Rus- 
..; . sia.— Panama canal scan- 
. .■ 4al in France. — French 
, war in Dahomey .-r Lieut. 

.: _Peary crosses great ice 

cap of Greenland. 



1«93 Great World's Fair and 
Catholic Congress in 
Chicago. — P ermanent 
;. . papal delegation to Uni- 
,..;. :... ted States established. — 
Revolution in Hawaii.— 
Gi'eat financial panic in 
United States. — Glad- 
stone's second Irish 
Home rule bill defeated 
in House of Lords. — Eng- 
lish conquest of Mata- 
beleland in Africa. — Re- 
volt of navy and provin- 
cial insurrections in Bi-a- 
zil. 

18M Great railroad strikes in 
? : Chicago, California, etc. 
— Gladstone resigns pre- 
miership. — Hungarian 
Diet passes- Civil Mar- 
riage bill. — War between 
China and Japan oyer 
: Corea; the latter victor- 
ious, -r Insurrection in 
. £ ; "P hi 1 i p p i n e s against 



ex-emperor of Brazil. — Field- 
Marshal von Moltke, Oerman 
strategist. — Jules Gr^vy, ex-' 
President Of France.— Prince 
Napoleon Bonaparte, philolo- 
gist and chemist.— J. L.E. Meis- 
sonnier, French painter. — Earl 
Lytton,' English statesman. — 
Gen. W. T. Sherman, American 
soldier. -^Gen. J. E. Johnston, 

- American Confederate officer. 
— George Bancroft, American 
historian.^J. R. Lowell, Amer- 
ican poet.^Gehei-al Boulanger. 
by suicide. — Sir J. A. MacDon- 
ald, Canadian statesman. 

Tewfik Pasha, Khedive of Egypt. 
— Alfred Tennyson, English 
poet-laureate. — E. A. Freeman, 
English historian.— E. W. Sie- 
mens, German physicist. — 
Cardinal Lavigerie, African 
missionary. — IS. Renan, French 
anti-Christian writer. — J. G. 
Whittier, American poet. — 
Cardinal Manning, Archbishop 
of Westminster. 

Marshal MacMahou, Ex-President 
of France.^— H: A. Taine, French 
historian, etc— GounoKj^ French 
composer.^-rJohn Tyndall, Brit- 

. ish physicist. -^ Charles Meri- 
vale, English historian. — Ben- 
jamin Jowett, English scholar. 
— Trancis Parkman, American 
historlan.^James G... Blaine, 
American statesman. — Jules 
Ferry, French politician. 



Alexander III., Czar of Russia.— 
President Carnot of France, as- 
sassinated. — Muley Hassan, 
emperor of Morocco. — Louis 
Kossuth, Hungarian " patriot 
and exile. -^. Count de Paris, 

.French pretender.— Sir A. H. 
Layalrd, English archaeologist.— 
H. K. Brugsch, German Egypt- 
ologist— O.W. Holmes, Amer-r 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



779 



Spain. — Manchester 
Kiel canals opened. 



and 



J895 . ^Ei^d of China- Japan war.— 
Massacres of Christians 
by Mohammedans in Ar- 
menia. — Last rebellion in 
Cuba against Spain. — ■ 
^ Interference of United 
S t a t e s in dispute be- 
tween England and Ven- 
ezuela. — French con- 
. c[Uesl; of Madagascar.—: 
^Kansen's famous North 
-' -' ^i- Pole Expedition.^ Dis- 
covery of Argon and of 
r Rpnt^en rays. 

1896 Jameson raid into Trans- 

vaal.-^British again con- 
:',[',. qtier Ashantee.^General 
.' Kitchener begins his ex- 
pedition against the Sou- 
; ' . d a n e s e..— Rebellion of 
Christians in Crete, —r 
'/. - Italians overwhelmed by 
Abyssinians in battle of 
Adowa.— Fall of Crispi, 
Italian premier. — Millen- 
nial Exposition at Buda 
Pesth. 

1897 Formation of the Municipal- 

ity . of Greater New York. 
—Greece wages unsuc- 
cessful war against Tur- 
key about Crete.— Queen 
Victoria's Diamond Ju- 
bilee.-Germany occupies 
Kiao-Chow in China. — 
Discovery of gold in the 
Klondike region. 

1898 Destruction of United 

States battleship Maine 
in Havana harbor, STjbse- 
quent war between Uni- 
ted States and Spain. 
Liberation of Cuba, adqui- 
sition by United States 
of Poi'to Rico and Phil- 
ippine Islands. — Hawai- 
ian Islands annexed by 
United States. — Soudan- 
ese overwhelmed in bat- 
tle of Omdurman.-T-Tur- 
k«7 compelled to evacu- 



ican poet. — A. Rubinstein, Rus- 
sian pianist.-r-P. de Lesseps, 
French engineer. — Giovanni B. 
de Rossi, Italian archaeologist. 
N. de G i e r s, Russian states- 
man. J— L. Pasteur, French sci- 
entist. — Alexandre Dumas, Jr., 
French l-omancist. — Sir H. 
Rawlinson, English archaeolo- 
gist. — Thomas H. Huxley, Eng- 
lish naturalist. — J. D. Dana, 
American geologist. ^-H. von 
Sybel, German historian. — 
Cesare Cantu, Italian histor- 
ian. — Ismail Pasha, . Ex-Khe- 
dive of Egypt. 



Nasr-ed-Din, Shah of Persia^ as- 
sa,ssinated;— J. E. Millet and F. 

; Leighton, English, painters. — 
W. R. Grove, English scholar. 
-^Wt Morris, English poet. — E. 
Curtius, German historian. — 
E. Du Bois-Reymond, German 
physiologist. --^ L. Jv Trochu, 
French general. / . 



Canovas del Castillo,' Spanish 
prenoier, assassinated. — J. Bra- 
hms, German composef.^^Jean 
Ingelow, English poet. — Sir 
John Gilbert, Irish antiqua- 
rian.— Hertry George, Ameri- 
can agitator. 



Prince Bismarck, German states- 
man. — W. E. Gladstone, Eng- 
lish statesman. — Sir H. Besse- 
mer, steel manufadturer and 
inventor:-^Sir E. Burne-Jones, 
English painter. -^ Sir John 
Fowler, English engineer. — 
Pieri^e Ptivis de Charanne, 
French pailiter» : - " 



780 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



ate Crete. — Russia issues 
call for peace conference 
at The Hajjue. — Revision 
of D r.e y f u s case in 
France. 
1899 Insurrection of Filipinos 
a<?ainst United States. — 
Anglo-Boer war in South 
Africa. Boer successes. 
I — Marconi's wireless tel- 
egraphy first tried suc- 
cessfully. — Russia robs 
Finland of its ancient 
liberties. — P e a c e con- 
gress at The Hague. — 
British Guiana. — V e n- 
ezuela Commission 
meets in Paris. 
IflOO Boer war continued; 
British successes; Boer 
republics annexed by 
England. — Boxer upris- 
ing in China; Christian 
missionaries and con- 
verts massacred; Euro- 
pean, American, and Jap- 
anese soldiers seize Tien- 
Tsin and Pekin; Chinese 
court escapes to Tsingan. 
— Russia assumes control 
of Manchuria. — Ameri- 
can civil government in 
Porto Rico. 
1901 Nicaragua treaty be- 
tween United States and 
. England. — Cuban repub- 
lic organized. — American 
civil government estab- 
lished in the Philippines. 
— French Naval demon- 
stration against Turkey. 
—Rebellions in Colombia 
' .1 and Venezuela. — Pan- 
> . i I . iAmerican Exposition at 
;:.: ■: Buffalo.— Pan-American 
.-•I'.;;.- Congress in Mexico. — 
id'A. Jacksonville, Florida, de- 
../r ,: stroyedibyfire. — General 
■jef,'--;',;; strike of iron and steel 
workers in United Sti»tes. 



Felix Faure, President of Franca 
— Count von Caprivi, ex-Chan- 
cellor of Germany. — William 
Stubbs, English Anglican pre- 
late and historian. — Emilio 
Castelar, Spanish orator and 
politician. — Garret A. Hobart, 
Vice-President of United 
States — O. Mergenthaler, 
American inventor. — Cardinal 
Krementz, Archbishop of Co- 
logne. 

Humbert I. King of Italy 
assassinated. — Cardinals D. 
Jacobini and Mazzella. — John 
Ruskin, English writer on art. 
Sir Arthur Sullivan, composer. 
Lord Charles Russell, Chief 
Justice of England.— Duke of 
Argyle, political writer. — Dr. 
Paul Falk, author of Prussian 
"May" laws. — Munkacsy, Hun- 
garian painter. — ^Martinez de 
Campos, Spanish general. — 
Osman Pasha, Turkish general. 
— John Shei'man, American 
statesman. 

President William McKinley as- 
sassinated. — Ex-President Ben- 
jamin Harrison. — Queen Vic- 
toria.— Ex-King Milan, of Ser- 
via. — Li Hung Chang, Chinese 
statesman. — Prince von Hohen- 
lohe, Ex-Chancellor of Ger- 
many.^ — F. Crispi, Ex-Premier 
of Italy. — Giuseppe Verdi, 
Italian composer. — General 
Gourko, Russian soldier. — Due 
de Broglie, French Statesman. 
— Baron Nordenskjo|d, Arctic 
explorer. - 






CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 



781 



1902 Labor riots at Barcelona. 

— Destruction of St. 
Pierre by eruption of 
Mont Pel^e. — Arch- 
bishop Falconio ap- 
pointed Apostolic Dele- 
gate for the United 
States. 

1903 M. Curie communicated 

to French Academy of 
Sciences the properties 
of radtttm.— Murder of 
King and Queen of 
Servia. — Coronation of 
Poi)e Pius X. — Catholic 
University of Ottawa 
destroyed by fire. — Iro- 
quois Theatre disaster 
in Chicago. 

1904 Sinking of the Petropav- 

lovsk.— Defeat of Rus- 
sian fleet at PortArthur. 

— Theodore Roosevelt 
elected President of the 
United States. 

1905 Inauguration of President 

Roosevelt. — Meeting of 
Russian and Japanese 
commissioners at Ports- 
mouth, N. H. 

1906 Election of members to 

Russian Duma. — San 
Francisco nearly de- 
stroyed by earthquake 
and fire. — Statue of 
Benjamin Franklin un^ 
veiled at Paris. — Mid 
night mass suppressed 
in Paris. 

1907 Destructive earthquakes 

in Mexico. —Jamestown 
Exposition opened by 
President Roosevelt. — 
Karatagh, Bokhara, de- 
stroyed by earthquake. 
— World cruise of At- 
lantic fleet. 

1908 State Governors meet at 

White House, Washing- 
ton, D. C. -The Quebec 
Tercentenary celebra- 
tion. —Transfer of Congo 



Rear Admiral William T. Samp- 
son. — Lord Acton. 



Senor Praxedes Mateo Sagasta. 
— Charles Gavan Duffy. — Car- 
dinal Vaughan. — Pope Leo 
XIII. — Herbert Spencer. 



President Kruger. 



Henry Irving. — Hon. John Hay. 



Michael Davitt. 



Augustus Saint Gaudens. 



Grover Cleveland. 



782 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



Free State to Belgian 
Government — Eucharis- 
tic Congress held in 
London. — Meeting at 
Washington, D. C, of 
International Tubercu- 
losis Congress. — Mes- 
sina and Reggio (Italy) 
destroyed by earth- 
quake. 

1909 Inauguration of President 

Taft.— Ex-President 
\ Roosevelt in Africa. — 

Execution of Seiior Fer- 
rer. — Spain's war with 
the Riffian tribes. — Dis- 
covery of North Pole 
alleged. 

1910 Accession of George V to 

British throne. — Anti- 
Semitic outbreak in 
Russia. — Unveiling in 
Washington of statues 
of Polish patriots (Pu- 
laski and Kosciuszko). 



King Leopold of Belgium. — 
Algernon C. Swinburne. 



Senor Joaquim Nabuco.— King 
Edward VIL— Samuel L. 
Clemens (Mark Twain). 



TABLES OF THE AUTHORS AND WORKS, 

CHIEFLY USED IN THE COMPOSITION OF THIS HISTOBY. 



Alexander (Natalis): Historia ecclesiastica, 8 vols, 
folio, Paris 1699; — the 6th and 7th vols, have been 
used. 

A])fQUETiL: Histoire de France, 6 vols. 8vo; or 14 vols, 
lamo. 
. . . . . . Precis de I'histoire universellej Paris edition, 

1818, 8 vols. 8vo. 

Augustine (St.): De civitate Dei, 7th vol. of the Bene- 
dictine edition, folio and 4to. Paris, 1679 and 1838. 

Baldassari: Histoire de V enlevement et de la captivite de 
Pie VI., translated from the Italian, 1 vol. 8vo. 

Bancroft : History of the United States, 3 vols. 8vo. 3d 
edition, Boston, 1838. 

Beraut-Bercastel: Histoire de VEglise, 12 vols. 8vo. 
edition of Pelier de Lacroix, Paris, 1830; — Nearly all 
the volumes have been used, especially the notes of the 
editor, and Discours sur le second age de VEglise, at the 
end of the 12th vol. 

Bletterie (La.): Histoire de Julien VApostat, 1 vol. 
12mo. 

. . . Histoire de V Empereur Jovien, 1 vol. 
12mo. 

Bossuet: Discours sur I'histoire universelle, avec la con- 
tinuation, 2 vols. 12mo. 

BouGEANT (F.): Histoire du traite de Westphalie, 6 vols. 
12mo. Paris, 1744; a master-piece in almost every 
respect. 

Butler (Alban): Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and 
other principal Saints, the notes having been particu- 
larly useful ; London edit. 1756, 4 vols. 8vo., bound in 
6— and French edit., translation of Abbe Godescard, 
16 vols. 12mo. Lille, 1824, 

783 



784 TABLE OF AUTHOKS. 

Oaveyrac: Apologie de Louis XIV. et de son Conseil sur 
la revocation de I'edit de JVatites, and Dissertation sur 
lajournee de la St. BartMlemi; 1 vol. 8vo. 

Clemencet: Art de verifier les dates, folio, Paris, 1770. 

CoYEE: Histoire de Jean Sohieski, roi de Pologne, 3 vols. 
12mo. Warsaw, 1761. 

Crevier: Histoire des Empereurs Romains, 12 vols. 12mo. 
Paris, 1763. 

Dakiel (F): Histoire de France, 3 vols, folio, Paris, 1713. 

Abrege de I'histoire de France, 12 vols. 

12mo. Paris, 1751. 

Desormeaux: Albrege chronologique de I'histoire d'Es- 
pagne, 5 vols. 12 mo. Paris, 1759. This author, gener- 
ally exact in the historical part, is frequently wrong 
and unjust in his remarks. 

EsPAG]!j"AC: Histoire de Maurice, Comte de 8axe, 2 vols. 
12mo. Toulouse, 1789. 

EusEBius: Ecclesiast. History, translated by 0. P. Cruse, 
1 vol. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1834; and also, together with 
the Life of Constantine the Great, edit, of Henri de 
Valois (Greek and Latin), 1 vol. folio, Paris, 1659. 

Feller: Dictionnaire historique, ou Histoire dbregee des 
hommes celebres. The text of Feller being sometimes 
altered in the latest editions, those who desire to have 
it pure and untouched, should have recourse to the 
more ancient ones; v.g. to that of Lyons. 1821, 12 
vols. 8vo. 

Flechier: Histoire de VEmpereur Theodose-le-grand, 
1 vol. 12mo. 

Fleury: Histoii'e Ecclesiastique, 25 vols. 8vo. Nismes, 
1779. 

Frai^tik: Annates du Moyen age, 8 vols. 8vo. Paris, 
1825. 

Frost: History of the United States, 1 vol. 12mo. Phila- 
delphia, 1841. 

G.*** (M.): Pouvoir du Pope au moyen dge, 1 vol. 8vo. 
"Paris, 1839. 

Gahan: History of the Church, 1 vol. 12mo. ; short, and 
having some little inaccuracies, yet generally full of 
sound information. 

Gregory of Tours (St.): Histoirce Francorum Libri 
decern, 1 vol. small 8vo. Paris, 1561. 



TABLE OF AUTHORS. 785 

GuYAKD DE Berville: Histoire de Bertrand DuguescKn, 
2 vols. 12mo. 

Histoire de la Revolution FranQaise, 1 vol. 12mo. Paris, 
1838. 

Histoire de VEglise Gallicane, remarkable for soundness 
of criticism and purity of style; 18 vols. 8vo. Nismes, 
1780-81. 

Histoire de Venise, 1 vol. 12mo. Tours, 1839. 

Histoire du Bas-Empire (a. m. ss. c. g.): 2 vols. 8vo. 
Paris, 1838. 

Histoire Universelle (translated from the English), 125 
vols. 8vo. Paris, 1779. The volumes containing the 
history of the Arabs, the Tartars, the Ottomans, 
America, Spain, England, France, and Germany, have 
been particularly useful. 

History of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire- 
land, 2 vols. 12mo. Cork, 1815. 

Hurter: Histoire du Pape Innocent III., translated 
from the German by Alexandre de St. Cheron, 3 vols, 
8vo. Paris, 1838. 

Irving (WASHiN"GTO]sr) : History of the Life and Voyages 
of Christopher Columbus, 2 vols. 8vo. New York, 1831. 

Irving (Washington): Conquest of Granada, 2 vols. 
12mo. Philadelphia, 1839. 

JosEPHUS, the Jewish historian: last book of his Antiqui- 
ties, and the seven books of his Jewish War; English 
translation of Whitson, or French of Arnaud d'Andilly. 

Kent (Chancellor): vol. 1. of his Commentaries on 
Law, 2d edition, 4 vols. 8vo. New York, 1832. 

Labbe: Sacrosancta Concilia, vols, x and xi. 

Lacroix: Geographic, 2 vols. 12mo. ; too old as a geo- 
graphical work, yet full of information. 

Lactantius: De morte Persecidorum; to be found in the 
end of the 16th and last vol. of the Lives of the Saints, 
Lille, 1824. 

Ladvocat: Dictionnaire historique, 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 
1755. 

LaHarpe: Albrege deVhistoire des voyages, continued by 
Baron de Roujoux ; 30 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1 830. 

Lebeau: Histoire du Bas-Empire, 29 vols. 12mo. Paris, 
1757. This work, and that of Frantin, mentioned 
above, although generally excellent and very well writ- 
ten, are not to be implicitly relied on in the remarks 



786 TABLE^ OF AUTHORS, 

and judgments which they contain about different 

transactions and personages; their authors having too 

easily followed the prejudices of their time concerning 

certain historical points of great importance. 
Lebrun": Aventures et conquites de Fernand Cortez, 1 vol. 

12mo. Tours, 1839. 
. . . Conquete du Perou et Histoire de Fizarre, 1 vol. 

12mo. Tours, 1840. 
Lepran'c: Histoire du Moyen dge, 1 vol. 13mo. 

Histoire Moderne, 2 vols, 12mo. Lyons, 1840. 

.... .Histoire de France, 2 vols. 12mo, Lyons, 1838. 
Lenglet du FRESNoy: Tablettes chronologiques _de V his- 
toire ufiiverselle, 2 y^ls. 12ino. Faris, 174:4:. 
IjI^g k^n: Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church; either 

the London edition, 1810, or the first American edition, 

Philadelphia. 

History of England, 14 vols. 8vo. London, 1825. 

LoRiQUET (F.): Histoire de France, 2 vols. 12mo. 
MaIstre (Count de): Du Pape, 2 vols. 8vo. Lyons, 

1819. 
Lettres sur V Inquisition Espag- 

nole, 1 vol. 8vo. Paris, 1822. 
Marles: Histoire de Marie Stuart, Reine d'Ecosse, 1 vol. 

12mo. Tours, 1840. 
Marshall: Colonial History, 1 vol. 8vo. Philadelphia, 

1824. 
...... Life of Washington, 2 vols. 8vo. Philadelphia, 

1832. ^ y. 

Marsollier: Histoire du ministere du Cardinal Ximenes, 

2 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1704. 
Michaut: Histoire des Croisades, 4th edition, 6 vols. 8vo. 

Paris, 1825. 
MiGiroT: Histoire de V empire Ottoman, 1 vol. 4to, or 

4 vols. 12mo. 1771. 

Ame. edit. Histoire de. I'empereur Charles-Quint, 1 vol. 
_^ours. 12mo. 1738. 
Moore: History of Ireland, 1 vol. 8vo. 
Mylius: History of England, 1 Yol. 8y_o. — :,.~ 

NoNNOTTE: Erreurs de Voltaire, 2 vols. 12mo. Besan^on, 
.1818. 
Orleans (F. Dy. Histoire des Revolutions d'Angleterre, 

4vols.l2mov Amsterdam, 1766. 
... .Histoire des 'Revolutions d'Espagne, 



TABLE OF AUTHORS. T87 

from the best Spanish historians, Mariana and others; 

3 vols. 4to. Paris, 1734. 
Pacca: Memoir es du Cardinal Pacca sur la captivite du 

P ape Pie VII., translated from the Italian, 2 vols. 8yo. 

Paris, 1833. 
Perefixe: Histoire de Henri le Grand, roi de France et 

de Navarre, 1 vol. 12mo. 
Petavius: Rationarium Temporum, 2 vols. 12mo. Paris, 

1703. 
Proyart: Vie du Dauphin (Duke of Burgundy), pere de 

Louis XV., 2 vols. 12mo. 
...... Histoire de Stanislas, roi de Pologne, due de 

Lorraine et de Bar, 1 vol. 12mo. 
Raguenet: Histoire du Vicomte de Turenne, 1 vol. 12mo. 
Robertson: History of America, 2 vols. 4to. London, 

1777. 
of the reign of the emperor Charles 

V, 3 vols. Svo. 2d American edition, Philadelphia, 

1812. 
Roscoe: The life and pontificate of Leo X., 4 vols. 8vo'. 

Philadelphia, 1805. 
Roy: Histoire de Charlemagne, 1 vol. 12mo. Tours, 1838. 

de Jeane d'Arc, 1 vol. 12mo. Tours, 1840. 

Sadler: Litigard's Historg of England continued, 1 vol. 

12mo, Paris, 1836. ^ 

SiDONius Apollinaris: Epistolce et Carmina, edit. Sir- 

mondi, Paris, 1614. 
Socrates and SozOmenes, Greek historians, edit, -of 

Henri de Valois, 1 vol. folio, Paris, 1668. - 

SoLis: Conquista de la Nueva Espana, 1 vol. 4t'o. /^ - ' 
^jjKLO¥^i\]^v Duodecim-CcBsares, 2 vols. 8vo. which are 

the 98tli and 99th of the Collection of Classics, or 

Mbliotheca Latina Classica, Paris, 1828. 
SuLPiTius Severus: Histories Sacrm libri duo, 1 vol. 

18mo. edit, of Mercier, Paris, 1659. 
Tacitus, the gravest, the most concise, and energetic of 

historians. 1 vol. 12mo., in the edition of Lallemant 

— 4 vols. 8vo. in the Collection of Classics, from vol. 

100 to 104. 
Tertullian: Apologeticus adversus gentes et de Prascrip- 

Hon.{hus adversus hoer.j 1 vol. Svo. Paris, 1828. 
IHEODORET, wrecjc nistorlan, edit, of Henri de Valois, 

Paris, 1673. 



7£8 TABLE OF AUTHORS. 

Tkoka^ssis: Discipline de FEglise, S folios, VsiTis, 1725; 

particularly the first book of vol ii., ch. xcii-cii. 
TiLLEMONT (Lb Nain de): Histoire des Empereurs, 

6 vols. 4to. Paris, 1690; so learned, and so exact in his 

continual quotations of ancient authors, that, for the 

historical parts of which he treats, he can supply the 

deficiency of all other historians. 
Velleius Paterculus: Historice libri duo; 1 vol. 12nio. 

edit of Abbe Paul, or the 135th vol. 8vo. in the Collec- 
tion of Classics. 
Vertot: Histoire des Revolutions de Portugal, 1 vol. 

12mo. 
.... des Chevaliers de Malte, ahregee en 1 vol. 12nio. 

Tours, 1837. 
VoiGT: Histoire du Pape Oregoire F//., translated from 

the German by Abbe Jager, 2 vols. Svo, Paris, 1838. 
Voltaire: Histoire de Charles XII., 1 vol. 12mo. 
Walter Scott: The life of Napoleon Bonaparte, 2 vols. 

Svo. Exeter, 1839. 
Wilson": History of the American Revolution, 1 vol. 

12mo. Baltimore, 1834. 

Many other works have been occasionally resorted to 
and consulted, which we purposely omit mentioning, be- 
cause their enumeration would be of little or no utility to 
the reader. 

It is almost superfluous to observe, that several of the 
authors here mentioned, v. g. Eoscoe, Walter Scott, Rob- 
ertson, etc., have been resorted to, as historians, but not 
as politicians or philosophers; and have been followed 
when they relate well-substantiated facts, but not when 
they bring forward their own private views and religious 
prejudices. 

THE END. 



QUESTIOlSrS 

. TO 

FREDET'S MODERN HISTORY. 



N. B. The order and number of the Questions are made to answer exactly the 
order and number of the paragraphs belonging to each successive page of 
the volume. 



Pakt I. — From the Battle of Actium to the Accession of Constantine. 

THE KOMAN EMPIRE. — AUGUSTUS. 
»AGE. 

1 What were the thoughts of Augustus after the battle of 

Actium? 
Whom did he consult about his future conduct? 
What was the opinion of Agrippa? 

2 What was the opinion of Maecenas? 

Whose advice did Augustus follow, and under what restric- 
tions? 
What were the happy fruits of his government? 

3 What blessings did he confer on the various parts of the 

empire? 
What was one of the principal objects of his attention? Who 
were some of the distinguished literary men in his reign? 

4 When and where did Virgil die? What did he command just 

before his death? What did Augustus do? What was the 
character of the public administration of Augustus? 

5 How did he behave towards private persons? 
What specimens did he give of his moderation? 

6 What care did he take of his reputation? 

What is to be thought of the change in his character and con- 
duct? 

What influence had this change on the duration of his power? 
. In what manner did he receive the title of Father of his Coun- 
try? 

7 To what danger was he exposed from secret conspirators? 
What were his feelings, when he had detected the conspiracy 

of Cinna? 

How did he act towards Cinna? 

8 What was the result of his clemency? 

What was the greatest event that took place during the reign 

of Augustus? 
What uncommon circumstance coincided with the birth of 

our Saviour? 
With what dislike did Augustus consider warfare? 



QUESTIONS. 



9 Was he not however engaged in several wars, and with what 
success did he conduct them? 
What disaster happened to the Roman troops in Germany? 

10 What impression was produced on Augustus's mind by the 

defeat of Varus? 
Wliat other subjects of grief did the emperor find in his own 

family? 
What were the chief qualificiations of Agrippa? 
What intimacy existed betweien Augustus and Agrippa? 
What must be said to the praise of Maecenas? 

11 What must be said to the praise of Drusus? 

What must be said to the praise of young Marcellus? ' 

In whom did the emperoi- now centre his expectation? *' 

12 How did he continue in the cares of government? What was 

the manner of his death? 
■ '■. What opinion is to be had of the public character of Augustus? 
What was, at this period, the number of the Roman citizens, 
and the population of Rome? 

13 Who succeeded Augustus in the imperial dignity? 

:'j ii:;-.-/ s.l: ■-^■:':.. • ■ TiBERius. ■' ' ■''- : ::J'Vf :: 

What inclltiations did Tiberius begin to manifest? •:'•■' ' ' 
How did he take the jest of a certain wag? ^ " 

14 Was his reign altogether inglorious? 

What had happened, by this time, to the legions of Pannonia 
and Germany? How was the sedition of the former 
quelled? 

15 By what exertions did Germanicus stay the revolt of his 

troops? ' 

'"i- : How did they endeavor to atone for their fault? 

How were the Germans repeatedly defeated? 
-. What were the -feelings of Tiberius at the hews of ihese 
idi :-..feVents? -- • - ,.: . • ■" j : 

16 What plan- of operations was contrived by <jjermanieus for 

the ensuing sumnier? - . . 

How were the remains of the soldiers of Varus found? / 
What grief did the Roman soldiers experience at this sight? 

17 What did the Romans do after they buried the remains of 

their countrymen? Describe the battle that followed? 
'' What is said of Germanicus? ' ' 

i How did he behave towards his soldiers, and towards the 

hostile Germans? 

18 How did he proceed into the enemy's country? 

. . Describe the battle fought between him and Arminius?;' 
What is said of the victory? : 

Were the Germans dispirited by their defeat? 

19 What happened to the Roman troops on their return? • J 
'1: How did Germanicus repair the disaster of his fleet? ■ 

How did he counteract the designs of the Gei'man&? ; ^ 

'^ ^ Why and how was he recalled to Rome? ■■■ ■i 

20 What were the subsequent events in Germany? - 
What became of Arminius? T' 



QUESTIONS. ^ 

'il WTial vij.'i'iws'GfiSef desire and aim of Tiberius? 
What instances did he afford of his liberality? 

22 What was the real bent of his character? 

What commission was given to Germanicus, and how did he 

execute it? 
How did Germanicus close his career? 

23 What was the grief occasioned by his death? 

How did Tiberius act towards Germanicus's enemies, and 

how did he treat the persons of his own family? 
Who was Sejanus; how did he rise in favor, and what was the 
cause of his subsequent downfall? 

24 What events were then accomplished in Judea? 
How was the Christian Church fo.unded? 

25 How did Tiberius exercise his tyranny? 

Where did he retire, and to what excesses did he abandon 
himself? When and how was his life ended? 

What gradation with regard to vice is to be remarked in that 
emperor? 

26 What celebrated authors flourished under Tiberius? 

CALIGULA. 

Who was Caligula, and in what manner did hp begin his 

reign? 
What change took place in the conduct of Caligula? 
How did he indulge his prodigality and rapacity? 
27. What cruelties and barbarities did he exercise against men? 
'How partial and kind was he to beasts, especially to his 
horse? 

28 How did he conduct the war against the Gernia,ns? 
What ridiculous exploits did he perform? 

How far did he carry his pride and impiety? 
What was the end of his life? 

29 What happened in Kome after the assassination of Caligula, 

and who was proclaimed emperor in his place? 

CLAUDIUS. 

What was the character of Claudius? 
. What was the most important event of his reign? 

What conquests were achieved by Plautius and Vespasian in 
Great Britain? 

30 Who were left to continue the war in. Britain? 

How were the Silures subdued by the Romans? 

31 How did Caractacus behave himself, and how was he treated 

in. Rome? 
- What were the other events of Claudius' reign? 

By whom was he poisoned? . - 



32 Who was Nero, 9,nd:how did he begin to govern.the empire? 

What was his real character? ^ . 

/isi:. How did he dispose of his young brother Britannictis? 

How did he put his mother to death? 4 



QUESTIONS. 



33 How did he treat bis tutors and wives? ' 
Who was sent against the Parthians? 

What manner of warfare was adopted by Corbulo? 
What was the final result of the Parthian war? 

34 What insurrection arose in Great Britain against the Komans? 
How did Suetonius Paulinus prepare to check the insurgents? 
How did he fight them, and with what success? 

35 How did Nero degrade the majesty of the empire? 
What were his daily expenses? 

36 How far did he carry the luxury of his table, dress, etc.? 
By what means did he supply himself with money? 
What was the course of his cruelties? 

What does Tacitus say Qf him? 

37 Who was commonly believed to have set Rome on fire? 
What gave occasion to the first general persecution against 

the Church, and how were the Christians tormented? 

38 Who raised first the standard of insurrection against Nero? 

39 How did Nero terminate his life? 

What rank does he occupy among wicked princes? 

GAL,BA, OTHO, VITELI>IU8. 

What was the character and the duration of the reign of 

Galba? 
Who was Otho, and how long did he reign? 

40 In what did the chief merit of Vitellius consist? 

By whom was Vespasian elected emperor, and who contrib- 
uted most to his success? 

41 How did Antonius Primus open the campaign against the 

Vitellians? 
How did he prepare for a general engagement? 

42 What singular circumstances accompanied the battle? 
How were the exertions of Pi'imus rendered successful? 
How were the Vitellians again defeated? 

Describe an attack on the camp? 

43 What is said of these victories? of the city of Cremona? 
How was Rome taken and entered by the victorious anny? 
What became of Vitellius? 

44 How was he put to death? How many Emperors reigned in 

the year a.d. 69? 

VESPASIAN. 

What memorable event took place in the year 70? 

When did the Jews revolt against the Romans? 

What were the first events of the Jewish revolt? 
46 What was the situation, both physical and moral, of Jeru- 
salem? 

How long did the siege of Jerusalem last, and how was it 
conducted? 

To what excess of famine were the besieged reduced? 
46 To what crimes did this plague give rise, and what was the 
number of its victims? 

By what feelings were the Romans actuated towards the 
Jews? 



QUESTIONS. 5. 



47 How was fire set to the temple of Jerusalem? Describe its 

destruction. 
What coincidence rendered the burning of the temple more 
remarkable? 

48 How was the reduction of Jerusalem completed, and how 

many Jews had perished during the siege? 

What predictions were fulfilled by the destruction of Jeru- 
salem ? 

What prodigies had foretold its ruin? 

What had taken place in the year which preceded the begin- 
ning of hostilities? 

What voice was heard issuing from the sanctuary of the tem- 
ple on the day of Pentecost? 

49 What does Josephus relate of a certain countryman who lived 

at that time? 
60 Where did Titus go after the destruction of Jerusalem? 

What was done by Vespasian to restoi'e the splendor of the 

empire? 
How did he check luxury and effeminacy? 
How did he promote justice, and practise beneficence and 

kindness? 
On what occasion did his usual clemency disappear? 

51 Of what other fault is he accused, and with what justice and 

truth? 
In what manner did he close his life? 
What is to be remarked of the census taken under Yespasian? 

TITUS. 

52 Who succeeded Vespasian? 

What was the benevolence of Titus? 

How did he endeavor to repair public disasters? what wAs 

the most dreadful of these calamitous events? 
How did Pliny the elder perish? 

53 To what dangers was Pliny the younger exposed? 

What were the sad effects of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius? 

54 How did Titus behave in the midst of these calamities? How 

long did he reign? 

DOMITIAN. 

What contrast did there exist between Titus and Domitian? 
Who had first to suffer from the suspicious policy of Domi- 
tian? 

55 What was the success of Domitian' s wars? 

What was the tyranny of Domitian, and how did he excite 
the second general persecution against the Christians? 
66 What honors did he require? Kelate an instance of his love 
of cruelty? 
What fears did he entertain, and by whom was he murdered? 
57 With whom can Domitian be justly compared? 
Who was chosen emperor after Domitian? 
Who succeeded Nerva? 



QUESTIONS. 



eri ^■-' KERVA AND TBAJAN.; , '. " ■■ ": ''i 

"AQE 

: What did he possess? How did he receive the news of his 
election? How did he seem to reign? 
•^8. How, did he embellisli the capital? . 

How did he live with his people? 
In what rank ought he to be placed as a genigTal?*,. 
What conquests did he achieve? 
69 What reputation did Trajan leave behind him? How did he 
- act towards the Christian^? What was his private life? 
Who were the chief authors that flourished under his. reign, 

or thereabouts? 
What intimacy existed between Tacitus and Pliny the 
younger? :: ■ ..:■ 

60 Who, in their time, gained the premium of poetry? . . 

HADRIAN;, ... •■-.■:■. .„;>• 

Did Hadrian follow the footsteps of his predecessor ibi every- 
thing? , 
What means did he employ to preserve a constant peace? 
How did he revive the strictness of military discipline? , 

61 What kindness did he show to the soldiers? , ', 
What attention did he pay to civil affairs? 

What was his conduct towards the se:nate and the people? 
What particular instances are recorded' of his clemency and 
regard for truth? 

62 Were the talents of Hadrian quite remarkable? What is re- 

lated of his memory? 
To what undertakings did his genius prompt him? 
What revolt distui'bed the tranquillity of Hadrian's reign? 

63 How did the Koman generals fight and pr6s.trate the revolted 

Jews? . 
What has been, ever since that time, the situation of the 

Jews? 
How did Hadrian spend the last part of his life? 

64 What opinion must be entertained of his public character? .. ; 
What was the state of literature under Hadrian? 

ANTONINUS. 

Who was 'Antoninus Pius? 

65 How did Antoninus conduct himself on the occasion of a con- 

spiracy? 
What kindness did.Jie show to a Grecian philosopher? ;; 

66 What other instances maybe adduced of his; meekaiess; and 

generosity? -;.' 

How did he govern the state? ) .; -T ;£ 

How was Antoninus disposed towards the Christians?; 
J7. What influence did his moderation secure him over foi'eign 

nations? . ■. . ■ 

How long did he live, and what was ^he public feeling in his 

regard? .^ ri ^ h t'i 



QUESTIONS. 



MABCI7S-AUBEL1U8. . 
»AGK 

68 How far did Marcus-Aurelius imitate the example of his pre- 

decessor? 
- Who checked the progress of the Parthians, and by what 

plague was the victory of the Romans followed? , 

What occurred most remarkable in the expedition of Marcus 

Aurelius against the Marcomans? 
What were the circumstances that acquired for the 12th 

legion the name of thundering? 

69 What credit does Marcus-Aurelius deserve as an author? 
How did Commodus imitate the worst of tyrants? 

What advantages did the short reign of Pertinax procure to 
the state? , 

70 How was the empire put up at auction? 

How did Severus succeed in quickly overthrowing Didius 
Juliknus? ■ ' - 

SEPTIMUS SEVEBUS. ! ' " 

Who were the other competitors of Severus? 

71 By what series of defeats was the power of Niger destroyed? 
What penalties were inflicted on the vanquished party? 
what wei'e the opposite views of Severus and Albinus? 
How did they come to an open rupture? 

72 Where did AlbinUs intend to go, and how did Severus march 

against him? - ., 

""Where and how was a decisive battle fought between them? 

73 By what exertions did Severus revive the courage of his 

troops? 
■^ Who decided the fate of the day? 

What use did Severus make of his prosperity? 
■ How did he reward his soldiers, and punish his enemies? 

74 What lesson did he theri receive from his younger son Geta? 
Who was Plautian, and what was his fate? 

What was the situation of the Christians, and how were they 
treated by Severus? 

75 How did they bear the persecution and endure torments? 

76 What else concurred in the vindication of Christianity? Who 

wrote in its favor? 
Is Severus to be reckoned among the most wicked princes? 

77 What was his distinguishing feature? 

^' Against whom did he perform his last military expedition? 

What sad event did then happen to him? 
s How did he reproach Garacalla with his detestable design? 

78 Where was Severus taken ill, and how did he settle the suc- 
; cession of the empire? - 

What were his last words and actions? 

What comparison may be established between him and Napo- 
leon Bonaparte? 



8 QUESTIONS. 

CABACALI.A, MACBINUS, HEMO GAB ALUS. 
PAOK 

79 How did Caracalla begin and prosecute his reign? By whom 

was he murdered and succeeded on the throne? 
What new revolution overthrew Macrinus? 

80 How were all the worst tyrants revived in Heliogabalus? 
How did he perish, and who succeeded him? 

AliEXANDEB SEVEBUS. 

What were the inclinations and favorite virtues of Alexander 
Severus? 

81 How old was Alexander? For this to whom was he in- 

debted? 
How did he reform the various orders of the state? 
What criminals did he punish with the greatest severity? 
How did he treat those who abused their favor near him, and 

betrayed his confidence? 

82 With what attention did he proceed to the choice of gov- 

ernors and magistrates? 
What clemency did he use towards Ovinius Camillus? 

83 What was his conduct towards the soldiers? 
What influence did he acquire over them? 

With what care did he manage the public treasury, and pro- 
vide for the poor and the distressed? 

84 What was the love and veneration of the Romans for Alex- 

ander? 
What happened in Persia, which obliged Alexander to leave 
Rome for a time? 

85 How did his troops conduct themselves? 

What were the sad restilts of Alexander's attempt to re-es- 
tablish order among the legions of Gaul and Germany? 

What judgment is to be passed on Alexander Severus, and by 
what calamities was his death followed? 

MIHTABY USUEPEBS, 

86 Who was Maximin? 

What had the Romans, and particularly the Christians, to 

suffer from Maximin? 
What was the end of Maximin' s life? 
Of whom was young Gordian a living copy? 

87 How did Philip acquire, govern, and lose the empire? 
What is said of Decius? What persecution was excited by 

him? 
How long did Gallus and ^milian reign, and how did they 

perish? 
What were the qualifications of Valerian? How was he taken 

prisoner, and how treated by the Persians? 

88 What had induced him to declare war against the Christians 

and who were the chief victims of this new persecution? 

How was the whole empire also visited by various chastise- 
ments from the divine justice? 

What saved the state from utter ruin? 



QUESTIONS. 9 

CLAUDIUS II. 
PJIOB 

What virtues did Claudius II. display after his accession to 
the throne? 

89 Describe his exploits against the Goths? 
What became of the Gothic fleet and army? 

90 Where and of what disease did Claudius die? 

AURELIAN. 

What were the first exploits of Aurelian? 
What new monarchy had been lately founded in the East? 
By what means did Zenobia render herself conspicuous and 
powerful? 

91 With what celerity and success did Aurelian march against 

her? 
What did Zenobia do? 
Describe the battle under the walls of Emesa? 

92 What was the antiquity and the situation of Palmyra? 

How did Zenobia sustain the siege of her capital? How did 

she behave herself on being taken prisoner? 
What caused the ruin of Palmyra and of its inhabitants? 

93 What became of Zenobia? 

What other provinces did Aurelian cover? 

How did he govern the empire? What was the occasion of 

his death? 
What had been his conduct towards the Christians? 

TACITUS AND PKOBUS. 

94 What dispute of mutual deference .took place between the 

army and the senate? 

Whom did the senate appoint emperor? 

How was Probus peculiarly fitted for the time in which he 
lived and reigned? What losses did he inflict on the Ger- 
mans? 

95 How did he also check the pride of the Persians? 

What crime deprived the state of so great a prince? What 
rank does Probus hold among the Roman emperors? 

96 Who was the successor of Probus? 

What happened to Carinus and Numerian? 

DIOCLETIAN AND MAXIMIAN. 

How did Diocletian ascend the throne, and whom did he 
choose for his colleague? 

97 What further measures were taken to assist the two emper- 

ors? Who was Constantius-Chlorus? 
How fully could this prince rely upon the affection of hit 

subjects? 
Who was Galerius?' 

98 How did Galerius defeat the Persians? 

By what means did he excite the tenth general persecutio» 

against the Church? 
What was the rigor of this persecution, and how great the 

number of its victims? 



iO QUESTIONS. 



99 Did the persecutors obtain the object of their desire? 

What misfortunes fell upon Diocletian? 
100 Where and how did he spend the last years of his life? 

What was the fate of Maximian? 

Upon whom was the justice of God more strikingly dis- 
played? 
.101 Was not Constantius-Chlorus saved from the like disasters? 

How had he favored the Christians? 

What was the only subject of uneasiness he had? 
102. What CQnsolatioh did he enjoy at his last moments? 



Pabt II. — Accession of Constantine — Dowtifyll of the 
Boman Empire. 

CONSTANTINE THE GBEAT. 

103 What brilliant qualities appeared in CoustaDtiue from the 

beginning of his reign? How was the Roman empirs then 
' divided? 

What were the victories of Constantine over the Fraaks? 
Against whom did he prepare next to wage war? 

104 With what vision was he favored? 

How did he penetrate and advance into Italy? 

105 Whom was he obliged to fight near Verona, and how did he 

behave in the battle? 
What was the result of the battle? 
How signal and important was his victory? 
How did he conquer his rival Maxentius in a still more ii»' 
portant engagement? 
10(5 What honors were paid to Constantine at and after his entrj 

into Rome? 
■, ■; What inscription was on his statue? 

.1 How did he use his power, and when did he begin to make a» 
open profession of Christianity? 

107 How was Asia rescued from her tyrant Maximin II. ? 

. What gave I'ise to hostilities between Constantine and Licin- 
ius? Where did the two emperors meet? What was the 
result of the battle? Where was another battle fought, and 
with what result? 

108 Was peace of long duration, and when did a new contest 

arise between them? 
What was the number of the forces on either side? Where did 
the armies meet? Describe the stratagem' and the battle 
that followed? 

109 Who was victorious at sea? 

;. ; What new defeat did Licinius experience near Chalcedon, 
and how was he treated by his conqueror? 
What was the clemency shown to the partisans of Licinius, 
and what laws were enacted by Constantine? 
MO What care did he take to maintain good order among the 
troops? 
How did he love letters and provide for the good education 
of his children? 



QUESTIONS. II. 



111 What was his zeal for religicm, and what celebrated council 

was held under his reign? ' 

What are the faults with which Constantine is reproached, 
particularly with regard to his son Crispus? 

112 Why and when did he build Constantinople? 

What is said of his faults? Of his piety, benevolence, alms 
to the poor, etc.? 

113 What reputation did he acquire, even among foreign nations? 
What were his last military exploits? 

When did he die, and what grief was everywhere displayed 
at the news of his death? 

CONSTANTIUS, CONSTANTINE II., AND CONSTANT. 

114 How was the empire divided between the three sons of Couf 

stantine? What dispute soon broke out between two of 
them? 
What was the character and the chief occupation of thejx 
brother Constantius? 

115 How did he destroy the usurper Magnentius? 

Whom did Constantius appoint his colleague, and what vio- 
lence did he exercise to promote the cause of Arianism? 

116 How did the Caesar Julian discharge his duty in Gaul? 
What revolution placed Julian on the throne? 

JULIAN. 

117 What method did Julian adopt in regulating the state, and in 

persecuting the Christian religion? 
What were the views of Julian in attempting to rebuild the 
temple of Jerusalem? 

118 With what readiness did the Jews set to the projected work? 
By what prodigies were their endeavors defeated? 

119 What circumstances concurred to render this event most in- 

contestable? . ; 

What is observed of this event? 

Against what enemy did Julian now prepare to fight? 
How did he advance with his army through Mesopotamia 

and Assyria? 
How did his fleet pass from the river Euphrates to the Tigris, 

and how was the Tigris itself crossed? r 

120 Upon what considerations, and what advice, did he alter his 

plans? 
What dangers and attacks had the Eomans to encounter in 
their march? How did Julian himself receive a deadly 
wound? How did he die according to some? 

121 What can be said of Julian's character? 

What peculiar talent and quality did he certainly possess? 

JOVIAN. 

Who was appointed his successor, and what was the sad 
result of Julian's expedition? 

122 What were the transactions of Jovian' s reign? 
Who was next elected emperor? 



1^, QUESTIONS. 



VAIiENTlNIAN AND VALENS. 
PAGE 

123 Whom did Valentinian declare his colleague? 

How did Valentinian govern his portion of the empire? 
How did his irascible temper become fatal to himself? 
What were the good and the bad qualities of V^lens? 

124 What military achievements were performed by his generals? 

125 What was the situation of the empire after the battle of 

Adrianople until the accession of Theodosius? 

THEODOSIUS I., GBATIAN, AND VALENTINIAK II. 

How was Valens signally defeated by the Goths? 
Who was Theodosius? 

126 What change took place in the state of affairs? 
What laws were enacted by Theodosius? 
What zeal did he show for religion? 

127 What was the conduct and the sad fate of the emperor Gra- 

tian? 
What were the further views of the usurper Maximus, and 
how were they defeated? 

128 What sedition took place in Antioch? 

How did Theodosius first punish, and then forgive its au- 
thors? 

129 What excess of severity did he exercise against the inhabit- 

ants of Thessalonica? By whom was he induced to repent 
of his fault? 
What is said of the young emperor? 

130 What happened to the emperor Valentinian II.? 

What was the affliction of Theodosius for the death of that 

prince? 
What battle was fought near Aquileia? 
How did heaven declare for Theodosius? 

131 How long did he live after his victory, and what honors were 

paid to his memory? 

132 What were the public achievements of Theodosius? 
What were his private qualities and Christian virtues? 

HONORITTS AND ABCADIUS. 

133 Who succeeded Theodosius on the throne? 

What can be found worthy of remark in the reign of Arca^ 

dius? 
To whom are attributed chiefly the disasters of Honorius' 

reign? 

134 What were the views of Stilico, and what punishment was 

inflicted both on him and his partisans? 

What provinces of the empire were invaded by the barba- 
rians? 

How was Rome itself besieged and taken by Alaric? 

135 What were the chief effects of the fall of Rome? 

What was the further progress of Alaric? How was his 
career closed? 



QUESTIONS. 13 



136 Where did the Goths obtain a solid settlement? 

When and why did the Romans withdraw from Great Britain? 
When did the t'rench monarchy begin? What happy change 

took place in the public affaiis during the last years! of 

Honorius, and to whom was it owing? 

'•' ' VALENTINIAX nr., THE0D6SIUS II. 

137 Upon whom was the crown transferred after the death of 
■ ' Honorius? 

Who was reigning in the East? 

Why did the prosperity of the Eastern empire decline? 

138 What caused still more calamitous events in the West? 
What wicked plan was contrived by ^tius to ruin Count 

Boniface? . 

What, was the sj«-d consequence of his artifice?, 

139 Wliat the was final result of the contest between Boiiif ace 

and ^tius? 
By what services did ^tius make up for his fault? 
What new invasion threatened the empire? 

140 How was Attila repulsed from Orleans? 

What overthrow did he experience in the plains of Chalons? 

141 What were the consequences of the battle? , 

By what means did Attila succeed in taking Aquileia? 

142 What ravages did he commit in the north of Itaily? 

Who prevailed upon him to retire? When did he die, and 
what became of the vast empire which he had founded? 

143 What was the manner of death both of ^tius and of the 

emperor Valentinian III? 

MARCIAN, LEO THE THBACIAN. 

144 Who called the Vandals from Africa, and how was Rome 

plundered by them? 

Who reigned in the East after Theodosius II? 

What did Marcian do as soon as he was acknowledged em- 
peror? How did he reply to the deputies of Attila? 

How did he assist the pastors of the Church in maintaining 
the true faith? 

145 What were the private qualities of Marcian, and what was 

the duration of his reign? 
Who was his successor? What famous conqueror lived at 

the same time? 
What was now the condition of the Western empire? 
How many emperors reigned within a few years? 
:)l46 What was done by the patrician Ricimer? 

Who was the last emperor of the West? Who took the title 

of King of Ita,ly? 
What circumstances accompanied the fall of the Western em- 

pii'e? 
147 How did religion, amidst these revolutions, maintain her 

influence and dignity? 



14 QUESTIONS. 

Pabt III. — Foundation of the Principal States of Europe. 



ANGLO-SAXOKS IN BRITAIN. — HENGIST. 
VXQM 

148 When were the principal states now extant in Europe 

founded? 
What had been for a long time the situation of Great Britain? 
Whom did the Britons call to their assistance, and how did 
a war arise between them and their auxiliaries? 

149 What victories were gained and what settlements made by 

the Anglo-Saxons? 
When were the Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity? 
What became of the ancient inhabitants? 

VISIGOTHS IN SPAIN. — EVABIC. 

150 How and when was Spain conquered by the Visigoths? 
What were the other conquests of Evaric? 

What laws did he give to his people? 

When did Evaric die? What acts of cruelty did he commit? 

THE FKANKS IN GAUL. — CLOVIS. 

151 Who were the Franks? Which of their kings was the real 

founder of the French monarchy? 

Whom did Clovis attack first? 

What was the occasion of the conversion of Clovis to Chris- 
tianity? 

152 What were his other wars and conquests? 
What reputation was acquired and left by Clovis? 

153 What skill did he evince as a politician and a legislator? 

OSTROGOTHS IN ITALY.— THEODORIC THE GREAT. 

Who was the ablest warrior and statesman of that age? HoW 
did Theodoric achieve the conquest of Italy? 

154 By what means did he secure his power? 

How did he govern both his ancient and new subjects? 

155 Who were his chief counsellors? 

What was his zeal for learning and for useful institutions? 

156 What was the extent of his empire? What faults did he 

commit at the beginning and towards the end of his reign? 
How did he die, and who was his successor? 
What must be thought of the administration of Theodoric? 

EMPERORS OF CONSTANTINOPLE. — JUSTIN. 

157 What were the talents and qualities of Justin I., emperor of 

Constantinople? 
What disasters happened about this time? 
By what plagues was Antioch visited? 

158 What was the desolation of that city? 

Did all the inhabitants perish? How long lasted the earth- 
quake? 

What were the feelings and the solicitude of Justin on the 
occasion of these events? 



QUESTIONS. 15 



JUSTINIAN. 
PAGE • 

159 What contributed chiefly to render the reign of Justinian 

glorious? 
What were the views of Justinian with regard to the civil 

legislation? 
What are the different parts of the Justinian compilation of 

laws? 

160 What has been the renown of the Roman law? 
What was the situation of the Vandals in Africa? 

161 What victories were gained over them by Belisarius? 
How was king Gelimer pursued and besieged? 

162 How did he surrender himself into the hands of Belisarius? 
Where did Belisarius return to? What became of Gelimer? 
How was Italy also subdued by Belisarius? 

163 How did the Goths retrieve their losses for a time? 
What exploits were achieved by Totila? 

Who was Narses? 

164 What victory was gained by Narses over Totila? 

Whom did the Goths put at their head after the death of 

Totila? 
What new battle was fought between the Romans and the 

Goths? 

165 How was Teias slain during the conflict? 
With what fury was the battle renewed? 

166 What was the result of the battle? 

What share did the French take in these broils? 
What were the designs of King Theodebertus against Justin- 
ian? 
Who undertook the defence of the Goths? 

167 What became of Leutharis and of his troops? 

Where did the armies of Narses and Bucelin meet? What 
was the result of the battle? What was the number slain 
on each side? 

What disasti'ous war was, at the same time, carried on be- 
tween the Romans and the Persians? 

168 What fresh calamities visited the empire? Who defeated 

the Huns? What misfortunes happened to Belisarius? 

169 When did both Justinian and Belisarius die? What reverses 

attended the close of Justinian's reign? 
With what other faults is Justinian justly reproached? 
What praises does he deserve? 

JUSTIN II., TIBERIUS H. 

170 Who succeeded Justinian? 

What measure was taken by Justin II. to check fraud and 
extortion? 

What firmness was displayed by the prefect of Constantino- 
ple? 

171 What were the defects of Justin and of the empress Sophia? 

172 What revenge is said to have been taken by Narses? With 

wbat success did the Lombards invade Italy? 



JO QUESTIONS. 

PAQK 

What gave rise to a fresh war with the Persians? How was 
it conducted on both sides? * 

173 In what battle was King Ohosroes defeated? 

Wliat were the exertions of Tiberius, the emperor's colleague, 

for the good of the state? 
When was Tiberius left sole master, and how did he defeat 

the intrigues of the empress Sophia? 

174 How long and how successfuUv did he reign? 

MAURITIUS. 

Who was Mauritius? 

In what manner did the war continue against the Persians? 

175 What disturbances took place in Persia? How did Mauritius 

concur in putting an end to them? 
What was the happy effect of his conduct? 
Who were the Avai'i? 
How did Priscus, the Roman general, begin his expedition 

against the Avari? 

176 What were the new victories of Priscus? 
How were the Gepidfe also entii-ely defeated? 

177 What was the close of Priscus' glorious campaign? 
What event brought an odium upon Mauritius? 
By what catastrophe was his reign terminated? 

178 By what disasters and calamities was Italy visited? 

Who was raised to the chair of St. Peter, and how did he 
govern the Church? 

PHOCAS. 

179 Who was Phocas? Who waged war against him? 

180 By whom was Phocas dethroned? 

HERACLIUS. 

In what condition was the empire found at the accession of 

Heraclius? 
How did the Persians pursue the war? 

181 How did Heraclius prepare to march against them? 

What were the exploits of Heraclius in Armenia and Persia? 

182 What was the success of his subsequent campaigns? 
Which was his most signal victory? What became of the 

Persian king? 
What had been the character and government of Chosroes 
11. ? 

183 Upon what terms was peace concluded between the Persians 

and the Romans? 
What was now the situation of the two empires? 

MAHOMETANISM. 

Who was Mahomet? When and where was he born? What 
quality did he assume? 

184 What religious system was broached by Mahomet, and what 

ought to bis said oi[ the Koran? 



QUESTIONS. 17 



What circumstances weie favorable to Mahomet's design, and 

what obstacles did he meet in his way? 
To what means did he resort to propagate his religion? 

185 What impulse did he give to his followers? 

What was another means of his success? What were the 

three conditions offered when declaring war? 
By what names are the followers of Mahomet designated? 

PKOGBESS OF MAHOMETANISM. 

186 What parties arose among the Arabs after the death of Ma- 

homet? 
Who was chosen to fill hiS' place? 
What exploits were achieved by the Mussulmans under Abu- 

Beker? 

187 "What changes in the army were produced by the election of 

Omar to the dignity of Caliph? 
How did the war continue to be carried on between the 
Greeks and the Saracens? 

188 How was the conquest of Syria and Palestine completed by 

the Saracens? 
What was their success in Mesopotamia? 

189 What was at that time the conduct of the Greek emperors? 

CONQUEST OF THE SAKACENS IN EGYPT. 

Which of the Mussulman generals marched into Egypt? 

What happened to Amrou at Alexandria? 

How was Amrou saved from an imminent danger? 

190 When did he commence the siege of Alexandria? 

How long did the siege last, and how were both the city and 

the whole country subdued by the Saracens? 
What became of the Alexandrian Library? 

191 What attempt was made by Amrou? What was the end of 

Omar's life, and how many conquests were achieved during 
his reign? 
What was the character of Omar? 

CONQUEST OF THE SARACENS IN PERSIA, ETC. 

192 Under whom was the subjugation of Persia completed? 
What exertions were made by the Persians to defend their 

country? 
What was the result of the battle of Cadesia? 
What important capture was made, and what new victory 

gained, by Saad, the Saracen general? 

193 What battle gave the deadly blow to the Persian monarchy? 
What became of king Isdegerdes, and of his kingdom? 

194 What other conquests were achieved about this time by the 

Mussulmans? 
What obstacles checked the further progress of the Saracen 
arms in western Asia? 

195 Who was the head of the Ommiade dynasty? 

What parties arose among the Mahometans, which have con- 
tinued till this day? 



18 QUESTIONS. 



THE GREEK EMPIRE, ETC. 
PAGE. 

How did the Greek emperor, Constantine Pogonatus, begin 

his reign? 
With what courage and skill did he defend his capital against 

the Saracens? 

196 What was the Grecian fire, and by whom had it been in- 

vented? 
What disasters overtook the Mussulman troops and vessels? 
What other services did Pogonatus render to the state, and 

also to the Church? 

197 What events followed his death? 

With what success did the Arabs resume their course of 
conquest? 

198 Describe the battle at Yakoube in Africa? 
What was the stratagem resorted to by Zobeir? 
How were the Saracens completely victorious? 

\Q9 Who gained another victory near Tripoli? 
How was conducted the expedition of Oucba? 
What imprudence was committed by Oucba? 
With what resolution did he fight? 

200 What was the result of Zuheir's expedition? 
Who attacked and took Carthage? 

When was the reduction of northern Africa completed by the 
Saracens? 

SARACENS IN SPAIN. 

201 Under what circumstances and by whom were the Saracens 

called into Spain? 
What was the respective strength of the opposite armies? 
Describe the battle of Xeres? 

202 What event made the Goths lose courage, and what became 

of king Roderic? 
What was the result of the battle of Xeres? 
In what part of Spain and under whose conduct did the 

Christians maintain their independence? 

liEO THE ISAURIAN. 

203 What disasters befell the Saracens in their second attempt 

upon Constantinople? 

What is said of Leo the Isaurian? Against what did he pub- 
lish an edict? 

How long and cruel a persecution was exercised against the 
defenders of Images? 

CHARLES MARTEL. 

204 How did the Arabs and Moors invade France? 

What was the danger that threatened France and all Chris- 
tendom? 

205 Who was the hero destined to save both? 

How did the French fight the Saracen host near Tours? 
What was the importance and the splendor of their victory? 



QUESTIONS. ]9 

PAGE 

206 How did Charles Martel govern the French monarchy? 
What circumstances favored the accession of his son Pepin 

to tlie tlirone? 
How was an end put to the Merovingian dynasty? 

PEPIN, KING OP FRANCE. 

How did Pepin show himself worthy of his high station ? 

207 What was by this time the situation of Italy? 

For what motives and with what success did Pepin attack 

the Lombards? 
What was the result of his second expedition? 

208 What kind of embassy was sent to him from Constantinople? 
To whom did he make a donation of his conquests in Italy ? 
How were the Mussulman Caliphs Oinmiades ovei'thrown and 

succeeded by the Abassides? 

209 Who founded the kingdom of Cordova? 

What advantages were gained by Pepin over the Saracens of 

Spain? 
What wei-e the chief qualifications of Pepin? 

210 How did he fully make up for the shortness of his size? 

CHARLEMAGNE, KING, ETC. 

By whom was Pepin even surpassed in his great actions? 
What are the splendid characteristics of the reign of Charle- 
magne? 
What were the first exploits of Charlemagne? 

211 Against whom did he march with his troops into Italy? 
What journey did he take to Rome, and how did he annihi- 
late the kingdom of the Lombards? 

What was the occasion and the result of his expedition into 
Spain? 

212 What circumstances obliged him repeatedly to fight the 

Saxons? 
What were the exertions of Witikind against a foreign yoke? 
What vigor and severity did Charlemagne use against the 

Saxons? 
How was the war still carried on between the two parties? 

213 What was the desire of Charlemagne, and what offers did he 

make to the Saxon leaders? 
How was Witikind at length induced to make his submis- 
sion, and how was an end put to the Saxon war? 

214 What other exploits and conquests were achieved by Charle- 

magne? 
By what means did he secure the splendor and tranquillity of 

his empire? 
To what objects did he now chiefly apply himself? 

215 What were his exertions for the revival of literature and 

learning? 
What was the reputation of Charlemagne, and how extensive 
were his dominions? 

216 How was the title of emperor conferred upon him? 
What modesty did he evince on that occasion? 



20 QUESTIONS. 



How many titles did Charlemagne now unite in himself? 

217 What was the frequency of public calamities in those limes, 

and how far can it be ascribed to a want of civilization? 

218 What confusion and evils were produced by the invasion of 

barbarians? 

What was the decay of arts and sciences ? How far did it 
extend? Who were among the eminent scholars? What 
were some of the discoveries, and when were they made? 

How did religion stem the torrent of barbarism? 

219 What happy changes did she effect among the conquering 

tribes? 
What was the influence of Christianity on the civilization of 
Europe? 

220 What was done by bishops, priests and monks for the mani- 

fold advantage of society? 
How zealously did the clergy and monks labor for the preser- 
vation of science and the improvement of agriculture? 
'^l What benefits were conferred by the Popes upon Europe and 
all Christendom? 



Pabt IV. — Revival of the Western Empire — Beginning 
of the Crusades. 

CHABLEMAGNE, EMPEEOK. 

222 How did Charlemagne signalize the beginning of his reign as 

emperor? 
What losses did he sustain in his family, and how did he 
close his glorious career? 

223 What judgment ought to be passed on Charlemagne? What 

wei'e his talents for government and his exertions in the 
administration of justice? 
2?\ What successes did he obtain in war? 

How far did he excel in learning and eloquence? 
What were the moral and Christian qualities of Charlemagne? 
2^ What was the simplicity of his manners, and his prudence in 
the management of his household? 
What magnificence did he display as a sovereign, and what 
public woiks owed to him their existence? 

LOUIS THE DEBONNAIKE, AND HIS SONS. 

826 Who was the successor of Charlemagne? 

227 Between whom was the empire of Charlemagne divided after 

the death of Louis the Debonnaire? 
What was the rise and the progress of the Feudal system? 

ARABIAN AND GREEK EMPIRES. 

228 What was the situation of the Arabian empire under Caliph 

Aaron-Al-Raschid? 
Against whom did Aaron-Al-Raschid wage war? What was 
his character? What is said of his severity? What did he 
dot for literature? 



QUESTIONS. 21 



What happened to the Arabian monarchy after the death of 
Aaron- Al-Raschid? 

229 What disaster was brought upon the Greeks by the impru- 

dence of their emperor Nicephorus? 
By what victories did Leo the Armenian repel the Bulgar- 
ians and almost annihilate their power? 

230 How did he govern the empire? By whom was he succeeded? 
How did the emperor Theophilus wage war against the 

Saracens? 
What happened at the siege and capture of Amorium? 

231 Under what prince, and in whose intrigues did the Greek 

schism originate? 
What was the progression of that schism, and the fate of its 
first author Photius? 

232 With what vigor did Basil the Macedonian protect the state 

against foreign and domestic foes? 
What was the happy fruit of the vigilance and firmness of 
Basil? 

233 What accident deprived him of his life? What rank does he 

deserve among the Greek emperors? 

SPAIN DURING THE 9tH AND IOth CENTURIES, 

How did the kingdom of Asturias in Spain increase in extent 
and power? 

234 What kings most contributed to that increase? 
How did Alfonso III. quell domestic conspiracies? 

What were his last exploits, together with the last disturb- 
ances of his reign? 

235 With what vicissitudes of success was the war now carried on 

between the Christians and the Mooi'S of Spain? 

What qualities distinguished the Arabian king Abderame 
III? How did he make arts and sciences flourish in Cor- 
dova? 

What proved best the greatness and superiority of his mind? 

236 Who was Mahomet Almanzor? 

With what opponent did he meet at first, and how did he 

wage war against the Christians? 
What victory did he gain over King Burmudes II? 
What did Almanzor do to stop the flight of his troops? 

237 What did he do after his victory? How was his progress of 

conquest stopped? 
What was now the respective strength of the Moors and of 
the Christians in Spain? 

ENGLAND IN THE 9tH AND IOtH CENTURIES. 

238 What was, during the middle ages, the situation of England, 

and what causes led to the ruin of the Heptarchy? 
Who was Egbert, and what contradictions did he first exneri- 

ence? 
How did Egbert receive the crown of Wessex, and then extend 

his authority over a great part of England? 

239 Against what new foes had he to defend his kingdom? 



22 QUESTIONS. 



With what obstinate perseverance did the Danes invade the 
British isles? 

240 Under what |unf avorable auspices did the reign of Alfred 

commence? 
What events revived the courage of the Saxons? 
How were the Danes defeated, and what terms of peace were 

imposed on them? 

241 How did Alfred improve the British army and navy? 
What was bis merit as a legislator? 

242 What were his exertions for the advancement of science and 

of all useful arts? 
What were his last military achievements? 

243 How fully did Alfred deserve the epithet of Great, and what 

was the chief praise of that monarch? 
By whom was he succeeded on the throne? 
Who was the real founder of the kingdom of England? 

244 What calamities and disasters did England again experience? 

FBANCE AKD GERMANY. 

What settlement did the Normans obtain in France; and 
when wa.s the imperial sceptre transferred from the family 
of Charlemagne to the German princes? What evils in the 
meanwhile prevailed throughout the French kingdom? 

245 Why was the crown refused to the Duke of Lorraine, and to 

whom was it offered? 
How did he govern the state, and what rule of succession 

did he establish? 
When did the German empire become elective? Who were, 

under this mode of accession, its first sovereigns? 

246 How did Henry the Fowler check the ravages of the bar- 

barians? 
With what zeal did he promote the safety and happiness of 

his people? 
Who was chosen to succeed him in the empire? 

247 Who occupied the German throne after Otho I? 

THE EASTERN NATIONS, ETC. 

What was the situation of the Greek empire? Why and 
when was Nicephorus Phocas raised to the sovereign 
power? 

248 What rendered Nicephorus odious, ana occasioned his death? 
What were the qualifications of Zimisces? 

What victories did he gain over the Russians? 

249 What advantages did he obtain over the Saracens? What 

was the cause and the manner of his death? 

250 Who reigned after Zimisces, and how was Bulgaria entirely 

subdued? 
What was the martial spirit of Basil II., and the character of 

his administration? 
What losses were sustained by the Arabian Caliphs? 

251 What conquests were achieved by the Seljukian Turks? 



QUESTIONS. 23 



IRELAND. 
PAOE 

Of what country have we now to speak? 

What was the origin and the government of the Irish nation? 
252 When and by whom were the Irish converted to Christianity? 
How far did they excel in virtue and science? 
What ravages were committed by the Danes in Ireland? 
1253 Who put a check to their depi-edations? How were the 
Danes again signally defeated? 
What were for Ireland the happy consequences of the battle 
of Clontarf? 

DANISH KINGS IN ENGLAND. 

254 Who was Edmund Ironside, and what did he perform for the 

defence of his country? 
How did Canute treat both his ancient and his new subjects? 
What striking proof did Canute give of his piety? 

255 What was the extent of his dominions, and how were they 

divided after his death? 
What were the qualities of King Edward the Confessor, and 
the blessings of his reign? 

256 What statutes were published by him, and what honor was 

paid to his memory? 

NORMANS IN ENGLAND. 

Who claimed the throne of England after Edward's death? 
Who was first proclaimed king? Against whom had Harold 
to contend? 

257 How did William of Normandy land on the shores of Eng- 

land? 
Describe the battle of Hastings? 

258 How did William obtain a complete victory? 
What was the result of the battle? 

259 What measures were first adopted by William with regard to 

government? 
Why were the English displeased and discontented? 
What severity was now used against them? 

260 How did William baffle the efforts of all his enemies? 
Where did he die? 

NORMANS IN ITALY. 

Who obliged the Saracens to abandon the siege of Salernum? 
What exploits were performed by the Normans in Italy? 

261 Who were the most distinguished among them? 

CHIVALRY. 

In what did ancient chivalry consist? 

262 What was the renown of Diaz of Bivar. otherwise c^l«d Vl 

Cidf 
How was Toledo taken from the Saracen»> 



24 QUESTIONS. 



263 Which of the foreign knights most signally assisted the Span- 

iards in their war against the Moors? And what was the 
origin of the kingdom of Portugal? 

AFFAIK OF INVESTITURE. 

What was meant by Investiture? How did the German em- 
peror Henry IV., dispose of ecclesiastical dignities, and 
who opposed him in his wicked practices? 

264 What sentence was passed by Pope Gregory VII., against the 

emperor. 
To what signs of penance and humiliation did Henry submit 
himself? 

265 How long did his repentance last, and what competitor was 

opposed to him by the German lords? 
What new excesses did he commit? How did the Pope de- 
part this life? 

266 What was the end of the emperor's life, and how was the 

question of investitures settled after his death? 

KEMABKS ON THE MIDDLE AGES? 

What were the middle ages? 

How far did ignorance pi-evail, and how was it opposed by 
the Church? 

268 How many learned clergymen flourished during those ages? 
What must be said to the praise of laymen themselves during 

the same period? 

269 What useful discoveries and improvements did then take 

place? 
Were the Arabs truly superior, in solid acquirements, to the 
Christian nations of Europe? 

270 What do the monuments of architecture still extant prove in 

favor of the middle ages? 

271 What splendid and religious edifices were then built in vari- 

ous parts of Christendom? 
What nations of Europe became converted and civilized? 
What must be concluded from this variety of evidences and 

facts in favor of the Catholic Church? 

272 What other excellent institution owed its existence to the 

middle ages? 
What had been the sad effects of the Feudal system? 
What barrier was opposed by religion to the prevailing evils? 
What were the happy results of the Truce of God? 



Pabt V — From the beginning of the Crusades to their end, 

OEIGIN AND CAUSE OF THE CBUSADES. 

274 What eventful period is now to be considered? 

What is meant by Crusades, and in what causes did they orig- 
inate? 



QUESTIONS. ^5 

PAGS 

What cruelties were committed in the Holy Land by the 
Arabs and Turks against the Christians? 

FIRST CKUSADE. 

275 Who was Peter the Hermit? What did he contrive for the 

deliverance of Jerusalem? 
With vehat zeal and success did he preach the ci'usade? 

276 Where and how was taken the final decision for the crusade? 
What was the eagerness of the people everywhere to take the 

cross? 
Who were the chief crusaders? 

277 Which of them held the first rank in the army? What was 

the whole number of the crusaders, and what became of 

their first troops? 
Where was the general rendezvous of the various bodies of 

the army? 
What were the feelings of the Greek emperor Alexius at the 
. arrival of so many warriors? 

278 What city was besieged first bj the Christian host? What is 

said of this town? 

How was Nice attacked and defended? How did jt f all into 
the hands of the emperor Alexius? 

279 How did the crusadei'S begin to make conquests for them- 

selves? Who obtained the sovereign power in Edessa? 
What encounter took place near Dorylseum in Phrygia? 

280 How were the Turks finally defeated? 

What was the respective loss of the Christians and the 
Turks? What dangers and sufferings had the former now 
to undergo? , 

281 What vicissitudes of events happened during the siege of 

Antioch? 
How was Antioch taken by the crusaders? 

282 What fresh enemy arrived to attack them? 

What famine raged, and what desolation reigned in Antioch? 
What circumstances revived the courage, of the troops? 
'283 How did the Christians march out to fight the enemy? 

What valor did they evince, and what victory did they ob- 
tain? 

284 What were the consequences of the battle of Orontes? 
What new calamities and losses did the crusaders sustain? 

285 How did they advance to Jerusalem? What is said of their 

pious transports? 
What plague afflicted the besieging army? 
With what vigor was Jerusalem assaulted? 

286 What efforts were made in a new attack, and how was the 

holy city at length taken? 

287 What was the fury of the conquerors in the first moments of 

victory? 
What marks of fervent devotion did they afterwards exhibit, 
./-.- and whom did they appoint king of Jerusalem? 

What brilliant victory crQwned all the exploits of .the crk- 

saders? 



26 QUESTIONS. 

GENEKAL VIEW, ETC. 
PAGB 

288 How should the first crusade be regarded? 

To what circumstances did the crusaders owe their success? 

289 What became of the chief leaders of the crusade? 
What story is related of two noble twin-brothers? 

KINGDOM OP JEBUSALEM. 

^90 With what wisdom did Godfrey support and govern his king 
dom of Jerusalem? 
When did he die? 

291 What was his character? 

292 What were the exertions of the successors of Godfrey, and 

those of the Greek emperors? 
When and how did the prosperity of the eastern Christians 
begin to decline? 

THE SECOND CBUSADE. 

293 What was the occasion of the second crusade? Who preachea 

it, and what nations took a share in it? 

294 How were the Germans betrayed by the Greeks, and destroyed 

by the Turks? 
What was the first success of the French? What fault was 
committed by one of their generals? 

295 How was the rear of their army entirely defeated? 
What city was besieged by the crusaders? 

296 How were their efforts totally frustrated? 

What grief was produced by the failure of the second crusade, 
and how did St. Bernard vindicate his conduct in having 
been its chief promoter? 

GERMANY AND ITALY, UNDEE FREDEEIC I. 

How did the emperor Frederic Barbarossa fail in his attempts 
to raise a schism in the Church and to subjugate Italy? 

297 How did he come to a reconciliation with the Pope and the 

Italians? 

298 What disturbances agitated England? What was the extent 

of Henry Plantagenet's dominions? 
What remarkable events took place during his reign? What 

happened to St. Thomas of Canterbury? 
How was Ireland conquered by the English? 

299 What qualities did Henry II. evince in his various transac* 

tions, and what misfortunes did he experience? 

FALL OF THE KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM. 

By whom were the affairs of the Christians in the East 
brought to a rapid decay? What were the abilities of Sal- 
adin? 
800 How did Saladin invade Palestine, and what resolution wak 
taken by the king of Jerusalem? 



Questions. 2? 

PASS 

Under what unfavorable circumstances was fought the battle 
of Tiberias? 

301 In what manner was the battle continued and terminated? 
How did Saladin improve his victory, and obtain the sur- 
render of the Holy city? 

THIRD CRUSADE. 

302 What consternation did the fall of Jerusalem spread through 

Christendom? 
Which of the European monarchs engaged in a new crusade? 
Who set out the first for Asia? 

303 What triumphs marked the progress of the Germans? 
By what fatal accident was their emperor carried off? 
What was the result of the death of Frederic? 

304 What were the opposite qualities of kings Philip and Rich- 

ard? 
How had the siege of Acre hitherto been conducted? 
How did the arrival of the two monarchs contribute to the 

rendition of Acre? 

305 What incidents accompanied the siege of that city? 
Why did Philip withdraw from the crusade? 

How did the Christian army advance through Palestine? 
What engagement took place near Antipatris? 

306 How was the engagement renewed, and the enemy again 

defeated? 

307 How did Richard lose the advantage of his victory? 
How did he continue to wage war against the Moslems? 
How did he repeatedly vanquish the troops of Saladin? 

308 What impression was produced by the sight or knowledge of 

Richard's valor? 

309 What truce was agreed upon between him and Saladin? 
What was the result of the third crusade, and which of those 

engaged in it displayed most ability? 

310 What were the adventures of Richard on his way back to 

England? 

THE FOURTH CRUSADE. 

When and how did Saladin close his career? 

311 What dissensions among the Moslems followed his death? 
By whom was a new crusade undertaken, and how did it 

terminate? 

THE FIFTH CRUSADE. 

Who promoted, who preached, and who undertook another 
expedition? 

312 What treaty was concluded between the new crusaders and 

the Yenitians? 
What revolution had lately happened in Constantinople, 
and how were the crnsaders induced to assist the dethroned 
emperor? 



28 QUESTION^ 



313 With what vigor and success was Constantinople attacked by 

the Latins? ■ J' 

314 What incidents occasioned the utter ruin of the emperors 

Isaac and Alexius? ^ -^ 

What were the feelings of the crusaders at the news, of the 

young emperor's murder? 
What was the result of th^eir fresh attempt to storm the 

celestial city? 

315 Wl«it was. the success of another assault? ,: ,i ,'(' .. : 
How was Constantinople pillaged by the conquerors? 

316 Which of the Latin princes was elected emperor? 

What became of the heroes of the fifth crusade, and of the 
empire which they had founded? "«: 

WARS THKOUGHOUT EUBOPE. ' <;'' 

What was, by this time, the situation of western Europe, and 
particularly of Spain? :, 

31'7 How did the Christians march against the Miramolin? ;: 

318 By what exertions of courage did they obtain a complete vic- 

tory? ,. 

What were the subsequent losses of the Moors? 

319 By whom was claimed the imperial crown of Germany? 
With what advantage did Philip Augustus wage war against 

the English mouarchs? What league was formed against 
France? 

320 Where did the two armies meet? 
Describe the battle of Bouviues? 

What happened to King John on his return to England? 
' How was Louis of France called to receive the English 
crown? 

321 HOW was he obliged to leave the country, and what was the 

duration of his reign as king of France? 
Who were the Albigenses? 
What measures were taken in their regard? By whom were 

they defeated? "■... y. . ,. 

CONQUESTS OF GENGHIS-KAN IN ASIA. 

323 Of what revolutions was Asia the theatre? 

Who was Temujin or Genghis-Kan; and how did he obtain 

: i , the sovereign power? .. , ., ;-• 

How did he confirm his authority, and extend his dominions? 

324 How were the Chinese subdued by Genghis-Kan? 

What disasters and losses .were inflicted on Mohammed, the 
sultan of Karazm and Persia? 

325 How successfully did the sons of Genghis-Kan pursue his 

conquests in the East? 
How far did they carry the devastations of war towards the 

West? 
What ardor for the deliverance of Jerusalem was displayed 

by children? 



QUESTIONS; 89 



THE SIXTH CBUSADBi • 

PAGE . . , .; 

What was the complicated character of the sixth ciusad^? 
326 How was the city of Damietta besieged and taken by the 

crusaders? 
32T "What was their disappointment in their advance toward 
Cairo? 
What losses did they sustain and what conditions were they 
obliged to accept? 

328 What was done by Frederic II. for the recovery of Jeru- 

salem? 
Who next visited Palestine? 

THE SEVENTH CRUSADE. 

What was, at this period, the situation of England? 

329 What prosperity did France enjoy under Louis IX.? How 

did that prince conquer his domestic and foreign enemies? 

330 On what occasion did he take the cross? What preparations 

were made for the crusade? 

Where did the Christian army spend the winter, and what 
country did it attack first? 

What happened at the passage of the Nile, and in the at- 
tempt upon the city of Massoura? 

331 What were the consequences of the battle, and the disasters 

of the retreat? 

332 How did St. Louis behave in his prison? How did he rescue 

himself from captivity, and when did he return to France? 

CIVIL WAK IN ENGLAND. 

By what means did he promote the happiness of his people? 

333 What important debate was referred to his decision? 

Who raised in England the standard of insurrection against 

King Henry in. ? 
What made the people desire the restoration of Henry, and 

how did Prince. Edward destroy the league of his eiiemies? 

EIGHTH AND LAST CKUSADE. 

334 What considerations induced St. Louis to undertake another 

crusade? 
Why did he land on the shores of Africa? 

335 What plague desolated his army, and how was he himself 

carried off by the contagious disease? 
How many different qualities were united in St. Louis? 
What is said of his religious exercises? Of his piety, etc.? 

336 How was the crusade continued and terminated? 

337 How did everything how tend to the utter expulsion of the 

Christians from Syria? By whom was Ptolemais besieged 
and captured? 
What became of the inhabitants of Ptolemais? 

338 What rendered fruitless every attempt to renew the cru- 

sades? 



30 QUESTIONS. 



What charges have been brought against the crusades? 

What motives animated the crusaders? 

Was it proper to go and attack the Moslems of Asia? 

339 Upon what reasons did Pope Urban II. urge the Christians to 

take up arms against the Moslems? 

340 What is to be thought of the number of those who are said 

to have perished in the cnisades? 
How wrong and unjust is it to inveigh against their devoted- 
ness? 

341 Does the variety of disorders occasionally committed by them 

afford a just reason to impeach the lawfulness of the cru- 
sades? 
Were not also many glorious feats and acts of virtue per- 
formed by the crusaders? 

342 What made the crusades fail with regard to the possession 

of Palestine? 
What was the first advantage of the crusades? What was 
another happy effect? What was the third advantage? 
What was the fourth; and what nations increased in pow- 
er and wealth? 

343 How did they tend to revive literature, arts and science? and 

what universities grew into existence about this time? 
What conclusion ought to be drawn from these remarks, in 
favor of the crusades? 



PAKT VI. From the end of the Crusades to the 
discovery of America. 

ENGI/AND, WAI/ES, ETC. 

345 What was the duration of the reign of Edward I., and the 

character of his government? 
When and by what exertions did Edward subdue the princi- 
pality of Wales? 

346 How did he succeed in his attempt to conquer Scotland? 

Who were the most famous champions of Scottish liberty? 

GERMANY, ET<5. 

What was the state of Germany after Frederic II.? By 
whom was good order and tranquillity restored? 

347 What provinces were then lost to the German empire? 
What revolution took place in Switzerland? 

348 What invasion was prepared against Switzerland ; and what 

victory did the Helvetians win over the Austrians? 
What was the valor displayed by fifty exiles? 
849 How was the Helvetian confederacy strengthened and com- 
pleted? 

PROSECUTION OF THE KNIGHTS TEMPI.ABS. 

What was the state of degeneracy of the Knights Templars, 
and of what crimes were they accused? 



QUESTIONS. 31 



350 What new inquiries were made about their guilt? 
What further measure was taken against them? 

What was the result of the trials to which they were sub- 
jected? 

351 What was the fate of the grand-master and other chiefs of 

the order? 
How was the order itself suppressed? 

352 What became of its properties? 

THE CHRISTIANS IN SPAIN". 

What was the situation of Spain at this period? 

353 What made not only Spain, but all Christendom tremble? 
What were the exertions of King Alfonso XI. to save his 

country? 

354 What signal victory was gained by the Christians over the 

Moors? 
What were the subsequent triumphs of the former and losses 
of the latter? 

355 What struggle commenced then between England and 

France? 

EDWARD III. OF ENGLAND, ETC. 

What was the object of the dispute between Edward III. and 
Philip VI.? 

356 By what considerations was Edward induced to declare war 

against Philip? 
What victory was gained at sea by the English? 

357 What new efforts were made on each side for the prosecution 

of the war? 
How were the French defeated at Crecy? 
What circumstances contributed to the victory of the 

English? 

358 What happened at the siege of Calais? 
Who defeated the Scots at Nevil's cross? 

359 For what reasons did Edward conclude a truce with Philip? 
What dreadful plague visited France and England? What is 

said of the number of its victims? 
What were the qualifications, of Philip, and the other occur- 
rences of his reign? 

360 Who succeeded him on the throne? 

By whom were the hostilities recommenced? 
What was the situation of the English at Maupertuis, and 
how did the French act? 

361 How were the French defeated by the English? 

What was the consequences of the battle? Where was King 
John led prisoner? 

How did Edward III. endeavor to secure the fruit of his vic- 
tories? 

362 What was the sad condition of France at that period? 
How was the next campaign conducted by the Dauphin? 

363 What event induced Edward to grant peace, and upon what 

terms did he grant it? 



32 QUESTIONS. 

PAGE 

With, what fidelity did John comply with the treaty of 
Breti^ny? 

364 How,did Charles V. restore tranquillity to his kingdom? 
What cruelties were committed by the Castilian Kin^, Don 

Pedro? 
By whom was he dethroned, and by whom re-established? 

365 How did he repay the services of the Black Prince? 

What new struggle took place between Don Pedro and Henry 

of Transtamare? 
What treaty was concluded between the new king of Castile 

and Charles v.? 

366 What were now the successes of the French against the Eng- 

lish? 

What truce was concluded, and by what events was it fol- 
lowed? 

What wei-e the personal, military and political accomplish- 
ments of Edward III. ? 

367 What were the distinguishing features of the government of 

Charles V.? 

OTTOMAN EMPIEE. 

368 What new empire arose in the East? 

369 What conquests were achieved by Othman and Orcan? 

By what institutions and exertions did Amurat consolidate 
the throne of the Turkish sultans? What city did he choose 
as his capital, and how did he lose his life?" 

370 Why was Bajazet I. surnamed Ilderimf 

Whom did he conquer first, and by whom was he defeated in 
Moldavia? 

371 How did he treat the Greek emperors? 
What league was formed against Bajazet? 

372 How did he overthrow the French and Hungarians in the bat- 

tle of Nicopolis? 
What were the consequences of the battlo? 

TAMEKLANE, ETC. 

373 Who was Tamerlane? 

What motives induced Tamerlane and Bajazet to declare war 

against each other? 
What ravages marked the progress of the Tartars? 
What awful conflict took place near Ancyra? 

374 How was Bajazet treated by his conqueror? What question 

was asked him, and how did he answer? 
What was his fate? 
To whom is Tamerlane assimilated? What was the character 

of his exploits? 

375 What virtues did he display in the ordinary transactions of his 

life? 

376 Wliat were his intellectual and political faculties? 

What other extraordinary features appeared in Tamerlane?. 

377 How did he close his career? 

What events took place, by this time, in England and France? 
How did England quickly reassume her former ascendancy? 



QUESTIONS. 33 

HENRY AND CHARLES VI., ETC. 3, , 

PAGE ^ „,,., 

378 Who was Henry V. ? What was his first success a<^ainst the 

French? 
How was fought the battle of Agincourt? 

379 What fresh advantages were obtained by the English in 

France? 
When did both Charles VI. and Henry V. die, and who were 
their successors? 

380 What was the dejected situation of Charles VII.? 
How was the siege of Orleans conducted? 

Who was Joan d'Arc? What mission did she claim, and how 
was she examined at court? 

381 How did she raise the siege of Orleans, and defeat the Eng- 

lish? 
How did she lead the king to Rheims? 
How was the ceremony of the coronation perfoi-med? How 

did Joan happen to fall into the hands of the English? 

382 How was she neglected by her friends, and ti-eated by her 

enemies? By whom and when was her condemnation re- 
versed? 
What is the substance of the note on pages 383 and 384. 

383 Were the English able to stop the progress of the French? 
What improvements did France receive from the administra- 
tion of Charles VII. ? 

384 In what ciicumstances were the hostilities renewed, and what 

losses were sustained by the English? 
What was then the state of Poland and of Germany? 

FALL, OF CONSTANTINOPIiE. 

385 How did the Turks resume their course of conquests? 
What was the design of Mahomet II. ? 

What were the opposite qualifications of Mahomet II. and 
Constantine Paleologus? 

386 What preparations of war were made on each side? 

What military engines were made use of by the Turks during 
the siege oi Constantinople? 

387 What exertions were made by the Greeks? 
How did the Greeks repel a furious assault? 
What victory was won at sea by a Christian flotilla? 

388 How did Mahomet succeed in transporting his vessels into 

the harbor of Constantinople? 

389 What virtues were displayed by Constantine Paleologus? 
What were the proposals reciprocally made by Constantine 

and Mahomet? 
What apprehensions were entertained by Mahomet, and how 
did he revive the courage of his troops? 

390 How was the garrison of Constantinople affected? What was 

the last address of Paleologus to his warriors? 
When and how did a general assault begin? 

391 How did it continue and terminate? 

392 How was the imperial city, with its inhabitants, treated by 

the conquerors? 
What remarks can be made on the fall of the Greek empire? 



34: QUESTIONS. 



MAHOMET II., ETC. 
PAGE 

393 What did the Sultan do after his victory, and how did he 

pursue the course of his conquests? 
In what attempt did he fail, and who checked his progress? 
Who was John Corvinus Hunniades? 

394 How was Belgrade besieged by the Turks, and succored by 

Hunniades? 
What attacks were made on the town? 

395 What exploits were performed on both sides? 
How were the Turks finally defeated? 

396 What was the end of Hunniades, and what grief was pro- 

duced by the news of his death? 
Who was Scanderbeg? 

397 Who first experienced the effects of Scanderbeg's undaunted 

valor? 
How were the armies of Mahomet repeatedly defeated by 

Scanderbeg? 
In what circumstances did Scanderbeg happen to die? 

398 How much was he regretted? 

What were the military qualities of Scanderbeg? 
What were his Christian virtues? 

MAHOMET AND d'AUBUSSON. 

399 ^hat armament was directed against the island anxd the city 

of Rhodes? 
With what valor did the Rhodians and the Knights of St. 

John defend themselves? 
How was a general assault carried on, and resisted? What 

was the magnanimity displayed by the Grand-Master? 

400 By what other noble and virtuous actions did Peter d'Aubus- 

son distinguish himself? 

401 What were the projects of Mahomet, and what put an end to 

his life? 
What judgment ought to be passed upon him? 

CONTESTS BETWEEN THE HOUSES OP I.ANCASTER AND TORK. 

In what state of agitation was England? 

402 What discontent existed against the court, and who com- 

menced the civil war? 
What was the atrocious character, and who were the chief 

leaders, of that war? 
By what alterations of success was it marked? 

403 What strange adventures happened to Queen Margaret and 

her son? 
What were her exertions, her hopes, and the final catastrophe 
of her whole family? 

404 What fresh disturbances arose in England? When and how 

were they terminated? 



QUESTIONS. 35 



FEBDINAND AND ISABELLA. 
PAOE 

405 How was the Spanish monarchy rendered, at this period, 

flourishing and powerful? 
What losses were sustained by the Moors? 

406 In what manner was the siege of Granada conducted by Fer- 

dinand and Isabella? 
What considerations induced the king and the inhabitants of 
Granada to surrender? 

407 When did the Castilian sovereigns take possession of the 

city? What became of King Boabdil? 
How were the other Moors-treated? 

408 How did Spain acquire a high degree of splendor and pre- 

ponderance? 

BEMABKS ON DISCOVERIES, ETC. 

What remarks can be made on the sixth part of Modern His- 
tory? 

By whom was gunpowder invented, and what influence had 
this invention on military tactics? 

409 To what year is referred the invention of the art of printing? 
When and by whom were post-horses established? 

410 What were the most important discoveries of the fifteenth 

century? 
What is said about printers in the note on page 409? 



Pabt VII. — From the Discovery of America to the Treaty of 
Versailles. 

PBELIMINAEY OBSEEVATIONS. 

411 Was the American continent known to the ancient nations? 
Does the ancient population of America form any difficulty 

among learned men? 

412 Can it be accounted for by regular navigation? 

" " by the crossing of Behring strait? 

" " by winds and tempests? 

413 What was, with regard to civilization, the state of the Amer- 

ican tribes at the time of their discovery? 

DISCOVERT OF AMEBICA. 

Who was Christopher Columbus? 

414 How did Columbus begin to form his theory about the exist- 

ence of unknown lands? 
What incidents impressed this theory more and more upon 

his mind? 
To whom did he apply for co-operation in the execution of 

his projects? 

415 What encouragement and assistance did he receive from the 

Spanish court? 



36 QUESTIONS. 



What were the incidents of his voyage across the Atlantic? 

What land was first described? 
What were the honors then paid to Columbus? What were 

his own feelina^s and his subsequent discoveries? 

416 When and how did Columbus return to Spain? 

417 What reception did he experience at Court? 

What grant was obtained by the Spanish sovereigns from the 
Pope? 

418 When did Columbus sail on a second expedition? What was 

his disappointment on arriving at Hay ti? . . . 

How were his good intentions and measures counteracted by 

his companions? 
What induced him to return? What happened to him in 

Spain, and what important discovery did he make in his 

third voyage? 

419 What did the party of his enemies conti-ive against him? 
What magnanimity did Columbus display in the midst of in- 
juries? 

How was he received by his sovereigns? 

420 What had he to suffer in his last voyage? 

What stratagem did he make use of to change the dispositions 
of the Indians? 

421 How did he succeed in his attempt? How was he rescued 

from his perilous situation? ' 

In what circumstances and with what sentiments of piety did 

he die? 
What were the qualities and excellent views of Columbus? 

422 By whom was he deprived of the honor of giving his name to 

the new world? 

POBTUGUESE SETTLEMENTS. 

What expeditions from different quarters had followed the 
first enterprise of Columbus? 

423 What rank did the East Indies hold among the states of Asia? 
What resistance did the Portuguese experience from Eastern 

Indians? 

How far did the Portuguese extend their commercial rela- 
tions? What is the antiquity claimed by the Chinese? 

What is the population and religion of China? 

424 What fortifications protect its northern frontier? Did these 

fortifications save China from invasion? 
What are the good and the bad qualities of the Chinese? 

425 What is Japan? What are the revenues and forces of the sov- 

ereign of that country? 
By whom was Christianity preached, and by whom was . it 
abolished, in Japan? 

DECLINE OF THE ITALIAN BEPUBLICS. 

426 WTiat decline in wealth and power did the Italian republics 

suffer? 
- By what other calamity was Italy afflicted? What was the 
result of the expedition of King Charles VIII. ? 



QUESTIONS. 8? 

PAGK 

Under whom did a second expedition take place? 

427 Why was a powerful league formed against the Venetians, 

and soon turned against the French? 
What were the reverses of France and of her allies? 

428 How were the Swiss defeated at Marignan? 

What intrepidity did Francis I. display in the battle? 

What were the fruits of his victory? Ho\^ and when did 

Ferdinand of Spain terminate his cai-eer? 
Who contributed most with Ferdinand and Isabella to the 

glory of their reign? 

429 What is said of Cardinal Ximenes? 

By whom was promoted the complete revival of fine arts and 
literature? 

LUTHEB, ETC. • 

430 How was the peace of Europe again disturbed? 
Who was Luther? 

What sort of reputation did he acquire? 

How was he led to attack first some private abuses, after- 
wards ever several tenets universally admitted in the 
Church? 

431 What were, in the beginning, the feelings of Luther; when 

did he break off all the ties of submission to the Roman 
Pontiff? 

What language did he use against the Pope, and against his 
various opponents? What circumstances chiefly increased 
the number of his followers? ' 
482 What did Zuinglius and Calvin endeavor to effect? 

Whence came the name of Protestants? 

When did Luther, die, and what council condemned his doc- 
trines? 

CHARLES V. ANB FBAKCIS I. 

433 By whom was the imperial crown of Germany stimultane- 

ously claimed? 
Who thought himself injured, and how were the hostilities 

commenced between Charles V. and Francis I.? 
How did Francis conduct the war? 
What imprudence did he commit? 

434 How was his army entirely defeated, and he himself taken 

prisoner? 
On what conditions did he recover his liberty? 
How was the war renewed, carried on, and terminated? 

CHARLES V, AND SOLIMAN n. 

435 What motive induced Charles V. to conclude peace with 

Francis? 
What conquests had been lately made by the Turks? 
Wliat was the success of Soliman II. in his first expedition 

against Hungary? 
What resistance did the Knights Hospitallers opposei to his 

attack upon Rhodes? 



38 QUESTIONS. 

PAQK 

436 By whom were they betrayed? 

How did they leave the island of Rhodes, and obtain a new 
residence? 

437 What were the subsequent occupations of Soliraan? How did 

he again defeat the Hungarians, but fail in the siege of 
Vienna? 
When did he reappear, and how was he opposed by the 
emperor Charles V.? 

CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 

438 By whom was the empire of Charles vastly increased? 

What was the spirit of the Spaniax-ds at this period? 
Who conceived the idea of establishing colonies in Mexico? 

439 What were the forces of Cortez? How did he make himself 

independent of Velasquez, and inspire his troops with des- 
perate courage? 
What happened to the Spaniards in their march towards 
Mexico? 

440 How did they reach the city? How were they received and 

ti'eated by the emperor? 
How did Montezuma become a prisoner of Cortez, and a 

vassal of Charles V.? 
What new obstacles did Cortez find in his way? 

441 By what exertions of activity and courage did he conquer 

Narvaez? 
How were hostilities commenced and conducted between the 
Mexicans and Spaniards? 

442 What happened to Cortez in his combats against the Mexi- 

cans? 
How disastrous was the retreat of the Spaniards from 
Mexico? 

443 What new danger awaited them in the valley of Otumba? 
What were the feelings of Cortez at the sight of the enemy, 

and how did he array his troops for battle? 
How was the perilous conflict carried on? 

444 What bold idea came to the mind of Cortez, and how did he 

execute it? 
How signal was the victory won by the Spaniards? 

445 What reception was given them at Tlascala? 

How active was Cortez in preparing a new expedition against 

Mexico? 
In what manner did he distribute his forces for a successful 

attack upon the city? 

446 How did he himself advance with his brigantines across the 

lake? 
What terrible overthrow did he give to the multitude of 
Indian canoes? 

447 By what series of exertions did the siege finally close in the 

capture of Mexico? 
How was the emperor Guatimozin treated by the conquerors? 

448 Did not Cortez himself soon experience the vicissitudes of 

fortune? 



QUESTIONS. 39 

MGE 

What variety of exploits were exhibited in his life, and what 
brilliant qualities appeared in his person? 

449 What rank does Cortez hold among the Spanish heroes? 

CONQUEST OF PEBU. 

Who was Francis Pizarro? 

450 What were his plans, attempts, and persevering effortg 

towards the conquest of Peru? 
What circumstances favored the views of Pizarro? How was 
the Peruvian Inca defeated and dealt with by the Span- 
iards? 

451 With what facility was the reduction of Peru completed? 

What dissensions arose among the conquerors, and what 
was the end of Pizarro? 
By what new disturbances was the death of Pizarro followed? 

CHARLES v.— CONTINUED. 

452 With what success did Charles V. wage a new war against 

France? 

What were his exploits and his subsequent disasters in 
Africa? 

What was the result of his long struggle with the Protest- 
ant states of Germany? 

When and to whom did he resign his crowns? 

453 Where did he retire, and in what manner did he die? 

What contemporary sovereigns had descended before him 
into the grave? Why did the war continue between France 
and Spain? 

What overthrow did the French experience at St. Quentin? 

454 How did the negligence of the conquerors permit France, not 

only to defend herself, but even to attack with success? 
What treaty was concluded between the belligerent powers? 

ENGLAND UNDEB THE TUDOBS. 

What had been the situation of England under Henry VIII.? 

455 Why did he separate himself and his kingdom from the See 

of Rome? 
Who established the Protestant doctrine in England? By 
whom was the Catholic worship restored, and by whom dis- 
carded again? 

456 What was the fate of Mary Stuart, the queen of Scotland? 
What losses did the British Navy inflict on the Spaniards? 
How was the Spanish Armada completely defeated? 

457 How did Philip II. receive the intelligence of the disastrous 

event? 

WAE AGAINST THE TURKS. 

How were hostilities renewed between the Christians and th« 
turks? What armament was sent against Malta? 

Who was the Grand-Master of St. John, and what plan did he 
contrive for the defence of the island? 



40 QUESTIONS, 

PAGE 

458 What was the heroism displayed by the garrison of Fort St. 

Elme? 
What energy of sentiments and courage animated all classes 
of people? 

459 What intrepid magnanimity appeared in the Grand-Master? 
What prodigies of valor were performed by both the besiegers 

and the besieged? 

460 What was the perplexity of the Turkish general? How was 

he finally reduced to abandon the siege and evacuate the 
island? 

461 How moving was the sight of the remaining defenders of 

Malta? 
In what state of desolation was the country? What noble 
design did La Valette carry into effect? 

462 What was the resentment of Soliman II.? Where did he per- 

form his last exploit, and find the end of his life? 
What mixture of bad and good qualities ought to be 
acknowledged in Soliman? 

463 Who was his successor? How was the island of Cyprus con-: 

que red by the Turks? 
What league was formed against them? 

464 What victory did the Christians win at sea? 

What effect had the battle of Lepanto on both the vanquished 
and the conquerors? 

PHILIP II. 

465 When and how was formed the republic of Holland? 

What had been the flourishing state of Portugal? What im- 
prudence was committed by king Don Sebastian, and how 
did his kingdom pass under the sway of Philip of Spain? 

466 How vastly extensive was the monarchy of Philip II., and 

how firm his administration? 
What were his views in regard to France, and how did they 
fail? 

467 When did he die, and who was his successor? Who reigned 

in England after the death of Elizabeth? 

468 What peace did Europe then enjoy? What storm was pre- 

paring against the house of Austria, and what event averted 
it for a time? 
What grief was occasioned by the tragical death of Henry IV? 
How respected, even at present, is the memory of that 
monarch? 

THIRTY YEABS' WAP.. 

When did the 30 years' war begin? 

469 What were the chief belligerent powers on each side? Be- 

tween whom did the first hostilities take place? 
Who was Gustavus Adolphus? Why and how did he invade 

Germany? 
What new advantages were gained, and what losses were 

subsequently sustained by the Swedish army? 



QUESTIONS. 41 



470 Who was reigning in France? What had been the adminis- 

tration of Cardinal Richelieu, and how was the war now 
chiefly carried on between France and Austria? 

471 What victories were gained by the French? 

When and upon what terms was concluded the treaty of 
Westphalia? 

CIVIL WAB IN ENGLAND. 

In what ferment was England at the death of James I., and 
the accession of Charles 1.? 

472 What was the Scottish government? 

How did Charles and his adversaries come to an open rupt- 
ure? 

473 What battles were won and lost by the king? How was be 

sold by the Scottish army to the English parliament? 
What new party had risen in England? Who was Cromwell? 
How was Charles I. tried and executed? 

474 How did Cromwell prostrate all his opponents? 
How did he govern the English Commonwealth? 

475 How did he cause it to be respected abroad? 

What treaty of alliance was concluded between him and 

France? 
Whafc expeditions took place in consequence of that treaty? 

476 How was terminated the war between France and Spain? 
Had Cromwell, in his high station, enjoyed a real happiness? 
When did he die? 

What n volution placed the house of Stuart again upon the 
throne of England? 

477 What was the state of the British colonies in North America? 
When and by whom were the most remarkable of these colo- 
nies established? 

478 What were the distinguishing features of the settlers of 

Maryland? 
. What were the settlements of the French in Canada, and 
Louisiana? 

BEIGN OF LOUIS XIV. 

When did King Louis XIV. take the reins of government 
into his own hands? 

479 What was the character of his public administration? 
What was, under him, the splendor of arts and sciences, and 

the multitude of great men of every description? 

480 What brilliant ages of antiquity were revived in the age of 

Louis XIV.? 
What services did the king render to religion and humanity? 
What was the glory of his arms? 

481 How were hostilities renewed against, and fresh advantages 

obtained over Spain? 
What treaty was concluded between the English and the 
Dutch? 
" How did Louis XIV. assist the emperor Leopold agains-t the 
Turks? 



42 QUESTIONS. 

PAOB 

482 What succors did he also grant to the Venetians? How long 

lasted the siege of Candia? 
What were the losses sustained on each side? With what 
vigor and success did the Grand Vizier Kiuperli conduct and 
conclude the siege? What other services did he render to 
his sovereign? 

483 How did Louis XIV. succeed in checking the depredations of 

the Algerine pirates? 

WAB OF HOLLAND, ETC. 

How was Holland invaded by the French, and what saved the 

Dutch from utter ruin? 
What league was formed against Louis XIV.? 

484 Who was his only ally, and what victories did he gain at 

sea? 
What battles were fought by the prince of Conde? 

485 How did Marshal Turenne conduct his expedition against the 

Germans? 
How did he prepare the execution of his further designs? 
How did he surprise the different quarters of the conf ederatch 

and oblige them to recross the Khine? 

486 What glory did he acquire on that occasion? 
What was the last campaign of Turenne? 

487 What tribute of grief and honor was paid to his memory? 
What was done to compensate his loss? Who followed up his 

plan with success, and what rendered the year 1675 most 
remarkable? 
Who maintained superiority of the French arms, and what 
treaty terminated the war? 

488 What were, even after the conclusion of peace, the vigorous 

exertions ef Louis XIV. ? 

' LEAttUE OF AUOSBURQ. 

What fresh league was formed against him, and what new 

revolution took place in England? 
How did James II. lose the battle of the Boyne? 

489 How was Admiral Tourville first victorious, and shortly after 

defeated at sea? 
What were the conquests and victories of the other French 
generals? 

490 What was the respective strength of the hostile partieo? 
What induced the allies to conclude peace? 

SITCCESSION OF SPAIK. 

491 Why was the war soon renewed, and how fac did it extend? 

492 When did William III. die? What was his character, and 

who took his place in the command of the allied armies? 

How were the French defeated at Hochstadt? 
49S What were now the exertions of Louis XIV.? 

What reverses did his arms again experience in Spain, Flan- 
ders and Italy? 



QUESTIONS. 43 

FAGK 

494 What was the subsequent vicissitude of events in Spain and 

Flanders? 

495 How did the winter of 1709 increase the misfortunes of 

France? Who lost the battle of Malplaquet? 
What haughtiness did the confederates show to Louis XIV.? 
What victories secured the throne of Spain to Philip V.? 

496 What induced Great Britain to withdraw from the confeder- 

acy against France? 
Whom did Louis XIV. send to fight against his remaining 
enemies? 

497 What important victory did Marshal Villars gain over Prince 

Eugene at Denain? By what treaties was the war termi- 
nated? 
When and how did Louis XIV. end his long and glorious 
reign? 

DECLINE OF THE TUBKS. 

498 Wliat was yet the warlike spirit of the Turks? What army 

was sent to besiege Vienna? 

499 How were they compelled to abandon the siege? 

How were they again defeated by king Sobicsky, and by the 

duke of Lorraine? 
What new losses did they sustain? Who was their most 

formidable enemy? 

KISE OF PBUSSIA AND BUSSIA. 

600 How did Prussia rise almost suddenly to a high rank among 
European nations? 
Who was Peter I. ? What were his views and exertions for 
the civilization of Russia? 
501 How did Charles XII. overcome at first all his enemies? 

What victory did he gain at Narva? How was he defeated at 
Pultawa, and what were his subsequent adventures? 
602 What improvements did Peter I. make in his empire, and 
what glory did he secure to himself? 

WESTERN EMPIBE, ETC. 

Who were then the other leading sovereigns in Europe? 
What was ihe plan of Cardinal Alberoni, and how was it 
defeated? 
503 What political changes took place in Poland? 

What were the advantages gained by the French and the 
Spaniards over the German emperor? 
604 What were the conditions of the treaty of Vienna? 

What success was also obtained by the Turks? 
505 Were they equally successful in their wars against Persia? 
What conquests were achieved by Thamas Kouli Kan? What 
revolutions took place, after his death, in Persia? 

WAB OF THE SUCCESSION, ETC. 

606 What event threw all Europe again into war? 

What sudden changes of fortune happened to the interested 
parties? 



44 QUESTIONS. 



507' Wliat might have ended, and what protracted the hostile 

ties? 
•: How were the French defeated by the English at Det 

tingen? 
How were the English defeated by the French at Fon- 

tenoy? 
508' What vicissitude of good and ill success followed? By what 

treaty was the contest terminated? 
What invasion was attempted upon England, and how did it 

fail? 
609 What were the adventures of the Pretender? 

510 How did he make his escape? 

What gave rise to the Old French War? 

Who were the allies of France and those of England? 

To whom were the first chances of the war favoi-able? 

511 By whom and how were the French defeated at Kosbach? 
How did they lose Quebec and all Canada? 

612 What losses did they experience at sea? What became of 
their colonies, and how did their last resource fail? 
What advantages were secured to England by the treaty of 
Paris? 

' ■' ' AMEEIC AN EE VOLUTION, ETC. 

What act was . passed by the British parliament concerning 
America? 

513 How was the stamp-act received by the colonies? How was 

it repealed? 

What further events provoked the resentment of the Ameri- 
cans? 

What hostile measures were adopted by both parties? 

514 What encounter took place near Lexington? 
How was the battle of Bunker-Hill fought? 

Who was appointed commander-in-chief of the American 
forces, and how did Washington compel the British to 
evacuate Boston? 

515 What attempt was made on Canada? 

Was there yet any hope or desire of reconciliation between 
the two parties? 

516 When and how was the Declaration of Independence drawn 

up and proclaimed? ' 

What was the prospect of affairs at the time of the declara- 
tion of independence? 
617 Under what difficulties did Washington labor? What was the 
energy of his mind and the firmness of Congress? 
• What succors were obtained from foreign powers, and what 
nations aided the cause of America? 
518 What spirit and resoui*ces were displayed by the English 
nation? 
What disastrous events happened shortly after the declara- 
tion of independence? , - 
619 What were the exertions and the exploits of Washington? 
What attack was made upon Stony Point? 



QUESTIONS. 45 



520 What was the intrepidity displayed by General Wayne and 

his troops? 
How was the British commander Burgoyne captured with his 
whole army? 

521 What were the losses of the Americans in the southern 

states? 
How did General Greene recover South Carolina? 

522 With what success did Lafayette oppose Lord Cornwallis? 
What mighty scheme was formed by Washington? 

523 How was Cornwallis obliged to surrender? 

How were hostilities carried on in other parts of the world? 
When was the independence of the United States solemnly 
and universally acknowledged? 

524 In what manner did Washington resign his commission? 
What event properly closed the seventh part of Modem 

History? 

Pabt VIII. — From the treaty of Versailles, or Paris, to 
the year 1887. 

FEDERAL CONSTITUTION, ETC. 

525 What was deficient in the confederation of the United 

States? 
How was the framing of a federal constitution desired, pre- 
pared, and executed? 

526 What are the chief points of the Federal Constitution? 
How was it opposed and supported? 

When did the newly-framed government begin to act? What 
was the character of Washington's administration, and the 
public feeling in his regard? 

527 What is the chief praise of Washington? 

FKENCH EEVOLUTION. 

What is thought to have been the proximate cause of the 
French revolution? 

528 To this what may be added? 

What was its principal, though remote, cause? 

By what fatal circumstances was the evil increased? 

529 What sijirit animated the assembly of 1789? 

What persecution was carried on against the clergy? 
What tyranny was exercised against the nobles, and against 
the king himself? 

530 What became of Louis XVI., and of his family? 

What slaughters and other excesses were committed in France 
by the leaders of the revolution? 

531 What insurrections took place in various parts of the king- 

dom? 
What was the character of the war in La Vendee? 

532 What was done by the emigrants? How were they assisted 

by foreign powers? 
What coalition was formed against the French Republic? 
What victories were gained, and what conquests achieved by 

the French? 



46 QUESTIONS. 



NAPOLEON, ETC. 
PAGE 

533 Who was Napoleon Bonaparte? How did he obtain the chief 
command of the army in Italy? 
What were his peculiar tactics and his first exploits? 
634 What victories did he gain, and what treaty put an end to his 
Italian campaign? 
What expedition did he undertake into Egypt? 
How were Malta and Alexandria subdued? 
How was the expedition carried on, and how did it terminate? 

535 How was Bonaparte appointed the head of the French gov- 

ernment? 
What revolutions had taken place in Italy during his absence? 

536 What advantage did he obtain over the Austrians at Marengo? 
How did General Brune succeed in Holland, and Moreau in 

Germany? What treaties did France conclude with the 
Austrian court and the British government? 

537 What different acts of a wise, and then of an unjust adminis- 

tration, were performed by Bonaparte? How was the 
island of San Domingo totally lost to the French? 

538 What increase of power, and what new titles and appellations 

did Napoleon cause to be conferred on himself? 
What led to an open rupture between France and England? 
What were the designs of Napoleon against Great Britain? 
What signal victory was gained at sea by the English? 

539 What splendid achievements were performed by Napoleon on 

the continent? 

540 How successful were the French against the Prussians and 

the Russians? 
What were the tei-ms of the treaty of Tilsit? 
What was the Confederation of the Rhine? What was the 

conduct of the English towards the Danes? 
How were hostilities revived between Austria and France? 

541 What tremendous defeats and losses were again inflicted on 

Austria? 
What was now the extent of Napoleon's power and glory? 

542 What injustice did he commit, and what persecution did he 

exercise against the Pope? 
How unfairly did he act towards the Spaniards? How was 
the Spanish territory invaded by the French and defended 
by the inhabitants? 

543 Who was the general that most contributed to drive the 

French from Portugal and Spain? 
What formidable host did Napoleon lead against Russia? 
What plan of defence was adopted by the Russians? 

544 What losses and disasters did the French army experience? 
What league was now formed against Napoleon? How did 

he oppose it? 
What victories did he gain in Saxony, and how was he in the 
end entirely defeated? 

545 When and with what views did the allied sovereigns invade 

France? 
How did they entei? Paris, and settle the French government? 



QUESTIONS. 47 



646 What events iuimediately followed the conclusion of peace? 

How did Napoleon return from Elba? 
What declaration was issued against him by the European 
potentates? What were his own exertions and the plans of 
his campaign? 

647 How was the battle of Waterloo fought? 

What decisive operations followed the battle of Waterloo? 

548 What became of Napoleon? How did he close his life? 

SECOND AMERICAN WAB. 

What gave rise to the second American war? 

549 What were the fruitless attempts of the Americans upon Can- 

ada, and how did they recover their losses? 
What was their success at sea? Where was the British gen- 
eral Ross victorious, and where was he defeated? 

550 What city was now attacked by the English? How did Gen- 

eral Jackson provide for the safety of New Orleans? 
What battle was fought, and what victory won by the 
Americans? 

551 Wliat was the conclusion of the war? 

VIEW OF THE CIVILIZED WOKLD. 

What was, for a considerable time, the general state of the 
civilized nations, after the battle of Waterloo? 

552 What remarkable exertions were made by Great Britain for 

different objects? 
What important events took place in France? 

553 What was the condition of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and 

Spain? 

When did most of the Spanish colonies assert their indepen- 
dence? 

In what state of national prosperity were the United States 
in 1844, and what was their prospect for the future? 

ANNEXATION OF TEXAS, ETC. 

554 What events occurred towards the middle of the 19th century? 
What were the feelings and protests of the Mexicans at the 

news of the annexation of Texas? 

555 How did the Americans prepare for the approaching war? 

What was the result of the first encounters? 
What were the first exploits of General Taylor? 
How did he gain the victory of Resaca de la Palma? 
656 How did he personally behave in the various engagements? 
What, in the meantime, had taken place at Matamoras? 
What new steps were taken by the successful Americans? 
557 What were the fortifications and means of defence of Mon- 
terey? 
How was the siege of that city conducted? 
What led the two parties to come to an agreement about the 
caoitulation of Monterey? 



48 QUESTIONS. 

PAGE. 

By what series of new advantages was the surrender of Mon- 
terey followed? 

558 How, and by whom, had the conquest of California been 

achieved? 
What was now the respective situation of the Americans and 

Mexicans? 
How was the battle of Buena Vista conducted? 

559 How sad was the result of the battle for the Mexicans, and 

how advantageous to the Americans? 

560 Who was now appointed commander-in-chief by the American 

government? 
With what success did General Scott attack the city of Yera 

Cruz? 
What obstacle did he meet in his advance against Mexico? 

561 How were the heights of Cerro Gordo carried by the Ameri- 

cans? 
What were the results of their victory? 
What cities were successively occupied by them? 

562 What was the rapidity of their conquests? 

What reason induced General Scott to stay for a time in 
Puebla? 

563 By what means and' what series of new efforts was Mexico at 

length taken? 
What treaty put an end to the Mexican war? 
What losses and what acquisitions accrued from this war to 

the Americans? 
What battles were fought in his farther advance towards 

Mexico? 

564 What took place in the newly acquired possessions? 
What was the reward of Generals Taylor and Scott? 

DISTUKBANCES IN EUKOPE. 

What was towards 1848 the political situation of Europe? 

565 When and how was the government of king Louis Philippe 

overthrown? 
What new f oi-m of government was adopted in France? 
What were the further views of the socialists? 

566 What awful insurrection broke out in Paris? 

Who was elected President of the French Piepublic? 
What were, at the same time, the disturbances of the Aus- 
trian empire? 

567 How was the insurrection in Hungary quelled? 

What vicissitudes of events occurred in northern Italy? 
Under what circumstances were hostilities renewed between 
the Austrians and Sardinians? 

568 By what masterly movement did Marshal Radetski defeat 

king Charles Albert? 
How were the Sardinians again defeated near Novara? 
What glory did Radetski acquire in this campaign? 
What treaty was concluded between the two states? 

569 With what vigor and success were the insurrections in south- 

ern Italy suppressed? 



QUESTIONS. 49 



What was the peculiar situation of Eome and of Pope Pius 

IX.? 
What acts of vigor did the Pope in his exile? 

570 How was an end put to the Roman revolution? 

What act of policy did the President of the French Republic 

resort to in 1851? 
What was the result of it? 

CRIMEAN WAR. 

571 What war broke out in the year 1853? 

Wliat powers espoused the cause of the Turkish sultan? 
To what strong city did the allies resolve to lay siegi ? 
What victory opened the way to Sebastopol? 
What difficulties were met with by the besiegers? 

572 What was the conduct of the Russian commander after the 

storming of the Malakol'f tower? 
What led to the treaty of Paris? 
To what conditions did Russia submit? 
Will Russia ever be able to act again against Turkey? 

WAR AND REVOLUTIONS IN ITALY. 

573 Was tlie influence of Austria great in Italy before the. year 

1849? 
What project did Victor Emmanuel conceive with regard to 

Italy? 
What were his means of success? 
What prince came to his succor, as soon as his dominions 

had been invaded by the Austrians? 
What two defeats were inflicted upon the Austrians? 

574 Describe the battle of Solferino? 

What reasons induced (the victorious powers to come to a 
speedy arrangement with their enemy? 

What was the principal clause of the two treaties of Villa- 
franca and Zurich? 

What did France receive afterwards from the King of Pied- 
mont? 

When did the revolutionary movements begin in Italy? 

To what causes should they be chiefly ascribed? 

575 What provinces did Victor Emmanuel unite to his kingdom 

in March, 1860? 
What was then the conduct of the Pope? 
What general undertook to form an army for the Pope? 
What was the fate of the pontifical volunteers; of Ancona; 

the Marches and Umbria? 
Who caused the revolution to triumph, fii'st in Sicily, and 

then in the continental possessions of Francis II.? 

576 Who came to the succor of Garibaldi, when he was in the 

Kingdom of Naples? 
Who captured Gaeta? 

What event happened soon after the surrender of that city? 
What is the present capital of the Kingdom of Italy? 



50 QUESTIONS. 



What means did Victor Emmanuel employ to gain possession 

of the provinces of Venetia and Kome? 
Describe his reverses and final success. 
What is the present condition of the Pope? 

EITBOPEAN EXPEDITIONS TO CHINA, COCHIN-CHINA AND MEXICO. 

577 What powers undertook an expedition against China in 1857? 
What was the result of it? 

What city did they capture in a second expedition, and what 

new advantages did they obtain? 
What powers undertook an expedition againt the emperor of 

Annam in 1858? 

578 What were the first results of it? 

When and by whom was it resumed afterwards? 

By what treaty was it terminated? 

With whom was Spain at war in 1860? 

Say what had taken place in Mexico after the war with the 

United States? 
Who was then raised to the Presidency in 1861? 
What was the conduct of Juarez with regard to the church 

and to the European governments? 
Which, among the latter, resolved to act against him? 

579 What were the intentions of Napoleon III. with regard to 

Mexico? 

What was the success of his troops in that country? 

What was the resolution of the Assembly of Notables, con- 
vened in the city of Mexico, in 1863? 

Wbat prince did they choose for emperor? 

When did Maximilian arrive at Mexico, and what were then 
his hopes of success? 

Have these hopes been realized? 

Why not? 

What was the fate of Maximilian? 

CIVIL WAB IN THE UNITED STATES. 

What was the cause of the civil war in the United States? 

680 When had political agitation with regard to slavery begun? 
When did the pro-slavery party resolve actually to secede 

from the Union? 
Mention the thirteen seceding States? 

Whom did they choose for the President of the Confederacy? 
When and how was the signal of war given? 
What feelings arose in the North upon hearing of the attack 

of Fort Sumter, and what measure was immediately taken 

by President Lincoln? 
What battle was fought on the 21st of July, 1861? 
Say what immense preparations for war the Northerners 

were thereby induced to make, and also what preparations 

were made by the Southerners? 

681 What is said of the capture of Fort Donelson? 



QUESTIONS. 51 



582 What happened at Pittsburg Landing? 

What did the country learn a few days after that bloody 
battle? 

Why did General McClellan land his army at Fortress Mon- 
roe? 

What first obsta 3le did he meet with on his route? 

What induced him to change his base of operations? 

With what circumstances was this movement accompanied? 

583 Why did the Confederates conceive the project of invading 

the Federal territory? 
What two great battles were fought during this invasion? 
Describe the battles of Fredericksburg. 

584 Of Chancellorsville; of Gettysburg. 

Was the navigation of the Mississippi river entirely opened 

before the month of July, 1863? 
Did the capture of Vicksburg prove an easy task? 

585 By the fall of what stronghold was the surrender of Vicks- 

burg followed? 
What double consequence resulted from the capture of these 

two places? 
With what means were the South and the North respectively 

to continue the war? 
By what armies were the two main campaigns of 1864 to be 

made, and to what end? 
What was the plan which General Grant intended to execute 

in Virginia? 
686 What city did he succeed closely to invest with his army in 

June? 
What events were at the same time going on in Georgia? 
What two cities were captured by General Sherman's army in 

Georgia? 
What was done afterwards by the same army? 
What great events occuri'ed on the 3d and 9th of April? 

587 What crime was committed a few days after? 

Indicate both the result of the war and the acquisition lately 

made by the United States. 
When and from whom was Alaska purchased? 
When was General Grant inaugurated as president? 
What events of note occurred during his administration? 

588 Who were the successors of Grant? 

Mention the principal occurrences of their respective admin- 
istrations? 



WAR IK SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN; in ITALY AND OEBMANY. 

How did the Dano-German war arise? 
What powers declared against Denmark? 
Indicate the conditions of the treaty of Vienna. 
589 What was the subsequent conduct of Prussia with regard to 

Schleswig and Holstein? 
What resolution did she take against Austria and with whom 

did she make alliance? 




52 QUESTIONS. 



What two battles were fought in Italy? 

What German provinces were overrun by the Prussians? 

What signal victory did they win^over the Austrians? 

590 Enumerate the conditions of the treaty of Prague. 
Mention the countries annexed by Prussia. 
What is the actual condition of Austria? 

IMPOBTANT EVENTS IN EUKOPE BETWEEN 1866-1870. 

591 What do you know of the North German "Bund?" 
What changes took place in Austria? 

What is the Luxemburg question? 

What events transpired in Spain about this time? 

592 When was the Suez canal opened? 

What important dogma was adopted by the Vatican Coun. 

cil? 
By what troubles was France now convulsed? 

THE FEANCO-PBUSSIAN WAE. 

What was the immediate cause of the war between France 
and Prussia? 

593 What was the disposition made of the troops by the contend- 

ing powers? 
What successes were achieved by the Germans? 
Describe the battle of Sedan. 

594 What were the results of the battle of Sedan? 
What were the circumstances of the siege of Paris? 

When and where did the restoration of the German Empire 
take place? 

595 What were the provisions of the Peace of Frankfort? 
What excesses were committed by the French communists, 

and by whom was order restored? 
Who was elected President in August, 1871? Who was his 
successor? 

596 Under whose leadership was the Church persecuted f 
When were the Religious teaching orders proscribed? 

597 Who was re-elected President in 1886? 
By whom was he succeeded? 

When was the Panama Canal projected? 

What famous Encyclical was issued at this time? 

598 When was President Sadi-Carnot assassinated? 
Who were his successoi's? 

When was Madagascar invaded? 

In what other directions did France expand? 

599 When did President Faure die and who succeeded him? 
Give the particulars of the Dreyfus case? 

600 What was the result of the act of the Assuraptionist Fathers? 
; What did the Republican leaders aim at? 



QUESTIONS. 03 



601 Name an important result of the Paris World's Fair of 1900. 
What was the effect of the Law of Associations? 

602 What was published in December, 1905 ? 

Enumerate some of the provisions of the Law of Separa- 
tion. 
What is said of ecclesiastical property? , 

603 When was the C(mcordat abolished? 

Of what was the French Church accused? 
What obligations were imposed on Spain and France by the 
Algeciras Conference? 

604 Describe the Casablanca Affair. 

What is said of the colonies of France? of her present 
relations with Germany? 

605 What is said of the social efficiency of the French people? 

606 What was the Sepoy rebellion? 
When was Ashantee conquered? 

In what wars was England involved during 1878 ? 
What was the consequence of the Afghan war? 
Where did General Roberts acquire fame? 

607 When was Burmah annexed to the British empire? 
How has India been afflicted? 

France was chiefly concerned in the construction of the 
Suez canal: how did England become the dominant power 
in Egypt? 

608 Describe the defeat of General Gordon and the conquest of 

the Soudan. 
How are the farmers of Egypt saved from the money 

lenders? 
What is said of the system of irrigation adopted in .Egypt? 

what of Egyptian antiquities? 

610 What is said of the hieroglyphic record of the seven years 

of famine? Describe political conditions in Egypt. 
What is said of the South African war? State its causes; 
How did England acquire her first foothold in the Trans- 
vaal? 

611 How did the Boers of the Transvaal achieves their inde- 

pendence? 
A''hat was the object of the Jameson raid? 
What caused the declaration of war by President Kruger? 
Describe the siege of Ladysmith. 
Name some of the early battles of the war. 

612 What is said of the appointment and the military experi- 

ence of General Buller? 
What circumstances led to the appointment of Lord Roberts 

as commander-in-chief? On what terms did he accept 

the command? 
What General first invaded Boer territory? What event 

practically ended the war? 

613 What became of the Orange Free State? What is said of 

President Kruger? What happened on July 16th? What 
did England acquire and what did she lose by the war? 



54 QUESTIONS. 



What important event occurred on January 22, 1901 ? 
Describe the steps taken toward the formation of a South 

African confederation. 
How did Canada behave in the Boer war? 

614 Describe the anti- Asiatic outbreak in Vancouver, B. C- 
► Explain the present British unrest and anxiety. 

Are British dependencies or colonies any source of strength 

to the empire? 
When were old-age pensions granted? 

615 Who are the "Suffragettes?" 
Describe their methods of agitation. 

616 What is the anti-suffrage movement? 

What is said of woman suffrage in the United States? 

617 Give an account of the Eucharistic Congress held in London 

in the fall of 1908. How far was the government opposed 
to its programme? 

618 What is the nature of the disagreement between the House 

of Lords and the House of Commons? 
When did disestablishment take place? In what way does 

the Land Purchase Act benefit the Irish farmer? What 

is said of the old system? 
To what extent do the Irish people now own the land they 

cultivate? 

619 What is said of the origin of the Home Rule movement? 
What was the policy adopted by some of the leaders? 
When was the Land League organized? What was its 

motto? 

620 What were the Phoenix Park murders? What society was 

responsible for them? What followed the suppression of 
the Land League? What were the accusations of the 
London Times, and what was the purpose of that journal? 
How was Parnell vindicated? What befell him soon after- 
ward? How did Parnell's fall affect the Home Rule or 
Nationalist party? 

621 What was the situation of the Home Rule party in 1885? 

What important bill was introduced by Gladstone? What 
was its fate? What is said of the second Home Rule 
bill? What prevented its passage? 
With respect to population, compare Ireland and Scotland 
in 1840 and in 1860. 

622 State some of the results of the great Irish famine. Was 

it caused by the failure of the island to produce enough 
food? 
What appears to have been the object of English legislation 
at that epoch? 

623 Under what disadvantage do the laws place the Irish ex- 

porter? How are the British army and navy supplied? 
How have famine and emigration affected Ireland? 

624 How has British rule affected the character of the Irish 

people? 



QUESTIONS. 



What movements are responsible for the regeneration of 
Ireland now in progress? 

625 What is the object of the Irish Universities Act? Describe 

the "Gaelic Movement." 

626 Name some of the best known Irish authors. 

How is economic reform expected to benefit Ireland? ^ 

627 What has been the nature of Sir Horace Plunkett's work? 

How has it affected the character of the people? 

628 What is said of the Department of Agriculture and Techni- 

cal Instruction? What religious order was prompt in 
pointing out the benefits of the Department? What is 
the present industrial condition of Ireland? 

629 How has Turkey treated its Christian subjects? What im- 

portant measure emanated from the Czar? Describe the 
internal conditions of Turkey after 1860. What was the 
state of Greece at that time? 

630 What was settled by the London conference of 1871? What 

was the result of Russian intrigue in 1875 ? How was the 
Andrassy note received by Turkey? Describe the chaos 
that prevailed in Turkey. 

631 What was the London Protocol? What war broke out after 

its rejection? What was the extent of Russian success in 
the East? Give an account of the war in Europe. 

632 Where was Osman Pasha compelled to surrender? In what 

action was the Turkish army captured? Why was the 
British fleet in the Sea of Marmora? What treaty ended 
the war? State its terms. How did it come to be 
revised? 

633 What territories did Greece acquire in 1881? How did Rus- 

sia regard the turn of affairs in the Balkan peninsula? 
What further complications arose there? 

634 How did Turkey offend civilization in Armenia? What did 

the Cretans do? How did the war between Greece and 
Turkey terminate? Who was responsible for calling The 
Hague peace conference? What has been the Russian 
treatment of the Jews? 

635 What societies have been disturbing the repose of Russia? 

With what great power did Russia engage in war in 1904? 
Relate the causes and the results of that war. Who was 
influential in restoring peace? 

636 What was the Duma? Describe internal conditions in 

Russia. How are the Jews treated in that country? 

637 Who were the Young Turks? What was the policy of 

Abdul Hamid II? State the successive steps in his over- 
throw. 

638 Name the ethnical elements included in Austria-Hungary. 

Contrast its condition with that of Germany. What 
great work is set down to the credit of Bismarck's states- 
manship? 

639 How was the Catholic Church treated in Prussia? What 

was the nature of the Falk Laws? When did the perse- 



56 QUESTIONS. 



cution of the Church cease? Name the powers included 
in the Triple Alliance. What is said of Germany as a 
colonizing power? How did the present Emperor treat 
Bismarck? What was the condition of legal practice in 
1871? What three codes introduced uniformity into the 
legal system of the empire? 

640 How was German unity effected? What inharmonious 

racial elements remained in the empire? Describe the 
effort to Germanize Alsace-Lorraine. What is said of 
present relations between France and Germany? Describe 
the attempt to Teutonize the Polish part of Germany. 

641 Are the Danes of Schleswig-Holstein reconciled to German 

rule? Account for the growth of the Socialist party. 
What has been the attitude of the German government 
toward that party? 

642 What is the numerical strength of Social Democracy in 

Germany? Why is Germany not a great colonizing 
power? How are Germans encroaching upon British 
commerce? In what manner has England avoided com- 
petition in the past? 

643 What policy is the most advantageous for Germany to pur- 

sue, one of war or of peace? Describe the intellectual 
progress of Germany and its influence upon the outside 
world. What are the relations between Church and State 
in Italy? Describe Italy's experience in African coloniza- 
tion. Who is the present ruler of that kingdom? 

644 Discuss the prospects of the Church there. What is said 

of the foreign relations of Italy? 

645 Describe educational conditions in Italy; also the nature of 

the earthquakes of December, 1908. 

646 What happened in Spain in February, 1873? What was the 

state of her colonies? What was the "Virginius Affair?" 
How was peace restored in Spain? Before 1901 what 
evidences of disorder could have been noticed in Spain? 

647 What is said of the anti-clerical agitation? What accusa- 

tion has been made by Catholics? In what parts of Spain 
have there been unrest and disorder? Describe conditions 
in 1903. 

648 In what honorable relation has Spain stood toward North- 

ern Africa? Where is the Riff and what is said of its 
people? 
648 What force is deemed necessary to subdue the tribesmen? 
Describe the Barcelona outbreak. 

650 Who was Senor Ferrer and what was his occupation? What 

was his fate? Why was Barcelona under military law at 
the time of the outbreak? 

651 How did the outside world receive the tidings of the shoot- 

ing of Ferrer? What is the conclusion of the Fortnightly 
Review? 

652 What was accomplished by King Alfonso? Describe the 

maritime activity of the Portuguese in the XV century. 



QUESTIONS. 57 



What was their great achievement? What caused the 
removal to Brazil of the royal family of Portugal? When 
did that colony become independent? What is said of 
Louis I? 

653 How did Portugal lose her great colonial dependencies? 
What character is given of the present government 
officials? Is Portugal now a progressive state? 
What became of the kingdom of Poland? What question is 
now sometimes discussed concerning that nation? In 
what way might the Poles have assisted Napoleon I? 

,654 Describe the country of Poland. Where may we conven- 
iently take up its history? How was Boleslav the Brave 
employed? What circumstance separated the great 
Slavic race into two branches? What memorable service 
was rendered Europe by the Poles? State what is said 
of Casimir and of the Polish nobility and clergy. 

655 How did the Poles come into contact with the Lithuanians? 

How did they secure their country against German 
attack? In what manner did the Poles receive the revolt 
of Luther? Who was Sigismund II? 

656 Name some of Poland's elements of greatness. What was 

the fate of Poland under foreign princes? Who was John 
Sobieski? Describe the War of the Polish Succession. 
Who selected kings thereafter? 
What disturbances were concurrent with the establishment 
of religious liberty in Poland? Was this disorder due to 
the bigotry of the Poles or to their patriotism? Can the 
intolerance of Poland be equaled among contemporary 
powers? 

657 What was the Confederacy of Bar? Name the successive 

steps leading to the first partition of Poland. What was 
the nature of the second partition and what powers 
shared in it? What was the attempt of Kosciuszko? 
What powers shared in the third partition? What did 
Europe do for Poland after the downfall of Napoleon I? 
What circumstance makes Polish independence little more 
than a dream? 

658 What was formerly understood by the expression "the Low 

Countries?" How did they attract the notice of Europe? 
How did Philip II rule the Netherlands? When was Spain 
finally expelled from the United Provinces? How did the 
French Revolution affect them? What kingdom was 
erected out of the southern provinces? 

659 What is said of the educational system of Belgium? In 

what manner is that kingdom interested in the develop- 
ment of Africa? Account for the commercial importance 
of Belgium. What has been the influence of Leopold II 
in establishing the prosperity of his country? 

660 Describe its wealth and population. What is said of the 

people of Holland? of its industries and commerce? How 



58 QUESTIONS. 



large is its colonial empire? Where has the kingdom 
some administrative difficulties? 

661 For what has The Hague been noted in recent years? What 

great nation has shown some opposition to the arbitration 
of international disputes? How did the United States act 
in the settling of a controversy with Mexico? What im- 
portant event occurred at The Hague in July, 1907? On 
what side were Dutch sympathies during the Boer War? 
What is the numerical strength of Catholics in Holland? 

662 How did the Swiss people regard their German rulers? 

How did they achieve their independence? On what did 
they model their constitution of government? What is 
said of the military strength of the Swiss republic? 
Describe its people. 

663 How far have they carried the principle of state owner- 

ship? What is said of the number of Socialists and their 
programme? Tell what is said of the Initiative and the 
Referendum. State what is said of Swiss neutrality and 
some of its consequences. What is the proportion of 
Catholics? 

664 What became of the Danes in Ireland? in France? 
Who was Queen Margaret? 

665 When was the present royal family established? How did 

the continental alliance of Denmark affect her during the 
Napoleonic wars? How was Norway lost? What two 
German powers waged a successful war on Denmark? 

666 In recent years who were its most famous rulers? When 

did the Swedes establish their independence? Under 
whom was Lutheranism introduced? Tell what is said of 
Gustavus Adolphus; also of his daughter Christina. Who 
ascended the throne in 1697? 

667 What is said of the dynasty of Bernadotte? Describe the 

separation of Norway and Sweden. 

668 What is the probable future of the Scandinavian countries? 

How was Japan brought into contact with the outside 
world? When did the Mikado become important? When 
was parliamentary government established in Japan? 
What led to her war with China in 1894? 

669 Name two great Japanese victories. What treaty concluded 

the war? Did Japan gain anything thereby? Why did 
she acquire so little? What nation did obtain some ad- 
vantages in that war? How did Japan regard the acces- 
sions of Russia? 

670 Explain the principle of the "open door." 

Of what event did Russia take advantage to occupy Man- 
churia? 

What was the nature of the Anglo-Japanese alliance of 
January, 1902? What policy was pursued by Russia? 

671 Describe conditions in Korea, Which power broke off 

diplomatic relations? When were hostilities commenced 
between Russia and Japan? What was the situation of 



j QUESTIONS. 59 

PAOK 

! the Russian Asiatic fleet? Describe the operations under 

Admiral Togo. 
j 672 Describe operations around Port Arthur and their conse- 

[ quences. What is said of Japanese land operations? 

State what is said of the fighting around Liao-Yang. 
What occurred on the Sha River? Who took Port 
Arthur? What did he do with his victorious army? Who 
was the Russian commander? Describe the battle of 
Mukden. 
673 Who superseded General Kuropatkin? 

Tell what you know of the Baltic fleet of the Czar. 
Who was instrumental in bringing the war to an end? 
Where was the treaty signed? What were the results of 
the war? 
When and under what circumstances was Prince Ito assas- 
sinated? 

675 Describe the anti-foreign outbreak in China. State the 

conditions imposed upon her. After the settlement of 
this difficulty what was undertaken? 

676 Enumerate the influences at work in the awakening of 

China. What was the Tatsu Maru Affair? When was 
the decree issued that promised a new constitution to 
China? Describe the educational movement in China. 
Where are the Chinese teachers prepared? 

677 Who discovered Australia? In what way were the Dutch 

connected with Australia? For what is Botany Bay 
noted? 

678 What political prisoners were sent there at the close of 

the eighteenth century? They formed the beginning of 
what communities? When was the federation of the 
Australasian colonies accomplished? Tell what is said of 
the system of defense for Australia. 
Give a brief account of Canada from the time of its acqui- 
sition by England. 

679 What was the Confederation Act of the British Parliament? 
Is Newfoundland a part of the Dominion of Canada? 
When was Riel's rebellion suppressed? What disturbances 

had occurred earlier? Name some of the subjects of 
controversy between Canada and the United States. 
What was the extent of Spanish dominion in America at 
one time? How did Spain lose her dependencies? 

680 Give a sketch of Mexican history down to the war with the 

United States. Tell the story of Maximilian. Who es- 
tablished order in Mexico? Relate the progress of Mexico 
under President Diaz. 

681 What constitutional amendments were made in 1904? Has 

there been any increase of population? 
How did the Central American states come into existence? 

What is and what has been their condition? 
Who was Walker? 



60 QUESTIONS. 



682 What did Simon Bolivar accomplish? When did Venezuela 

and Ecuador separate from Colombia? What province 

was lost by the latter? 
Recite the brief sketch of Venezuela's stormy career. Who 

is the present ruler? 
What is said of the quarrels of Peru and Bolivia? 
Who was General San Martin? 

683 Where was Chilian independence gained? In what war did 

she become involved in 1879? Give an account of the war. 
What provinces does Chili hold in consequence of her 
successes? _ Describe the civil war of 1891. Explain the 
difficulty with the United States. 

684 What has hitherto been the position of Chili among South 

American states? In what was the Congress of 1908 
engaged? What is said of the early condition of Argen- 
tine? 

685 In what is the progress of that republic seen? Describe 

Buenos Aires. 

Give a brief account of Paraguay; of Uruguay. 

What was there peculiar about the early form of govern- 
ment in Brazil? What great reform was completed in 
1881? Tell what you know of the civil war in Brazil. 

686 Enumerate the principal races in that country. State the 

leading facts in the history of Spain's oldest colony. 
Who was Toussaint I'Ouverture? 
When was Haytian independence acknowledged by France? 

687 What is the internal condition of Hayti and San Domingo? 
When was the reconstruction of the Southern States com- 
pleted? Why is date January 1, 1879, a memorable one? 
Name the candidates for President and Vice-President in 
1880, and state the result of the election. What terrible 
tragedy occurred on July 2, 1881? 

688 What great law was enacted in January, 1883? Give an 

account of the Presidential election of 1884. Why was 
the election of Grover Cleveland a noteworthy event? 
Tell what you know of the Presidential Succession Act. 
When was the Bureau of American Republics establisljed? 

689 State briefly the result of the election of 1888. What im- 

portant event was celebrated in Philadelphia in 1887? 
what in New York city in 1889? Name the States ad- 
mitted into the Union at that time (1889-1890). Who was 
chosen President in 1890? What occurred in 1893? 

690 What was the fate of the income tax law'^ ^ State the 

nature of the Venezuela controversy. Describe the Co- 
lumbian World's Fair. Who represented Catholics in the 
congress of religions? 

691 When was the Catholic University opened? Who is the 

present Apostolic Delegate? What was the result of the 
Presidential campaign of 1896? When was the Dingley 
tariff law enacted? Describe the course of the insurrec- 
tion in Cuba. 



QUESTIONS. 61 

PAGE 

692 What was the attitude of the United States? How was the 

tension affected by the blowing up of the Maine? What 
was President McKinley authorized to do? Relate the 
services of Admiral Dewey. Who were engaged in de- 
stroying the fleet of Admiral Cervera? Who was Agui- 
naldo? 

693 Describe the fighting at Siboney and San Juan. How did 

these victories influence the conduct of Cervera? When 
did Santiago surrender? What services were rendered by 
General Miles? What were the provisions of the treaty 
that concluded the war? What is said of subsequent con- 
ditions in Cuba, Porto Rico and the Philippines? 

694 What was shown by the census of 1900? Describe the 

Presidential election of that year. How did President 
McKinley meet his death? Who succeeded him? What 
important treaty was abrogated about this time? What 
was Mr. Roosevelt's policy as announced by him? What 
important event occurred early in his administration? 

695 How was it settled? What executive department was 

established in 1902? What duties are performed by the 
Bureau of Corporations? What great work had been 
undertaken by a French company? How much money 
had been expended on the project? What offer was made 
to the United States? How much was Congress disposed 
to expend on the work? Relate the conduct of Colombia. 

696 What resulted? How did the United States acquire the 

canal zone? ^ What payments were promised to Panama? 
How was this act judged in the United States? Of what 
advantage will the completion of the canal be to com- 
merce? Who were elected in 1904? 

697 Describe the calamity of April 8th, 1906. What was the 

Japanese question in California? Describe the cruise of 
the American navy. What is said of business at the 
close of 1907? 

698 When was Oklahoma admitted into the Union? Tell what 

is said of it. What great reform movement is mentioned 
in 1907? Describe the executive message of December 3, 
1907. What is said of the election of 1908? 

699 What is the nationality of the people of Porto Rico? How 

are the Philippine Islands governed? What is said of 
Cuban conditions? Why did President Taft convoke 
Congress in special session? Who were the rival claim- 
ants for the honor of having discovered the North Pole? 
What is said of each? 



INDEX. 



Abassides, the, 209. 
Abdel Kadie, 565. 
Abdel MaleKj 197. 
Abderahman, 204. 
Abderahmax III, 235. 
Abdullah, the Khalifa, 608. 
Abduk Rhaman, Khan, 606. 
Abo-Beke, 186. 
Abusson, Peter d*. 399. 
Acre, capture of, 304. 

ACTIUM, 1. 

Adolphcs, GnsTAVUS, 469-470. 

Adeianople, battle of. 125. 

.IDmilianos. 87. 

.a^Tius, 138, 139. 143. 

Africa, 139, 197, 

Agincouet, 378. 

Ageicola, 54. 

Agrippa, 1, 9, 10. 

Ageippina, 23. 

ag0inaldo, 694. 

Aix-la-Chapelle, 481, 508. 

Alabama Claims, the, 588. 

Alans, the, 126, 134. 

Alaric, 134, 141. 

Alberoni, Cardinal, 502. 

Albert, Archduke, 589. 

Albigenses, 322. 

Aebinus, 72. 

Alboin, 172. 

Alcuin, 215. 

Alemanni, 116, 125, 134. 

Alexandria, library of, 190, 608. 

Alexius, 312, 314. 

Alfred the Great, 240, 241. 242. 

Algecieas, 354. 

Algecieas, conference of, 603, 

Ali, 194. 

Alma, battle of, 571. 

Almanza, battle of, 494. 

Almanzor, 236. 

Alphonso I, 233. 

Alphonso, III, 234. 

Alphonso, VI, 262. 

Alphonso, IX, 317. 

Alsacb-Loeeaine, 595. 

Alva, Duke of, 465. 

Alvarado, 441. 

Alypius, 118. 

Amadeus, King, 591. 

America, discovery of, 413. 

Amiens, peace of, 537. 

Ampudia, General, 557. 

Amroo, 189. 

Andrassx Note, the, 630. 

Angelds, Isaac^ 302. 



Angles, the, 149. 

Anglia (East), 149. 

Anglo-Saxon Monarchy, the, 257. 

Angora, battle of, 373. 

Annam, 577. 

Anne, Queen, 492. 

Antioch, 157, 158 ; siege of, 281. 

Antoninus, Pius, 64-67. 

Apocalypse, 56. 

Appomattox, 586. 

Aquitanians, the, 210. 

Arabi Bey, 607. 

Arabic Cultuee, 269, 270. 

Aeabs, Empire of, 228, 250. 

Arabs, Philippus, 87. 

Arc, Joan of 380, 383. 

Arcadius, 133. 

Argentine, 684. 

Arian Heresy, 111, 116. 

Aeista, General, 555. 

Arius, 111. 

Armada, the Spanish, 456, 457. 

Armenia, 33, 634. 

Arminius, 9, 16, 17, 18, 20. 

Aeragon, 237, 427. 

Aebogastes, 130. 

Arthur, President Chester A., 687. 

Aspern, 541. 

AsQuiTH, Premier, 617. 

Associations, law of, 601. 

Assouan, dam of, 609. 

AssuMPTiONiST Fathebs, the, 601. 

A^SSYRIA, 58. 

Athelstan, 243. 

Athenodoeus, 4. 

Astolphus, 207. 

ASTUEiAS, the, 202, 233, 237. 

Attila. 139, 141, 142. 

Augsbubg, League of, 488. 

Augustenbueg, Duke of, 588. 

Augustus, 1. 

aueelian, 90, 94. 

Aueelius, Marcus, 68. 

AusTEHLiTZ, battle of, 539. 

Australia, 678. 

Austria, Insurrection In, 566-569 ; 

war with Prussia, 589; 633, 

638. 
AcsTBiAN Succession, war of, 506. 
Atabi^ 175 ; annihilation of, 214. 



B 

Bagdad, civilization of, 228. 
Bajazet I, 370. 
Baldwin, 276, 292. 
Baldwin, Emperor, 316. 



64 



INDEX. 



Bakj Confederacy of, 657. 
Bakbaeossa Feedekick, 296, 302, 

303. 
Baebarossa (Pirate), 152. 
Barcelona, 649. 
Barnet, battle of, 403. 
BA.SIL II, 250. 

Basil the Macedonian, 232. 
Batu Khan, 325. 
Bavarians, the, 214. 
Bayard, Chevalier, 433. 
Bazaine, Marshal, 593. 
BE.iUEEGARD, General, 582. 
Becket, Thomas h, 298. 
Bedb, the Venerable, 218. 
Belgrade, battle of, 394 ; peace of, 

504. 
Belisarius, 139, 161, 162, 168. 
Benedeck, General dU, 590. 
Berlin Memorandum, the; 630. 
Berwick, Marshal, 494. 
Bessarabia, 632. 
Bethlehem, 8. 
Biggae, Joseph, 619. 
Bionto, battle of, 504. 
Bismarck, Count, 589, 591, 638. 
Black Death, the, 359. 
Black Prince, the, 361, 366. 
Blanche of Castile, 329. 
Blenheim, battle of, 492. 
Bloemfontein, 613. 
BOABDIL, 406. 
Boadicea, 35. 
Boers, the victories and sieges of, 

611,- 612, 661. 
Bohemia, conquest of, 222 ; revolt of, 

469. 
Bohemond, 276. 
BoLESLAV, the brave, 654. 
Boleyn, Anne., 455. 
Bolivar, Simon, 682. 
Bonaparte, Jerome, 541. 
Bonaparte, Joseph, 541. 
Bonaparte, Louis, 541. . 
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 533, 535, 542. 
Bonifacius, 138, 139. 
Bos worth, battle of, 404. . 
Botany Bay, 677. . 

Bourbon, Constable de, 433. 
Bouvines, battle of, 320. 
Boyne, battle of the, 488. 
Bragadino, Marc Antony, 463. 
Brandenburg, House of, 500. 
Brazil, 451, 686. 
Breda, treaty of, 481. 
Bretigny, treaty of, 363. 
Brian Boru, 253. 
Brlenne, John of, 326. 
Britain, 29. 
Britannicus, 32. 
Bruce, Robert, 346. 
Brunanburg, 244. 
Bryan, William J., 691. 
Buckner, General,. 581. 
Budget, the British, 618. 
Buell, General D. -C, 582. . 
Buena Vista, 558. 
BuBMOS Aires, 684. 



P.ulgaeia, 632. 
Bull Run, 580. 
BuLLER, General, 612. 
Bunker Hill, 514. 
BuRGOYNE, surrender of, 520. 
Burgundians, 134. 
Burmah, 607. 

BUERHUS, 33. 

Butler, General B. F., 582. 
Byzantium. (See Constantinople.) 



Cabot, Sebastian, 422. - 

CiKSAR, Augustus, 1-12, 39. 

C^SAE, Julius, 1. 

C^SAR, Tiberius, 6, 9, 13, 14, 21-25. 

Calais, si&ge of, 358, 454. 

California, 563. 

Caligula, 26-29. 

Calvert, Cecilius, 477. 

Calvert, Leonard,- 477. 

Calvert, Sir George, 477. ■ 

Calvin,. John, 432. 

Cambeay, League of,- 427. 

Cambeay, Peace of, 434 

Camden, battle of, 521. 
Campo Foemio, 534. - 
Canada, Dominion of, -678. 
Candia, siege of, 481. 
Cannon, first use of, -357. 
Canossa, Heney IV at, .264. 
Canute, 254. . 

Cape Colony, 610. 
Capet, Hugh, 245. . . 

Capitulars, 215.- 

Capeea, 25. 

Caracalla, 74, 77, 79. . - 

Caractacus, 30.. ..■.-:: 

Carinus, 96. . --. .. . -., 

Carlists, the, 646. . , " . . 

Carlowitz, Peace of, 499.. ' 
Carnegie, ASdeew, 661. . . 
Carolingians, the,. 206. 
Carthage, 200. 
Caeus, 96. 

Casablanca, 603, 604. 
Casimir, 654. 
Castelar, Emilio, 646. 
Castelfidaedo, 576. 
Castile, 238. 
Catalonia, 647. _ - 
Cateau-Cambeesis, Peace of, 453.- 
Catheeine of Aeagon, 455. 
Catholic Univeksity. of America, 
691. . . .1 

Catholicism, in England, . 616, : 617. 
Catinat, Marshal, 49.0. .: -. 

Cavaignac, 566. - , ■ . 

Cavendish, Lord Frederick, .620. . 
Cavour, 573. 

Centennial Exposition, 588. 
Cerro Gordo, battle of, 561. 
Chalons, 140. . . ;.. 

Chalons-sur-AIaene, -593. ... , 

Chancelloesville, battle, of, 584. ■ -■. 
Chapultepjio, 563. 



INDEX. 



66 



Charlemagne^ 210-215 ; crowned Em- 
peror, 210 ; work of, 220-226. 

Chakles I, 471, 474. 

Charles II, 476. 

Charles V, 433, 435, 452, 453, 658. 

Charles VI, 378. 

Charles VII, 380. 

Charles XII, 501. 

Charles the Simple, 244. . 

Childehic III, 206. 

Chili, 451, 683. 

China, 675. 

China, Mongol invasion of, 324. 

Chivalry, 261. 

Chosroes, 167, 172, 173, 180, 182. 

Christ, birtli of, 8 ; death, 24. 

Christian Brothers, progressive 
spirit of, 628. 

Christian (King), 666. 

Church, the Christian, 24, 37, 55, 74, 
76, 88, 98, 106 ; North Africa 
lost to, 200 ; barbarians con- 
verted by, 218 ; division of the, 
231 ; civilization preserved by, 
271. 

Churdbusgo, 502. 

CiALDNi, General, 576. 

Cicero, 3. 

"Cm," the. (See Rodriguez Diaz.) 

CiNNA, 7. 

Circassians, War against, 572. 

Civilization, improvement of, 217. 

Claudius, 29-31. 

Claudius II, 88, 89, 90. 

Clergy, services of, 220-221. 

Clermont, Council of, 275. 

CliaIate, changes of, 217. 

ClontaRf, battle of, 253. 

Clovis, 151, 152, 153. 

Coalition, the first, 532. 

Coalition, the second, 535. 

Coalition, the third, 539. 

Cochin China, 577. 

Coigny, Marshal, 504. 

CoLENSO, battle of, 612. 

Colesburg, battle of, 612. 

Colombia, 695. 

Columbus, Christopher, 413, 419, 
421. 

commodus, 69. 

Communist Insurrection, 595. 

Comnenus, Alexius, 274. 

CoMNENus, Manuel, 294. 

CONDfi, Prince of, 471, 483. 

Confederate States of America, 
579. 

Congo Free State, the. 659. 

Conrad I, 245. 

Conrad III, 293. 

Conscription Bill, 585. 

Constans, 114. 

constantine, 102-113. 

constantine ii, 114. 

CONSTANTINE Caproxymus, 204, 207. 

CONSTANTINOPLE, founding of, 112 ; 
Saracen defeat at, 203 ; crusad- 
ers at, 277 ; Latin conquest of, 
315 ; fall, of, 316, 385. . 



CONSTANTIUS, 114. 

CONSTANTIUS (CHLORUS), 96, 101, 

102. 
Constituent Assembly, the, 529. 
Continental Congress, the, 514. 
CORBULO, 33. 

Cordova, Caliphat of, 209. 
Cornwallis, General, 521. 
Cortes, Hernando, 438-449. 
Covenanters, the Scotch, 472. 
Cowpens, battle of, 521. 
Cbassus, 9. 
CRfiCY, battle of, 357. 
Crete, 634. 

Crimean War, the, 571. 
Crispus, 103. 

Cromwell, Oliver, 473, 474-476. 
Cronje, General, 612. 
Crusade, the children's, 325. 
Crusade, the third, 302, 309. 
Crusade, the fourth, 311. 
Crusade, the last, 337. 
Crusades, the, 274-344 passita. 
Ctesiphon, 120. 
Cuba, discovery of, 415, 692. 
Culloden, battle of, 508. 
Culturkampf, the, 577. 
Curfew, the, 259. 
CusTOZZA, 589. 
Cyprus, 463. 
Czolgosz, 694. 



D 

Dacia, 58. 

Damietta, siege of, 327 ; capture of, 
330. 

Danes, England invaded by, 239, 240 ; 
Ireland invaded by, 252.; de- 
feat of the, 253. 

Darboy, Archbishop, 595. 

Dauphin, origin of the,. 359, 362. 

Davis, Jefferson, 579. 

Davitt, Michael, 619. 

Decius, 87. 

Delhi, 505. 

Denmark, 409, 664-666. 

Desiderius, 211. 

Dettingen, battle of, 507. 

Diaz, President Porfiuio, 680. 

Diaz, Rodriguez, 262. 

Dillon, John, 620. 

Diocletian, 96, 99, 100. 

Disestablishment, 618. 

Domitian, 54, 56, 57. 

Don Juan (of Austria), 464. , 

Donelson Port, capture of, 581. 

doryl.eum, 279. 

Drake, Sir Francis, 456. 

Drusus, 9. 

Ducrot, General, 594. 

Duma, the, 636. 

DuMOURiEZ, General, 532. 

Dunbar, battle of, 474. 

Dundee, battle of, 611. 

I>undonald, Lord, 612. 

Dunkirk, siege of, 474, .475. 



66 



INDEX. 



B 

Eastern EMPir.E, fall of, 392. 

Ecclesiastical State, the, 208, 569. 

Edessa, 279, 292. 

Edgar, 244. 

Edward I, 345. 

Edward III, 355, 360, 364, 366. 

Edward VI, 455. 

Edward VII, 613. 

Edward the Confessor, 255 

Edward the Elder, 243. 

Egbert, 238. 

Eginhard, 216. 

Egypt, conquest of, 189 ; Invaded by 
Napoleon, 534 ; 607, 609. 

Elandslagte, battle of, 611. 

Electoral Commission, 588. 

pLiZABETH, Queen, 455, 456, 467. 

Emmanuel, Victor, 573. 

Engel, Frederick, 641. 

England, 238-247 ; 254, 255 ; war 
with France, 319 ; civil war in, 
332 ; war with France, 355, 
365 ; losses of, 383 ; becomes 
Protestant, 455 ; civil war in, 
471-474 ; North American col- 
onies of, 477, 478 ; loss of 
American colonies, 512-524 ; 
unrest of, 614, 642. 

England, Church of, 455. 

EscuELA Moderna, the, 650. 

Esling, 541. 

Essex, 149. 

Ethelbald, 239. 

Ethelbert, 239. 

Ethelred, 239. 

Ethelwulf, 239. 

Eucharistic Congress, the, 617. 

Eudes, 204. 

Eugene, Prince, 492, 494, 497, 499. 

Eugenius, 130. 

Eupatoria, 571. 

EusEBius, 97. 

Eustace, 276. 

EuTTCHiAN Heresy, 144. 

Evaric, 150. 

Evesham, battle of, 333. 

Exiguus, Dionysius, 218. 



P 



Fairfax, General, 473. 

Falk Laws, the, 577, 639. 

Falkirk, 508. 

Fabnese, Alexander, 465. 

Farragut, Admiral, 582. 

Favre, Jules, 595. 

Ferdinand (of Spain), 405. 

Ferdinand II (of Austria), 469-470. 

Ferdinand III (Castile), 318. 

Ferrer, Sefior, 650. 

Feudal System, the, 227 ; 272, 273. 

Fisher, Bishop, 455. 

Five Forks, 587. 

Flburus, battle of, 490. 

Fontanet, battle of, 227. 



FoxTENOY, battle of, 507. 

FOREY, 579. 

France, 136 ; Saracens defeated by, 
205 ; under Charlemagne, 210 ; 
education in, 215 ; under Louis 
the Bald, 227; under Charles 
the Simple, 244 ; war with Eng- 
land, 319 ; war with England, 
354, 365, 377 ; successes of, 
383 ; religious wars in, 466, 
467 ; North American colonies 
of, 478 ; prosperity of, 479, 
480 ; fine arts in, 480 ; loss of 
American colonies, 511 ; assists 
the United States, 517, 523 ; 
disturbances in, 563-565 ; losses 
of, 595 ; third republic estab- 
lished, 595 : Law of Separation 
in, 602 ; 604 ; 605. 

Franche-ComtS, 484. 

Francis I, 427, 433. 

Francis I (of Austria), 538. 

Francis Joseph, 506, 591. 

Franks, the, 103, 125, 136, 151, 152, 
166. 

Franco-Prussian War, the, 592. 

Frederick, Emperor. (See Barba- 
rossa.) 

Frederick II, 328. 

Frederick VII, 588. 

Frederick William (of Prussia), 
500. 

Frederickshall, siege of, 501. 

Freiburg, battle of, 471. 

Fremont, Captain, 558. 

Fribourg, University of, 664. 

Friedland, battle of, 540. 

F'ritigern, 124. 

FuLDA, 267. 



O.^ELic Movement, the, 625. 

Gage, General, 514. 

Galea, 39. 

Galerius, 96, 100. 

Gallienus, 88, 92. 

Gallus, 87. 

Gama, Vasco da, 422. 

Garfield, President, 687. 

Garibaldi, 575. 

Gascons, the, 211. 

Gatacre, General, 612. 

Gates, General, 520. 

Gaul, invasion of, 151. 

Gelimer, 161. 

Genghis-Khan, 323. 

Georgia, 586. 

Gepid.55, 176. 

German Empire, 594 ; 605, 638-643. 

Germanicus, 11, 14, 16-19, 23. 

Germans, the, 9, 14, 16, 17-19, 90. 

Germany, under Louis, 227 ; civil war 

In, 319. 
Geta, 74. 
Gettysburg, 584. 
Gibbons, Cardinal, 690. 



INDEX. 



67 



GiBitiLTAH, capture of, 493 ; 523. 
Gladstone, William E., 621. 
Glencoe, battle of, 611. 
Glycehius, 146. 
Godfrey of BodilloNj 276 ; King of 

Jerusalem, 287. 
GOEDIANUS III, 86. 
Gordon, General, 608. 
GoRTSCHAKOFF, Prince, 572. 
Gothic Code, the, 150. 
Goths, the, 89, 124, 126, 134. 
GOURKO, General, 631. 
Ghanada, fall of, 406. 
Grant, General Ulysses, 581, 584, 

585, 587. 
Grassb, Count de, 523. 
Gratian, 125, 127. 
Gravelotte, battle of, 593. 
Greece, 633, 634. 
Greek Fire, 387. 
Greeks, the, 187. 
Greene, General, 521. 
Guadalupe Hidalgo, 563. 
guanihani, 415. 
GuASTALLA, battle of, 504. 
Guatimozin, 447. 
GuESCLiN, Du, 365. 
GuiscARD, Robert, 261, 265. 
Gunpowder, discovery of, 408. 
Guy of Lusignan, 300. 



Habibulla Khan, 60^. 

Hadrian, 60-64. 

Hague, conference at the, 634, 661. 

Hakon VII, 667. 

Hancock, General, 687. 

Hanover, vi^ar of, 510. 

Harold, 256. 

Haroun-Al-Raschid, 215, 228. 

Harrison, Benjamin, 689. 

Hastings, 257. 

Hayti, 415, 686. 

Hegira, the, 184. 

Heliogabalus, 80. 

Helvetian Confederacy. ( See 

■ Switzerland.) 
Hbngist, 148. 

Henry I (of England), 298. 
Henry II, Ireland conquered by, 296 ; 

298 ; 302. 
Henry III, 320, 321. 
Henry IV (of Fiance), 467, 468. 
Henry IV (of Germany), 264-266. 
Henry V, 378. 
Henry VI, 380. 
Henry VIII, 455. 

Henry, Count (of Burgundy), 263. 
Henry the Fowler, 246. 
Heraclius, 180. 
Hekculanbum, 152. 
Hessians, the, 518. 
Hildebrand. (See Pope Gregory 

VII.) 
Hobson, Lieutenant, 693. 
Hochstadt, battles of, 492, 536. 



Hohenlinden, 536. 

Hohenzollern, Prince of, 592. 

Holland, 465, 481, 483. 484. 

Home Rule, Irish, 619, 621. 

lIONORius, 133, 137. 

Hooker, General, 584. 

Horace, 3. 

Horsa, 148. 

IIubertsbueg, peace of, 512. 

Hugh of Vermandois, 276. 

Humbert, King, 577. 

Humbert I, 644. 

Hundred Days, the, 546. 

Hungary, invasion of, 462 ; insurrec- 
tion in, 567 ; 591. 

HUN.S, invasions of the, 124, 126, 139, 
141. 

HuNYADi, John, 393, 396. 

Hyde, Dr. Douglas, 626. 



IcONiuM, 251 ; 278. 

Iconoclasts, the, 203. 

iNCAs, the, 450. 

Independence, Declaration of, 516. 

Independents, rise of the, 473. 

India, 607. 

Infallibility, dogma of, 592. 

Initiative, the, 663. 

Inventions, 218. 

Investitures, 263, 264. 

Ireland, 251-254 ; Danes defeated In, 
253 ; Anglo-Norman conquest 
of, 298 ; subdued by Cromwell, 
474 ; 621 ; 622 ; 623-628. 

Irish Universities Act, the, 625. 

Ironsides, Edmund, 254. 

Isabella (of Spain), 405. 

Italy, 153, 167 ; under Lothalre, 227 ; 
Normans in, 260 ; War in, 573 ; 
union of, 574 ; defeated by Aus- 
tria, 589. 

ITO, Prince Hirombl, 674. 



Jacobite Rebellion, 508. 

Jagiellos, the, 655. 

Jamaica, conquest of, 475. 

James I (of Aragon), 318. 

/AMES I (of Great Britain), 467. 

James II, flight of, 488. 

Japan, 635, 668-675. 

Jena, 540. 

Jerusalem, 45-47, 188 ; taken by 

crusaders. 285. 
Jerusalem, Kingdom of, 290 ; fall of, 

299. 301. 
Jesuits, 639. 

Jews, 44, 48. 49. 62-63. 634. 
John (of England), defeat of, 320; 

Magna Charta signed by, 320. 
.John II, 360, 363. 
Johnson, Andrew, 587. 
Johnston, General A. S., 582. 
Jovian, 121, 122. 



68 



INDEX. 



JoTCE^ P. W., 626. 

JUAEEZ, 578. 

Julian, 115-120. 
Julian, Count, 201. 

JULIANUS, DiDIUS, 70. 

Justin I, 157. 

Justin II, 170. 

Justinian, Legislation, of, 159 ; 160. 

Jutes, tlie, 148. 



Kaled, 187. 

Kabs, siege of, 631. 

Keakney, General, 558. 

Kent, invasion of, 149. 

Keeboga, defeat of, 282. 

Khajrga, 609. 

Khaetoum, 608. 

Kinpeely, Achmet, 481. 

Kitchener, General Sir Herbert, 608, 

Klondike, tlie, 679. 

Knights-Eeeant, 261. 

Korea, 668. 

Kosciuszko, 657. 

Kouli-Khan, Tiiamas, 505. 

Keugee, President, 611, 613. 

KuROKi, General, 672. 

Kuropatkin, General, 672. 



Labaeum, 104. 

Ladislav, 655. 

LaFayette, General, 522. 

LaFeuillade, Duke of, 494. 

liA-HoGUE, Cape, 489. 

LAMOEicifiiEE, General de, 575. 

Lancastee, House of, 401. 

Land Puechase Act, 618. 

Land League, the, 619. 

Landau, capture of, 493. 

Languages, origin of modern, 218. 

Lauenbueg, Duchy of, 588. 

Laufeld, battle of, 508. 

La Valette, 457-461. 

Lee, Robeet E., 583, 586. 

Legion, the Thundering, 08. 

Legnano, battle of, 297. 

Leipsic, battle of, 469 ; 544. 

Lens, battle of, 471. 

Leo the Aemenian, 229. 

Leo the Isaueian, 203. 

Leo the Theacian, 144, 145. 

Leon, 237. 

Leopold II, 659. 

Lepanto, battle of, 464. 

Lesseps, Feedinand de, 592. 

Lewes, battle of, 333. 

LiAO-YANGy battle of, 672. 

Liberation, war of, 544. 

LiciNius, 107-109. 

Liegnitz, battle of, 654. 

Lima, 451. 

Lincoln, 'Abraham, 580, 587. 

Lingaed, Dr. John quoted, 255, 367. 



LiTIA, 7. 

LiVY, 3. 

Llewellyn (Prince), 345. 

Lloyd-Geoege, Mr., 614. 

Lodi, battle of, 533. 

Lombards, the, 172 ; defeats of, 207. 

211. 
London Confeeence, the, 591. 
London Peotocol, the, 631. 
London Times, the, 620, 622. 
Long Island, battle of, 518. 
Louis VII, 293. 
Louis IX, 328, 331. 
Louis XIII, 470. 
Louis XIV, 471, 478-498. 
Louis XVI, 530. 
Louis XVII, 530. 
Louis XVIII, 546. 
Louis the Debonnaire, 226. 
LucAN, 26, 33. 
LUNfiviLLB, Peace of, 536. 
Luther, Maetin, 430. 
LuTZEN, battle of, 469. 
Luxemboueg, Maeshal, 490. 
Luxemburg Question, the, 591. 



M 

jMcClellan. General G. B.. 582. 
McKinley, President, 691. 
McMahon, Marshal. 593. 
MacCarthy, Justin, 620. 
Macedonian Heresy, the, 127. 
Macrinus, 79 
Madagascar, 604. 
Maecenas, 1, 10, 11. 
Mafeking, 611. 
Magellan, Ferdinand, 438. 
Magenta, battle of, 573. 
Magersfontein, battle of, 612. 
Magna Charta, 320. 
Magnetic Needle, the, 409. 
Mahdi, El, 608. 
Mahomet, 183, 185. 
Majorianus, 146. 
Malakoff, storming of the, 571. 
Malplaquet, battle of, 495. 
Malta, 436 ; siege of, 457-461. 
Malvern Hill, 583. 
Mamelukes, the, 337, 534. 
MAMM.EA, 81. 
Manchuria, 669. 
Marcian, 144. 
Marcomans, the, 68. 
Marengo, battle of, 536. 
Maria Theresa, 506. 
Marie Antoinette, 530. 
Maelboeough, Duke of, 492. 
Maeobodnus, 20. 
Marsin, Marshall, 493. 
Marston Moor, battle of, 473. 
Martel, Charles, 205. 
Marx, Karl, 641. 
Mary (Tudor), 455. 
Maeyland, 478, 525. 
Massena, Marshal, 536. 
Massowah, 643. 



INDEX. 



69 



MatamoeaSj siege of, 556. 

Mauritius, 174. 

Maxentius, 103-106. 

Maximian, 96, 100. 

Maximilian, 578. 

Maximin ii, 107. 

Maximus, 127, 128. 

Mazaein, Cardinal, 479. 

Meade, General G. G., 584. 

Mecca, 185. 

Medina Cceli, battle of, 237. 

Menelek II, 644. 

Mercia, 149. 

Merovingians, end of, 206. 

Messina, destruction of, 645. 

Methuen, General (Lord), 612. 

Metz, siege of, 593. 

Mexican War, consequences of, 554. 

Mexico, French invasion of, 578, 680. 

Mexico, siege of, 445-447 ; capture of, 

562. 
Meyer, Kuno, 626. 
Michel III, 231. 

MiCHEAS, 8. 

Middle Ages, the, 266-273 ; scholar- 
ship in, 268, 269 ; inventions 
during, 269 ; architecture in, 
270 ; conversion of Northern 
Europe, 271 ; "Truce of God," 
272.' 

Miramolin, the, 317 i 

Miramon, 578. 

MOAVIAH, 195. 

Mohacs, battle of, 437, 499. 

Mohammed II, 385. 401. 

Mohammedanism, 184. 

Molay, Jacques de, 351. 

Moldavia, conquest of, 370. 

MONA, 34. 

Mongols, the, 373. 

Monk, General, 476, 477. 

Monks, zeal of,. 220-221. 

Monroe Doctrine, 690. 

MoNS, 489. 

Montecuculli, 481, 486, 487. 

MONTEMAR, Duke of, 504. 

Montenegro, 632. 

Montenotte, 533. 

Monterey, siege of, 556. ' 

Montezuma, 440-441. 

Montmorency, Constable de, 453. 

Mooes, the, defeats of, 262, 263 ; 317, 
318. 353; overthrow of, 405- 
408. 

More, Sir Thomas, 455. 

MOREAU, General, 535. 

Morgan, General, 521. 

MORGAETEN, battle of, 348, 662. 

Morocco, 603. 

Moscow, burning of, 543 ; retreat 
from, 544. 

Mount Cassino, 265. 

Mount Vernon, 527. 

MuHLBERG, battle of, 452. 

Mukden, 672. 

Murad I, 369. 

MusA, 201. 

MCSTAPHA, 463. 



N 



Namur, 489. 

Nantes, Edict of, revoked, 488. 

Naples, 426 ; 575. 

Napoleon. (See Bonaparte.) 

Napoleon III, 570, 573, 593. 

Narses, 163. 

Narva, 501. 

Naseby, battle of, 473. 

Nations, migrations of the, 124. 

Navarre, 237. 

Navas de Tolosa, 317. 

Nazareth, 8. 

Needle Gun, the, 590. . 

Nelson, Lord, 538. 

Nepos, 3. 

Nero, 32-39. 

Neeva, 57. 

Nehwinde, battle of, 490. 

Nestorian Heresy, 144. 

Netherlands, liberation of the, 465 ; 

658-661. 
Neville's Cross, battle of, 358. 
New Orleans, battle of, 550. 
New York, evacuation of, 524. 
New Zealand, 678. 
Nice, Council of, 111 ; siege of, 278. 
Nice, Empire of, 316. 

NiCEPHORUS, 228. 

Nicephorus Phocas, 247. 

Nicholas II, accession of, 634. 

Nicholson's Neck, 611. 

NicopoLis, battle of, 372. 

Nihilists, the, 635. 

NiMWEGEN, Peace of, 487. 

Noaillbs, Duke of, 490, 507. 

Noche triste, the, 442. 

NoRDLiNGEN, battle of, 470; 471. 

Normans, the, 256-260 ; England con- 
quered by, 258 ; established in 
Sicily, 261. 

North German Bund, the, 591. 

North Point, battle of, 549. 

northumbria, 149. 

Norway, 666. 

nouradin, 299. 

numerian, 96. 



o 

OCTAVIA, 33. 

Odoacer, 146. 

O'DoNNEL, General, 648. 

Oklahoma, 698. 

Omar, 187, 191. 

Omdurman, battle of, 608. 

Ommiades, the, 209. 

Orange Free State, the, 610, 613. 

Orange, William, Prince of, 483, 484, 

488, 492. 
Orleans, siege of, 380. 

OSMAN DiGNA, 608. 

Ostrogoths, the, 153. 
Othman, 191. 
Otho, 39. 
Otho the GreaTj 246. 



70 



INDEX. 



Otho (Duke of Saxony), 319. 
Otompan, battle of, 443. 
Ottoman Empire^ rise of, 368 ; begin- 
ning of decline, 465, 505. 
OcDENAEDE, battle of, 494. 
Oddinot, General, 570. 
Ovid, 3. 

OXFOED, 267. 



Padeebobn, 267. 

Paleologus, heroism of, 390. 

Palmyba, siege of, 91. 

Palo Alto, 555. 

Panama, 695. 

Pannonia, revolt in, 14, 58. 

Paeagdat, 451. 

PARDEEBtTEG, 612. 

Paeis, Treaty of, 512; capture of, 
547 : Treaty of, 572 ; siege °, 
594. 

Paenell, Chas. Stewart, 619. 

Paethians, 34, 68. 

Passaeowitz, Peace of, 499. 

Patmos, 55. 

Pavia, battle of, 433. 

Pedro II, D., 317. 

Pedeo the Cruel, 364. 

Pelagio, 233. 

Penn, William, 477. 

Pensions, old-age, 614. 

Pepin, conquests of, 222. 

Pepin the Short, 206, 208, 209. 

Peesano, Admiral, 589. 

Perseus, 26. 

Persia, 84, 97, 119, 125, 175, 180, 
182, 192, 193. 

Peery, Commodore, O. H., 549. 

Pertinax, 69. 

Peru, conquest of, 449-451, 683. 

Peter the Great, 500. 

Peter the Heemit, 275. 

Ph^drus, 26. 

Philip II, 456, 457, 466, 467, 658. 

Philip III, 467. 

Philip V. 491, 502, 503. 

Philip VI, 355. 

Philip (Duke of Suabia), 319. 

Philippines, the, 693. 

Phocas, 177, 179. 

Ph(enix Park, murders in, 620. 

Photius, 231. 

PiCTS, the, 136. 

Piso, Cneius, 22. 

PiZAEEO, Feancis, 449. 

Placentia, Council of, 275. 

Plautius, Aulus, 29. 

Plevna, battle of, 631. 

Pliny (elder), 52. 

Pliny (younger), 53, 59. 

Plunkett, Sir Horace, 627. 

PoGONATUS, (Constantiue IV), 195. 

PoiCTiEES, battle of, 360. 

Poland, rise of, 384, 641, 653-656. 

POLE.s, America aided by, 5, 17. 

Polish Succession, war of the, 503. 

Pompeii, 52. 



Pope Alexander III, 272. 

Pope Alexander VI, 417. 

Pope Clement V. 350. 

Pope Clement Vl, 359. 

Pope Eugenius III, 293. 

Pope Gregory VII (Hildebrand), 263. 

Pope Gregory X, 337. 

Pope Innocent II, 272. 

Pope Innocent III, 311. 

Pope Leo III, 216. 

Pope Leo X, 429. 

Pope Leo XIII, 577. 

Pope Nicholas, 231. 

Pope Pius V, 463. 

Pope Pius VII, 537. 

Pope Pius IX, 576. 

Pope Stephen, 207, 208. 

Pope Urban II, 275. 

Pope, the, France breaks off diplo- 
matic relations with, 601. 

Popes, origin of temporal power of, 
208. 

Poppea, 33. 

I'ORT Arthur, 669. 

Porto Rico, 699. 

Portugal, beginnings of, 263 ; an- 
nexed to Spain, 466, 652-65"^. 

Portuguese, nautical activity of the, 
414 : 422-425. 

Pragmatic Sanction, the, 504. 

Prague, Peace of, 590. 

Presburg, Diet of, 506. 

Pretender, the, 509. 

Pretoria, 613. 

Primus, Antonius, 40-43. 

I'KiNTiNG, invention of, 409. 

Probus, 94-96. 

Procopius, 124. 

Prussia, 500, 589. 

Ptolemais, 305. 

Pudens, Valerius, 60. 

PuLTAWA, battle of, 501. 

Pyramids, battle of, 534. 

Q 

QuADi, the, 123. 

Quebec, surrender of, 511. 

QUERfiTARO, 579. 
QUINTUS-CURTIUS, 26. 



R 



Radagasius, 141. 
Radetski, General, 568. 
Radstad, Treaty of, 497. 
Ramillies, battle of, 494. 
Ratisbon, 267. 
Raucoux, battle of, 508. 
Raymond, Count of Toulouse, 276. 
Redmond, John, 620. 
Referendum, the, 663. 
Reformation, the, 430. 
Reggio, 645. 

Restitution, Edict of, 469. 
Restoration Edict, the, 476-477. 
Revolution, American, 512-524. 



INDEX. 



71 



Revolution, French, 527, 528. 
Rhbims, 380. 

Rhine, Confederation of the, 540. 
Rhodes, conquest of, 104 ; siege of, 

399. 
Richard I, 303, 306, 310, 319. 
Richelieu, Cardinal. 470. 
Richmond, 580. 
Robert of Flanders, 276. 
Robert of Normandy, 276. 
Roberts, General, 606, 613. 
Robespierre, 530. 
RocBOY, battle of, 471. 
Roderick, 201. 
Rodney, Admiral, 523. 
Rodolph, 662. 
RoLLO, 244. 
Roman Empire, division of, 114 ; 

united, 115 ; final decline of, 

133 ; fall of Western, 145 ; fall 

of Eastern, 393. 
Romanus Diogenes. 251. 
Rome, 37, 53, 81, 134, 265. 
Romulus Augustulus, 146. 
Roosevelt, President, 673, 694. 
Root, Elihu, 686. 
RosBACH, battle of, 510. 
Roses, war of the, 402. 
Rossi, Count, 569. 
Rou mania, 632. 

Rudolph, Duke of Suabla, 265. 
Rudolph of Hapsburg. 346. 
Russia, 631, 632, 635, 670. 
Ruyter, Admiral, 484. 
Ryswick, Treaty of, 490. 



S 



Sadowa, battle of, 589. 

Saigon, 577. 

Saint Ambrose, 129. 

Saint Athanasius, 116. 

Saint Augustine, 39. 

Saint Augustine (Austin), 149. 

St. Bartholomew, Massacre of, 467. 

Saint Basil, 124. 

Saint Bernard, 293, 296. 

Saint Cyril, 118. 

Saint Dominic, 322. 

St. Gothard, battle of, 482. 

Saint Gregory Nazianzen, 124. 

Saint Gregory the Great, 178. 

St. Helena, Napoleon at, 548. 

Saint Irenjeus, 75. 

Saint John (Evangelist), 55. 

Saint John Chrysostom, 133. 

St. John, Knights of, 457-461. 

Saint Joseph, 8. 

Saint Leo, 143. 

Saint Leonides, 75. 

Saint Louis, 328. 

Saint Patrick, 252. 

Saint Paul, 13, 37, 38. 

Saint Peter, 24, 37, 38. 

St. Quentin, battle of, 453. 

Saint Sylvester, 111. 

Saladin, 301 ; truce with, 309, 310. 



Saladin's Tithe, 302. 

Salic Law, the, 153. 

Sallust, 3. 

Salsbach, battle of, 486. 

Sampson, Admiral, 693. 

San Francisco, 697. 

San Juan, 693. 

San Martin, 682. 

San Stefano, treaty of, 632. 

Sanchez VII, 318. 

Santa Anna, General, 558. 

Sapor, 119, 120. 

Saracens, conquests of the, 186 ; 187, 
192, 194, 197 ; Spain conquered 
by, 201 ; defeats of, 203, 205, 
209 ; 306 ; 318. 

Savannah, loss of, 521. 

Saxe, Marshal, 508. 

Saxons, the, 210, 213. 

Scanderbeg, 397. 

Scapula, Ostorius, 30. 

Science, discoveries in, 218 ; interest 
of Church in, 267. 

Scotland, revolt of, 346 ; 621. 

Scots, the, 136. 

Scott, General Wlnfleld, 558, 561. 

Sebastopol, siege of, 571. 

Sejanus, .melius, 23. 

Seljuks, the, 251. 

Schleswig-Holstbin, 588, 665. 

Sedan, battle of, 593. 

Seidlice, 636. 

Selim II, 463. 

Seneca, 32. 

Senef, 484. 

Senlac. (See Hastings.) 

Separation, French Law of, 602. 

Sepoy Rebellion, the, 606. 

Servia, 632. 

Seven Years' War, 510. 

Sevbrus, Alexander, 80-85. 

Severus, Septimus, 70-79. 

Sherman, General W. T., 585. 

Shiloh, 581. 

Shipka Pass, 631. 

Siegel, General, 586. 

SiLESiAN War, 510. 

Simon de Montfort, 322. 

Sluys, battle of, 356. 

SoBiESKi, 499, 656. 

Socialists, the, 641. 

SoissoNS, battle of, 151. 

SoLiMAN II, 435, 462. 

Somerset, Duke of, 455. 

South African War, the, 610. 

Spain, 150 ; Saracen conquest of, 201 ; 
during ninth and tenth cen- 
turies, 233 ; foundation of 
Christian kingdoms in, 237 ; 
Saracens overthrown by, 317, 
318 ; Moors defeated by, 352 ; 
victories in Italy ; invaded by 
the French, 542 ; revolution in, 
591, 646-652. 

Spanish Succession, War of the, 
491-497. 

Speier, diet of, 432. 



72 INDEX. 

Spion KoPj battle of, 612. 
Stamp Act, the, 512. 
Stanhope, General. 496. 
Starenebeeg, Earl of, 496. 
States General, the, 529. 
Steinkiek, battle of, 490. 
Stephen of Blois, 276. 
Stockton, Commodore, 558. 
Stolhofbn, battle of, 494. 
Steassbukg, 640. 
Stuaet, Queen Mary, 456. 
Suetonius Paulinus, 34. 
SUEVI, the, 125, 134. 
Suez Canal, opening of the, 592. 

fUFFEAGE (woman), 615, 616. 
ussex, 149. 
Sweden, 664. 

Switzeeland, 847, 662-664. 
SziGETH, siege of, 462. 



Tacitus, 55, 59, 94. 

Taft, President, Wm. H., 699. 

Tallaed, Marshal, 493. 

Tameelane, 373-377 

Tanceed, 261 ; 276. 

Tab A, 251. 

Taeifa, battle of, 354. 

Taeik, victory of, 201. 

Tasman, 677. 

Tayloe, General Zachary, 556. 

Tejas, 164. 

Tel-el-Kebie, 608. 

Tell, William, legend of, 662. 

Templaes, Knights, 349, 351. 

Temple of Jbeusalem, rebuilding of, 

117-119. 
Tebeoe, Reign of, 530. 
Tertullian, 75. 
Teutonic Oedee, the, 500. 
Tbwkesbuey, 403. 
Texas, 554, 680. 
Thebaw, 607. 

Theodoeic, 141, 152, 154, 156. 
Theodosius the Gebat, 125-133. 
Theodosius II, 187. 
Thiety Years' Wae, 468-471. 
Theace, 197. 
Tiberias, battle of, 300. 
TiBEEIUS II, 173. 
Tien-Tsin, 577. 
Tilly, 469. 
Titus, 44, 50, 52. 
Tlascalans, 439. 
Togo, Admiral, 670. 
Toledo, capture of, 262. 
ToMOs, 3. 

ToRCHu, General, 594. 
TOTILA. 168. 

TouRNAY, surrender of, 508. 
TouRviLLE, Admiral, 489. 
Trafalgar, 538. 
Trajan, 57, 58. 
Transvaal, the, 610 ; 613. 

TlJEBIZOND, 316. 

Trent, Council of, 432.. . 



Trenton, battle of, 519. 
Triple Alliance, the, 639. 
Teucb of God, the, 272 
TuiLBEiES, Palace of, 595. 
Tunis, expedition against, 452 ; 604 
ruRENNB, Marshal de, 471, 483 485 
486, 487. ' ' 

Turin, battle of, 494. 
Turkey, 629, 630. 
Turks, Seljukian, 274. 
Turks, defeats of, 482, 499, 504 
Turks, the Young, 636, 637. 



United States, 516 ; Constitution of, 
525 ; Civil War in, 579-588 ; 
debt of the, 587 ; 687-699. 

Utrecht, Treaty of, 497. 



V 

Valens, 123. 

Valentinian, 122, 123. 

Valentinian II, 129. 

Valentinian III, 137, 142. 

Valerianus, 87. 

Vancouver, riots at, 614. 

Vandals, the, 90, 134, 138. 

Van Diemen, 677. 

Van Tromp, Admiral, 475. 

Varus, 9. 

Vasa, Gustavus, 666. 

Vend6me, Duke of, 490, 492, 495. 

Venetia, conquest of, 222. 

Venezuela, 682. 

Venice, 142. 

Vera Cruz, capture of, 560. 

Versailles, Treaty of, 523 ; German 

Empire restored at, 594. 
Vespasian, 40, 44, 50, 51. 
Vespucci, Amerigo, 422. 
Vesuvius, 52. 

Vicksburg, surrender of, 584. 
Victoria, Queen, death of, 613. 
Vienna, siege of, 437, 498 ; peace of, 

504, 541, 588. 
Vienna, the Congress of, 551. 
Villa Viciosa, 495. 
Villafranca, 574. 
ViLLARS, Marshal, 492, 496. 

ViLLBNBUVB, 539. 

ViLLEROi, Marshal, 493. 

Virgil, 3. 

Virgin, the Blessed, 8. 

Virginia, 525. 

Visigoths, the, 140, 151 ; downfall 

of, 201. 
VlTELLIUS, 39, 40, 43. 
Vladivostok, 669. 
Vbyburg, 611. 

W 

Wagram, battle of, 541. 
Wales, conquest of, 345. 



INDEX. 



73 



WallensteiNj 409. 

War of 1812, the, 548-551. 

Washington^ Geoege^ 514, 524, 525, 

526. 
Waterloo, 547. 
Wayne, General, 519. 
Wellington, Duke of, 543. 
Wessex, 149. 

Westphalia, treaty of, 465, 471. 
AViLLiAM I, 594, 639. 
William the ConqueeoRj 256-260. 

WiSNIOWIECKI, 656. 

Witikind, 213. 
Wittemberg, 431. 
WOLSEY, Cardinal, 455. 
Worcester, battle of, 474. 
Worms, Concordat of, 266. 
Worth, General, 561. 



Xeres de la Pontera, battle of, 201. 
Xi MINES, Cardinal, 428. 



York, 267. 

York, House of, 402. 

Yorktown, surrender of, 522. 

Z 

Zara, 312. 

Zeno, 157. 

Zenobia, 90. 

Zimisces, John, 248, 249. 

ZoziMus, 132. 

Zriny, Count Nicholas, 462. 

Zuinglius, 432. 



4/ 



